A

 TECHINICAL  REPORT  ON  STUDENT  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  EXPERIENCE  SCHEME  

ATTACHED  AT  

CONCAST  GEOLOGICAL  NIGERIA  LIMITED  

BUKAN-­‐SIDI,  JOS  ROAD  

LAFIA,  NASARAWA  STATE.  

BY    

ADAMU  BELLO  SULEIMAN  

U12GL1032  

SUBMITTED  TO    

GEOLOGY  DEPARTMENT  

FACULTY  OF  SCIENCE  

AHMADU  BELLO  UNIVERSITY,  ZARIA-­‐KADUNA  

INSTITUTE  BASE  SUPERVISORS:  

•   DR  T.  NAJIME  
•   DR  S.  A.  ALAGBE  
FROM    
FEBRUARY  2015  TO  DECEMBER  2015  

 
  

ABSTRACT
Nigeria has abundant groundwater resources. Some of which have been exploited through

wells and boreholes dug by the Federal, State and Local Governments, private individuals,

other organizations and corporate bodies such as the World Bank, UNDP and UNICEF in the

past four decades under different programs. However, despite the huge amount of money

expended on these projects, many of these boreholes often break down within short period of

usage. During my industrial training experience at Concast Geological Nigeria limited; I had

the opportunity to be practically involved in geophysical data acquisition and its modeling for

groundwater studies. I have also gained experience in bore hole drilling and well completion.

This experience has given me insights into why many borehole programs initiated by the

different governments as well as private individuals and corporate organizations have failed.

Most boreholes fail for many reasons including improper construction and design. For an

effective borehole to be achieved, a systematic approach involving the use of geophysical

survey, an appropriate design criterion, pumping test to know the yield of the hole and

development techniques should be carried out in order to obtain sustainable groundwater

supply in general.

Key  words  
Boreholes  

Geophysical  survey  

Drilling  

Groundwater  

 
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1: PURPOSE OF REPORT

The Industrial Attachment program fulfils part of the requirement in pursuing the degree of

B.sc Geology in Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. This report serves to summarize the activities

and experience gained with concast Geophysical Nigeria Limited lafia Nasarawa State.

1.2: HISTORY OF SIWES

The Government’s decree No. 47 of 8th Oct; 1971 as amended in 1990, highlighted the capacity

building of human resources in industry, commerce and Government through training and re-

training of workers in order to effectively provide the much needed high quality, goods and

services in a dynamic economy as ours (Jemerigbo, 2003). This decree led to the establishment

of Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973/1974.

The governing concern among our industrialists that graduates of our institutions of higher

learning lack adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries

led to the formation of the Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) by ITF in

1993/1994 (Information And Guideline For SIWES,2002). ITF has one of its key functions; to

work as cooperative entity with industry and commerce where students in institutions of higher

learning can undertake mid-career work experience attachment in industries which are

compatible with students’ area of study (Okorie 2002, Asikadi 2003).

The student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill training program designed

to expose and prepare students of Agriculture, Technology, Environmental Sciences, Medical

Sciences and Pure and Applied Sciences for the industrial work situation which they are likely

to meet after graduation. Duration of SIWES is four months in Polytechnics at the end of
National Diploma(ND), four months in Colleges of education at the end of National Certificate

Exams (NCE II) and six months in the universities at the end of 300/400/500 levels depending

on the discipline.(Information And Guideline For SIWES 2002).

1.3: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

i.   To provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial

skills and experience in their approved course of study.

ii.   To prepare students for the industrial work situation which they are likely to meet after

graduation.

iii.   To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and

machinery not available in their institutions.

iv.   To provide students with the opportunity of applying their knowledge in real work

situation, thereby bridging the gap between theories and practices.

v.   Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process and

prepare students for employment in industry and commerce (Information and Guideline

for SIWES, 2002).

1.4: BODIES INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SIWES

The bodies involved are the Federal Government, Industrial Trust Fund (ITF). Other

supervising agencies are National University Commission (NUC), National Board of Technical

Education (NBTE) and National Council for Colleges of Education (NCCE).

The functions of the afore-mentioned agencies include among others to:

i.   Ensure adequate funding of the scheme.

ii.   Establish SIWES and accredit SIWES units in approved institutions.

 iii.   Formulate polices and guidelines for participating bodies and institutions as well as

appointing SIWES coordinators and supporting staff.

iv.   Supervise students at their places of attachment and sign their log books and ITF

forms.

v.   Vet and process students’ log books and forward same to ITF Area office.

vi.   Ensure payment of allowances for the students and supervisors.

Therefore, the success or otherwise of SIWES depends on the efficiency of the ministries,

ITF, institutions, employers of labor and the general public involved in the articulation and

management of the program. Thus, the evaluation of SIWES in tertiary institutions in

meeting up with the needs for the establishment of the program is necessary. (Information

and Guideline for SIWES, 2002).

1.5: ATTACHMENT COMPANY BACKGROUND

Attached to Concast Geologisical Nigeria Limited Opp. Aisha Sandaji Plaza,Lafia Nasarawa

State.

Following the need to solve the problem of water scarcity in Africa as part of the millennium

development goals (MDG), this company, CONCAST GEOLOGICAL Nig. Ltd was registered

in February, 2005 as the initiative of one man, Mr AHMED KANA, (a renowned Hydro

geologist). Concast Geophysical Nigeria Limited is an indigenous geophysical and hydro

geological firm. It is made up of highly experienced Geologists, Hydro-geologists,

Geophysicists and Water Engineers engaged in water well and dam construction, foundation

engineering and mineral exploration business in various parts of the State. Currently, it has

permanent staff strength often. Other workers are casual and are usually sourced from the

locality where projects are located. It is a well-organized network of specialized associates

committed to professional excellence and speedy execution of projects.

The company’s head office is located at No.2 Bukan Sidi jos road Lafia, Nasarawa State.And

is equipped with the latest computer softwares for interpretation and modeling. The company

has recently undertaken specialized projects related to water supply especially in the following

areas:

i.   Geophysical surveys to determine suitable sites for borehole drilling in all states in

Nigeria.

ii.   Drilling of water boreholes in both sedimentary and basement areas.

iii.   Water boreholes development and rehabilitation.

iv.   Construction and installation of both ground and overhead tanks.

v.   Pump installation and maintenance.

 
 Organizational  chart  

   

 
                                       MD/CEO  

                                 Consultant  

                     General  Manager  

   Hydrogeologist/Geophysicist                  Site  Manager                      Security

 

                     Drivers  

 
Assg.Hydrogeologist/IT                      Receptionist  
Students  
                           Chief  Driller  

 
                                 Driller  1                          Assg.Driller  2              Helpers/Laborers  
 

Fig  1.0          Organizational  chart                                                                                              

1.6: OVERVIEW

This report is organized in the following order:

Chapter One: Introduction.

This chapter explains the purpose of the report. It also describes briefly the history and

objectives of SIWES. It goes further to describe the brief history of establishment of the

company, its location and the organization structure of the company.

Chapter Two: General Review on Activities Carried out.

This chapter discusses the training which I received, such as in geophysical survey and drilling.

Chapter Three: This chapter talks about the experience gained by me and problems

encountered.

Chapter Four: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations:

This chapter gives the summary of all other experience gained and skills acquired, overall

conclusion of the industrial attachment and further recommendations for improvement.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.1: INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL REVIEW ON ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT

The services rendered by the company are:

a)   Geophysical Survey

b)   Borehole Drilling

c)   Pump Installation

d)   Well Logging

e)   Water Quality Analysis

f)   Pumping Test

g)   Borehole Rehabilitation

I participated actively in Geophysical Survey, drilling, logging and Pump Installation. And

passively in Water Quality Analysis, Borehole Rehabilitation and pumping test.

2.2: WATER EXPLORATION

The exploration for water requires several important steps in order to get adequate and portable

water for consumption and other domestic significants. Therefore, before any borehole

construction is done, a geophysical survey should be carried out on the site to know the most

suitable point and depth where the borehole should be drilled in order to have maximum ground

water potential. Hence, a geophysical survey tells whether a proposed borehole site should be

approved or abandoned.

2.3: GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

Geophysical techniques are non-invasive technologies that measure the variations in the
physical characteristics of the surface and subsurface geology either NATURAL OR
ARTIFICIAL generated within the earth crust. Such variation result from differences in
physical characteristic such as density, elasticity, magnetism, and electric resistivity etc.

2.3.1: METHODOLOGY

In an attempt to identify a suitable site for the drilling and construction of a productive

borehole, a geophysical survey is usually carried out.

There are various methods used in conducting Geophysical survey. These include: Electrical

Resistivity method, Magnetic/Electromagnetic method, Seismic Method and other geophysical

survey method that can be applied in groundwater investigation, in special situations include

gravity method, induced polarization (IP), Self Potential (SP), Out of the afore-mentioned

methods, the Electrical Resistivity method is mostly employed by this company and is the

method I was introduced to.

2.3.2: ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

The resistivity method employs the use of Terrameter Signal Averaging System (SAS) 300C,

four electrodes consisting of two inner potential electrodes (P1 (M) and P2 (N)) and two outer

current electrodes (C1, (A) and C2, (B)) which are arranged linearly about a central point. The

electrodes are driven into the earth using hammers so that they go dip down into the ground,

about three-quarters dip to ensure that they make full contact with the earth.

The resistivity method comprises the vertical electrical sounding (VES) and the horizontal

profiling (HP). In VES, we are concerned with measuring the variations in the physical

characteristics of the sub-surface as we go down the earth while for HP; we are interested in

the lateral variations in the physical characteristics of a particular layer of the earth.

Two  electrode  arrangement  or  arrays  are  of  particular  interest  in  resistivity  surveys.  

1)   The  Wenner  array-­‐  all  electrode  are  equally  spaced.    

2)   The  Schlumberger  array-­‐  the  electrode  are  not  equally  spaced.      

         

 The  Wenner  array  comprises  four  equally  spaced  electrodes  and  is  characterized  simply  
electrode  spacing  ‘a’.  

The  Schlumberger  array  is  similar  except  that  the  inner  (potential)  electrodes  are  more  
closely  spaced.    

I was particularly introduced to VES during my period of SIWES which involved the use

of Schlumberger configuration as shown in Fig. 1.1.

2.3.3: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES)

In the VES, with the electrodes linearly arranged, direct current is sent into the ground between

the various pairs of electrodes and the resistance offered is calculated and displayed by the

Terrameter using the principle of Ohm’s law;

V=IR ……………………………….. (i)

Where V is the potential difference,

I the current and,

R is the resistance.

The resistance reading is then multiplied by a geometric factor which is a function of the

electrode spacing to obtain the apparent resistivity (Pa). Hence,

Pa= KR …………………………….. (ii)

Where K is the geometric factor and

R is the resistance.

The geometric factor, K is given by the formula:

$% & ' ( )* & '

                       𝐾 =    𝑥  𝜋   ………………………….. (iii)
)*

Where 𝜋 = 3.142, AB is the distance between the current electrodes, while MN is the distance

between the potential electrodes.

Fig 1.1: Schlumberger Configuration

The electrode spacing is progressively increased, keeping the central point of the array fixed

until the desired length of array is obtained. This will increase the depth of penetration within

the separation AB. The best general guide to use in the field is to plot the apparent resistivity

curve as the survey progresses, so that it can be judged whether the asymptotic phase of the

curve has been reached. Thus, the varying resistivity measured when the electrode array is

varied in an in-homogenous medium, such as the earth is termed as apparent resistivity (pa).

The apparent resistivity readings are collected for a given site and afterwards, a geo-electric

section (GES) of the resistivity profile is constructed with advanced computer modeling

software and interpreted to reveal subsurface features of interest. VES is often done between

60 m and 100 m but some could go as much as 150 m.

2.3.4: Result and Data Interpretation

Resistivity VES data can be interpreted quantitatively (i.e. manually) by examining the curve

shapes or qualitatively by using curve matching or computer modeling. VES data curves are

interpreted by plotting apparent resistivity data against electrode spacing on a Log-Log graph

scale.
VES results were initially obtained by curve matching with Standard Master Curves and their

auxiliaries from Orellana and Mooney. These were improved upon using :  GEWin-­Excel  version  

T.21  2008 and interpreted results are presented as field and digitized curves.

Geophysical survey aims at the features that will aid the accumulation of ground water. The

pourosity and Permeability of groundwater systems are principally dependent on secondary

structural features such as the extent and volume of fissures or joints, together with the

thickness of the weathering. This investigation also consists of geological reconnaissance and

hydro-geological assessment such as, the rock types in the area, relief, well depth, vegetation,

(alignment of trees), and hills etc.

Vertical electrical sounding VES presents the various layers of lithologies obtained in a survey

based on the resistivity variations. Basement terrain layers could be;

a)   Laterite and Top soil

b)   Clay

c)   Weathered basement (sandy clay)

d)   Weathered basement sandy

e)   Fractured basement

f)   Partially fractured basement

g)   Fresh basement.

It is worthy of knowing that the area to be investigated will have much ground water potential

depending on the thickness of overburden, weathered basement sandy, fractured basement and

the partially fresh basement layers in the surveyed area.

Although it is not possible to identify the rocks or soil of an area on the basis of its resistivity

alone, it may be possible to make certain deductions about the geology of the area on the basis
of a resistivity survey, interpreted along with other information such as a fore-knowledge about

the hydrogeology of the area. For example, since water is a good conductor, a formation with

high resistivity is very unlikely to be an aquifer, as it probably contains virtually no water

trapped in isolated pores and a formation with extremely low resistivity may well be an aquifer

since its conductivity would be high. These conclusions are drawn from the fact that

conductivity is inversely proportional to resistivity;

./
 𝑅 = …………………………………. (iv)
$

Where R is the resistance

 𝜌 is the resistivity,  𝐿  𝑖𝑠  𝑡ℎ𝑒  𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ  𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝐴 is the area.

The best target for drilling is a formation with moderately low resistivity.

The geophysical survey is aimed at:

a)   Determining the depth to bedrock where applicable.

b)   Geophysical delineation of the various lithologies within the overburden.

c)   Determining the structural disposition of the formation in the area.

d)   Estimating the approximate depth of the proposed borehole (Emelis, 2012).

2.4: CASE STUDY OF A SURVEYED AREA: MARMARA FARM NASARAWA,

NASARAWA STATE.

The  survey  area  falls  within  the  Precambrian  Basement  Complex  of  the  North  Central  Nigerian.  
The   surveyed   site   is   located   at   a   farm,   off   Keffi-­Nasarawa   road,   Marmara,   Nasarawa   LGA,  
Nasarawa  State.  The  survey  was  conducted  on  a  larger  part  of  the  farm.  

2.4.1: SURVEY METHOD

The geophysical investigation made use of the resistivity method comprising of the vertical

electrical sounding VES using  OMEGA-­GEOPULSE  digital  resistivity  meter. This was done to
provide information concerning the subsurface geology. Terameter SAS 300C was used to

carry out the investigation. The Schlumberger configuration was adopted with maximum half-

current electrode spread (AB/2) between 1 and 100m while the half-potential electrode

separation (MN/2) was maintained between 0.5 and 2.5 m. Plate 1.0 and 1.1 show how the

resistivity data was acquired and the equipment used.

Plate 1.0: Taking Resistivity Data at Marmara farm 20/10/2015

 Plate 1.1: Set of Geophysical Survey Equipment: Terrameter, Reels and Connected

Electrodes 20/10/2015

2.4.2: RESULT AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Apparent   Resistivity   values   calculated   from   field   resistance   readings   by   multiplying   the   Di-­
electric   constant   (K).   The   product   Ohm-­m   was   then   used   as   against   the   current   distance  
spreading  (AB/2),  to  generate  a  curve  on  a  log-­log  graph  paper.  

The   interpretation   is   finally   confirmed   by   using   computer   interpretation   software:   GEW   in-­
Excel  version  T.21  2008.  The  software  is  able  to  produce  modeled  curves  and  interpreted  geo-­
electric  layer. (Fig 2.1 (a &b)).

 
   
 

 
 

 
  

MARAMARA  FARM  VES  1  (FIELD  DATA)  

distance   resistivity  

in  m   in  Ohm  m  

1   701.3  

1.47   408.1  

2.15   282  

3.16   168.8  

4.64   116  

6.81   114.5  

10   125.4  

14.7   142.4  

21.5   86.9  

31.6   125.4  

46.4   256.3  

68.1   293.7  

100   188.4  

120   338.9  

140   230.7  

a    
 10000

1000
resistivity  in  Ohm.m

100

10

1
1 10 100 1000

depth  in  m-­SL

 

MARAMARA  FARM  VES  1  (INTERPRETATION)  

bottom  of  
layer   Resistivity  

in  m-­SL   in  Ohm  m  

15.00   140  

21.00   90  

46.00   255  

100.00   190  

120.00   340  

140.00   230  

   
  

b  

10000

1000
resistivity  in  Ohm.m

100

10

1
1 10 100 1000

depth  in  m-­SL

Fig1.2:  Marmara farm VES1 (INTERPRETATION)

2.4.3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

                   the area is delineated for electrical resistivity survey after extensive Electromagnetic
survey across the farm. VES was taken to between 120- 150m. The relatively low
resistivity values and anomalies indicate occurrence of fractures and consequently high
groundwater potential. The boreholes should be drilled at the VES points indicated to
a depth of about 100-120m or until satisfactory recharge is gotten. Use of down-the-
hole hammer would be required. To avoid missing of crucial aquifer especially water
bearing litho logical units/fracture bearing zones, proper litho-logging is recommended
after drilling and the aquifer should be adequately screened to achieve maximum yield.

 
Summary  of  the  interpretation  

Layer     Inferred  thickness     Inferred  Lithology  

1      0  -­  25                                              Top  soil/Laterite/weathered  basement  (micaceous)  

2     25  -­  45                                            weathered/fractured  basement  (acquiferous)  

3     45-­  80                          partly  weathered/  fractured  basement(acquiferous)  

4     80-­150                          partly  weathered/  fractured/fresh  basement  

2.5: BOREHOLE DRILLING CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPEMENT

During my period of the attachment, a number of boreholes were drilled while few were

rehabilitated. Most of the boreholes whose drilling I experienced are in Lafia LGA Nasarawa

State.

2.5.1: DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT USED

The following equipments are used as attachment equipment during drilling:

a)   Halco v866 drilling rig capable of drilling to 200 m depth.

b)   An Atlas Copco Compressor.

c)   A portable Mud Pump.

d)   A water tanker.

e)   Drilling bit

f)   A service truck.

2.5.2: BOREHOLE DESIGN

Borehole design is the process of specifying the physical materials and dimension of bore hole

with the main objectives of securing the highest sustainable yield.

In borehole design, it is helpful to consider the borehole structure as consisting of two main

elements.

(i)   Case portion of the borehole.

(ii)   Intake portion of the borehole.

The case portion of the borehole also known as the blind portion, is the part of the borehole

that seals surface water and undesirable groundwater as well as provide structural support

against caving material.

The intake portion of the bore hole or the screen portion are perforated casings which allow

maximum amount of water to enter the well and prevent movement of sand into hole as well

as stabilize the side of the borehole.

There are two types of casing; these are American Petroleum Industry (API) steel and Polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) casings. The length of API steel casing is about 20 ft (or 6 m), while that of

PVC casing is often times 10 ft (or 3m). The thickness of these two types of casing varies

between 6 and 8 mm. The PVC casings are mostly used by this company.
Plate1.2: A typical borehole design

2.5.3: PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DRILLING

i) Mobilization of Equipment and Personnel to Site.

This involves conveying the drilling rig and every other equipment to be used for drilling to

site together with all the man power involved.

ii) Positioning and Pluming the Drilling Rig.

This involves setting the rig at the exact spot where the geophysical survey had recommended

and also ensuring the rig is plumed so as to ensure that the hole is straight and vertical.

iii) Construction of the Mud Pit (in the case of Rotary Mud Drilling).
This involves the digging of two pits; one in which cutting materials settle (Storage pit) and

the other from which water is pumped and re-pumped to the hole through the drilling rig

(Suction pit).

iv) Drilling to the required depth.

2.5.4: DRILLING METHOD

A large variety of methods and equipment are available for excavating holes in the earth. The

technique used in a particular situation in the field depends on a number of factors including

availability of equipment and majorly, the mode of occurrence of ground water in the area.

The method of drilling which was employed during my period of attachment was the rotary

method of drilling method.

The rotary drilling method is one of the fastest methods of drilling wells and is particularly

adapted in the drilling of large size holes. The drilling process involves boring a hole by using

a rotating bit to which a downward force is applied. I was exposed to two types of rotary drilling

during the period of my attachment, these are;

a)   Rotary-mud drilling and

b)   Rotary-air drilling

2.5.5: ROTARY-MUD DRILLING

In rotary-mud drilling, the first activity usually carried out is digging of the storage and suction

pit which are together referred to as the mud pit. Afterwards, drilling is commenced using

drilling fluids. Cuttings of rocks are achieved by rotary bits of various types. The power is

delivered to the rotary bits by a rotary halo-steel tube or drilling pipe attached to the drilling
rig. Pre-mixed mud is forced down the drill pipe and out of the bits. The cuttings are removed

by continuous circulation of the drill fluid (mud) as the bits penetrate the formation.

The role of the mud is to minimize fluid loss into the aquifers and to cool the drilling bits during

the drilling process; it also carries the rock cuttings upward and then deposits them in the mud

pit. The storage and suction pits are dug in such a way that the fluid from the former overflows

into the latter from where it is then pumped back through the drill pipe and the circle is repeated

(See Plate 2.6). The heavy cuttings settle in the storage pit while the tiny ones flow into the

suction pit. This kind of drilling takes place where the overburden is thick, to do away with the

mud before proceeding to air-drilling.

The drilling mud consists of Suspension of Water, Bentonite, Extender, Polypulus,

(Carboxylmethylcellulose) (CMC).
Fig 1.3 Mud Drilling method
Plate 1.4: The Mud Pit snapped on 11/08/2015

2.5.6: ROTARY-AIR DRILLING

The air rotary drilling method was used in Nasarawa Eggon site. Air drilling was used because

the overburden was not too thick and also because it was stable.

The rotary operation using air is similar to the mud or water technique, except that the

circulating fluid (air) is not re-circulated. When the cuttings are carried to the surface, they are

deposited around the outside of the machine.

The rotary-air drilling method used at Nasarawa Eggon was used with compressed air as the

drilling fluid rather than drilling mud which represents a modern development within the water

well industries.
Air was circulated through the drill pipe out through the pores in the drill bits and upward in

the annular space around the drill pipe. Air moving at high velocity in the annular space carried

the cuttings to the surface. This process continued until the required depth was reached. Air

drilling offers a number of advantages over water or mud method of rotary drilling.

a. Removal of cuttings from the face of the bits is often faster resulting in less regrinding or

cutting and decrease in penetration rate.

b. Water that enters the hole from the formation being penetrated is almost immediately flushed

to the surface and is easy to see. Hence, it is easier to determine when a good aquifer is

encountered.

2.5.7: DATA COLLECTION DURING DRILLING

During the drilling process, required data should be collected as accurate as possible.

The following items are used in the collection of samples at drilling sites:

i)   Plastic box for storing cutting samples.

ii)   Marker pens.

iii)  Set of sieves.

iv)   Sufficient copies of the form to record drilling and penetration rate, particle size

analysis, cutting sample description.

v)   Semi log graph paper.

2.5.8: OBSERVATION PROCESS DURING DRILLING

The most obvious observation during the drilling which gives a clue to the lithology of the

formation is the speed of penetration.

a)   Slower penetration rates were observed in hard consolidated rocks than loose sand.

b)   Clay or shale layers tend to slow down penetration where the bits tooth is not suited.

c)   A slowing down of penetration in the basement zone was observed as the fresh rock

was approached.

d)   The lower part of the weathered zone consists essentially of blocks of decomposed

rocks set in a matrix of weathered products. Typical rates in a weathered zone are

between 1-10 minutes. But in the lower parts, are as slow as 15-20 minutes.

e)   Once down the hole hammer is used, penetration is very fast between 1-10 minutes

per range.

f)   A good indication that fresh basement rock has been reached was jerky rotation of

the drilling string.

However, an accurate penetration log is very helpful in the identification of drilled strata, so

the logs are kept.

2.5.9: LOGGING AND SAMPLE COLLECTION

well logging also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed record of
geology formation penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual inspection
of samples brought to surface or on physical measurements made by instruments lowered into
the hole (geophysical logs). Well logging is performed in borehole drilled for the oil and gas,
ground water, mineral and geothermal exploration. In Concast Geological Nigeria Limited, we
normally used well logging in borehole drilled for ground water to determine the position of
aquifer.

The samples are collected in a plastic container, sieved, washed, and then analyzed

before being put in the sample box. Samples are usually collected after every meter of drilling,
so that on sitting the sample box (Plate 1.5) one can quickly tell to what depth a hole has been

drilled.

Plate 1.5: The sample box

2.5.10 Lithological description

Case study of an area;

Location: 500 housing estate doma road lafia.

0 - 6m Laterite and top soil

6 – 30m ferruginous sandstone (red)

30 – 33m Clay, grey to black sandy

33 – 46m Sand, fine to very coarse ferruginous

46 – 48m Sand with ferruginous pebbles clayey fine to coarse

48 – 49m Clay, grayish pebbly

49 – 50m Sand, fine to coarse, greyish

50 – 58m Clay, grey to black, sandy

58 – 65m Sand with brown ferruginous pebbles at 59-60m.

Bottom of hole

2.6: WELL COMPLETION

This is the next stage after drilling a borehole. It involves flushing, casing, gravel packing and

grouting.

a)   Flushing: This is the process of flushing out after completion of borehole. Flushing is
done to remove dirty water which has been contaminated during drilling. When using
the compressor to flush, after inserting permanent casing and gravel parking, you can
either slot in your flush horse or you send the drill pipe again and the compressor supply
compress air bringing out the water in the hole.

Plate1.7 showing flushing on 12/09/2015 at G.R.A Lafia

 b)   Casing: This entails the lowering and connection of PVC pipes

both screens and blinds into the borehole in accordance with the borehole design. The

blinds are usually cylindrical materials with both ends open and prevent dirty particles

in the ground from in-filtrating the hole.

The screens are also cylindrical materials but perforated. They are often placed in the

hole where the aquifer is so that ground water can filter through it to the hole.

The borehole is flushed again before gravel packing/sand packing. This is done to make the

hole clean.

c) Gravel/Sand Packing: This involves placing of coarse sand or fine gravel chippings in-

between the wall and the casing of the borehole. The boreholes are gravel packed to;

i)   Provide a zone of high permeability.

ii)   Stabilize the aquifer.

iii)   Minimize sand pumping.

iv)   Hold the blinds and screen firmly to the ground.

 Plate 1.7: Showing the gravel packing

c)   Grouting: It is important to note that the gravels should not be placed to within 3-6 m

to the surface as this space is for grouting. Grouting involves the mixing of cement,

gravels, sand and water to fill the space after gravel packing. This was done to avoid

the percolation of surface water that may pollute or contaminate the borehole.

2.6.1: BOREHOLE DEVELOPMENT

This is the final stage in the construction and completion of a borehole. It involves the removal

of finer materials in the aquifer. This process also increases permeability and porosity of the

aquifer in the immediate area of the borehole. In mud-drilled holes, the aquifer formation is

invaded by the mud around the periphery of the hole and a mud cake is formed on the walls of

the hole. Development is needed to remove this mud and violently agitate the gravel packing

materials behind the screened section to remove fines and form a stable permeable filter.
The following are borehole development methods;

a)   Pump installation: For pump installation a list of items are required; Pipe centralizer,
Rise main pipe, Pump rods and Nylon ropes etc. Basically we have two types of pump
installations;
•   Manual hand pump installation. and,
•   Motorized pump installation.

Plate1.8: installation of a submersible pump at nawecca street lafia on 6/08/2015

b)   Flushing: This is one of the final stages of the borehole development. It involves the

flushing of the hole with a submersible pump to get the hole cleaned there by making

the water clear. This is normally done if the hole is not clean after back washing.

c)   Capping and grouting: This involves covering the borehole with a fabricated

material, to prevent dirt particles from entering the borehole and also to prevent little

children around the hole from falling into the hole. This material often covers the

casing which protrudes from the borehole.

d)   Pump   maintainance:   Both   manual   hand   pump   and   submersible   pumps   often  
undergoes  maintenance  to  keep  them  in  good  shape  and  easy  to  repair  when  break  
down.  Maintenance  is  a  simple  which  involves  the  following  steps;  
Understand  the  case  of  the  break  down  and  determine  the  remedy  needed.  Flush  the  
borehole  to  reduce  colloid  and  suspension  of  dust  and  dirt.  Remove  the  plunger  and  
wash  it  thoroughly  in  the  case  of  manual  hand  pump.  Assemble  the  pump  back.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  

CHAPTER THREE

EXPERIENCE GAINED AND PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

3.1: EXPERIENCED GAINED

The period of my SIWES really exposed me to practical aspects of some of the theories I learnt

in school. For example, the importance of resistivity, conductivity and ohm’s law in

geophysical survey, which is very important tool in the exploration of ground water.

My period of SIWES at Concast Geological Nigeria Limited helped me to gain a lot of

experience in the following areas:

i)   Geophysical Survey.

ii)   Borehole-Drilling and well development.

iii)   Pumping test.

I can confidently carryout the geophysical survey data acquisition process which involves the

connection of the terrameter to the potential and current electrodes, laying out the electrodes,

taking the terrameter readings of various distances from the central point and plotting VES

curves of the data collected from the geophysical survey carried out on site on a log-log graph

manually. Also, I have gained experience on how rotary-mud and rotary-air drillings are carried

out. I have also acquired skills on how to install and un-install a submersible pump into a

borehole during pumping test, measure SWL and DWL of a bore hole as well as its pumping

and recovery rates.

3.2: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

Problems encountered include those in geophysical survey, drilling and pumping test.

3.2.1: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

i) Wrong Interpretation of Data: When there was wrong interpretation of data, the required

depth for drilling was missed and this could lead to the hole not being productive.

ii) High Tension Cable: A survey conducted under high tension cables had errors in its reading

as the cables interfered with the readings.

iii) Error One, Two and Twelve: Error one occurred when the current electrodes made partial

contact with the terrameter and is often displayed ‘Error one’ on the terrameter. Error two

normally occurred when there was partial contact in the connection between the terrameter and

the electrodes or the ground and is normally displayed ‘Error two’ on the terrameter. Error

twelve occurred when the battery was not well-charged i.e., its voltage was less than 12 volts.

In such a case, the battery was charged so that the voltage was greater than or equal to 12 volts.

3.2.2: PROBLEMS ENCONTERED DURING DRILLING PROCESS

During the process of drilling, some technical problems were encountered. Below are the

problems and how they were solved:

Residual Cuttings in the borehole.

Correction:
 i)   Up hole velocity of the drilling fluid was increased to force the cuttings out of

the hole.

ii)   The viscosity of the drilling fluid was also increased by adding bentonite.

a)   Stuck pipe.

Correction:

i)   The drill string was suspended above the bottom of the hole.

ii)   Circulation of the drilling fluid was ensured until the hole became relatively free of

all formation materials.

3.2.3: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN PUMPING TEST

a) Blocked pump: There were instances where the submersible pump used in the

pumping test was blocked by tiny particles in the hole.

Correction:

The pump was uninstalled, loosened and blown with air pressure to force the particles

out.

b) Intertwining of the dip meter cable on the riser pipes. In such cases, the accurate

depth of water level was not obtained from the dip meter.

Correction:

The dip meter was withdrawn from the hole and released back into the hole in such a

way that it did not intertwine on the riser pipes.

CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1: SUMMARY

My training period really equipped me with more knowledge and skills in the area of

groundwater exploration such as geophysical survey, drilling, pump installation, borehole

maintenance and pumping test. Also, the training has improved my ability in interacting with

other people such as peers and superiors. It was fun to deal with these people, especially when

they were willing to offer assistance and guidance in challenging areas.

I judge my SIWES period spent at Concast Geological Nigerian Limited, as being one of the

most interesting, productive, instructive and challenging experience in my life.

4.2: CONCLUSION

Concast Geological Nig. Ltd. is a ground water investigation and exploitation company. My

SIWES period in this company was very interesting, instructive and challenging. The training

has helped me to bridge the gap between theory and practice in the aspect of geophysics,

hydrogeology, and engineering which are employed to hardness ground water for the optimal

utilization of man.

All of this valuable experience and knowledge that I have gained were not only acquired

through the direct involvement in task given but also through other aspects of the training such

as work observation, interaction with colleagues, superiors and other people related to the field.

From what I have undergone, I am very sure that the industrial training program has achieved

its primary objectives. It’s also the best way to prepare students for the real working life.

From the foregoing discussion it can be seen that there is a connection between geophysics,

hydrogeology and engineering. It is also apparent that the role of a geophysicist in the ground

water sector cannot be over emphasized.

4.3: RECOMMENDATION

For a good borehole to be constructed in order to cater for the need of water supply in any

environment there is need to carryout a detailed geophysical survey in order to avoid the waste

of resources and man power.

All clients wanting to construct a good borehole should consult a specialist to carry out detailed

subsurface investigation before drilling may commence. And the report of the geophysical

survey should be adhered to strictly by drillers while drilling a proposed hole.

Sophisticated machines such as drilling rigs and compressors of modern technology like those

used abroad should be employed in the exploration and exploitation of ground water.

To improve the general standard of SIWES attachment to Nigerian students, I will wish to

recommend that;

a)   ITF should do well by the payment of a befitting student allowance during the SIWES

period and not after, to enable them cover transportation and feeding expenses during

the SIWES program.

b)   Sending students specifically to establishments where the aims and objectives of

SIWES would be achieved.

 REFERENCES

Asikadi, E. (2003). Restructuring SIWES to meet the National Development Plan in

Educational System.National conference of National Association for Research

Development Asaba; 2003 pp 1 and 2.

Ayodeji, A. (2010): INDUSTRIAL Training Fund Corporation, unpublished.

Emelis, E. (2013): MevHydrosearch and Engineering Services Ltd ESSPIN PROJECTS,

unpublished.

Information and Guideline for SIWES, Review 2002 pp 1-41.

Jerigbo, H. I. (2003). NECA/ITF Interractive Forum July 14, 2003 p.3.

Martin, E., Emelis E. (2011): MevHydrosearch and Engineering Services Ltd Office Profile,

unpublished.
Martin, E., Timothy O. O., Hassan A., Bilkisu H. (2011): Training on Water Well Drilling.

National Water Resources Manual Kaduna.Pp.18-20, 22-26.

Mohammed, A. (2013): IT Report on Water Well Drilling, unpublished.

Philip, K. (2001): The New Penguine Dictionary of Geology, 2nd Edition. Pearson Education

Ltd.

Todd, D. K. (1980): Ground Water Hydrology. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.Pp.336.

Whiteman, W. E. Jalinoos, F., Sirles, P., and Henna, K. (2003) “Application of Geophysical

Methods to Highway Related Problems” Federal Highway Administration, Central

Federal Lands Highway Division, Lakewood, CO Publication No. FHWA-IF-04-021,

September 2003.

Young, F. (2004), University Physics, Addison Wesley.