Ecosystem

 Term by A.G Tansely

 Unit of structure and function of nature by- EP Odum
 All the biotic and abiotic components of a habitat/community are inter-connected
together for energy flow and nutrient cycling creates ecosystem
Characteristics of an Ecosystem
 Source of energy and continuous flow of energy
 Source of nutrient and cycling of nutrients
 Regularly changed environment
 Homeorhesis- self sustained, self regulatory unit of structure and function
Components of an Ecosystem

Light

Temperature

Abiotic
Water
Components

Soil

Nutrients
 Producers/Autotrophs/Transducers/Converters T.L-1
- All photoautotrophs- Grass, Phytoplanktons, Trees
- Chemoautotrophs- Chemosynthetic bacteria

Consumers/Heterotrophs
Macroconsumers
- Primary consumers/ Herbivores/Secondary Producers
Biotic T.L-2
Components -Feeding primary producers ex- Grasshopper,
Zooplanktons, Rabbit, Cow, deer
Secondary consumer T.L-3
- Feeding primary consumers ex- Birds, Fish, Wolf, Dog
Tertiary Consumers T.L-4
- Feeding secondary consumers ex- Man, lion, Eagle
Microconsumers/Decomposers/Reducers/Saprotrophs/
Osmotrophs
ex- Bacteria and fungi

Trophic Level- It represents functional role of organisms in energy flow of an ecosystem

 Energy flow as biomass or food energy
 So trophic level is decided by food of organisms.

Organism occupy more than one trophic levels

Birds: Primary consumer- feeding seed
-Secondary consumer- feeding insects
Fish: Secondary consumer- feeding Zooplankton
- Tertiary consumer- feeding Small fish
Frog: Primary consumer- Larvae- Herbivore
- Secondary consumer- Adult- carnivore
Human
- Primary consumer
- Secondary consumer/Tertiary consumer
Structure of Ecosystem
 Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical structure that is
characteristic for each type of ecosystem.
 Identification and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its
species composition.
 Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification.
For example, trees occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and
herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers
Standing state-
 In unit area, unit time given environmental conditions, total amount of inorganic/non-
living matter (C,H,O,N,P,S) present in an ecosystem.
Standing crop-
 In unit area, unit time, given environmental conditions, the total amount of organic
matter/living matter present in an ecosystem
o Measures in fresh weight or dry weight /unit area
o No. of organism per unit area
Functions of Ecosystem
 To understand the ethos of an aquatic ecosystem let us take a small pond as an
example.
 This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather simple example that explain even the
complex interactions that exist in an aquatic ecosystem.
 A pond is a shallow water body in which all the above mentioned four basic components
of an ecosystem are well exhibited.
 The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and organic
substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond.
 The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic conditions
regulate the rate of function of the entire pond.
 The autotrophic components include the phytoplankton, some algae and the floating,
submerged and marginal plants found at the edges.
 The consumers are represented by the zooplankton, the free swimming and bottom
dwelling forms.
 The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially abundant in the
bottom of the pond.
  This system performs all the functions of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a
whole, i.e., conversion of inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant
energy of the sun by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs;
decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by
the autotrophs, these event are repeated over and over again.
 There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic levels and its
dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
 Decomposition
 Energy flow
 Productivity
 Nutrient cycling
Decomposition
 Complete breakdown of dead organic matter into inorganic matter by activity of
microbes
 You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s ‘friend’. This is
so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well as in
loosening of the soil.
 Similarly, decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances
like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
 Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including
fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw material for decomposition.
 The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching,
catabolism, humification and mineralisation. All steps occurs simultenously.
Process of decomposition-

Litter(Dead
Humus- Formed by partial
Plants)/Detritus decomposition of detritus. It is
simplest, monomeric, organic
soluble form. It further undergoes
Fragmentation
slow breakdown into minerals.
-Breakdown into
small pieces by - Colloidal in nature
detrivores - Dark in color
- Resistant to microbial
Catabolism action
-Enzymatic - Acts as nutrient reservoir of
breakdown of soil
detritus

Humification-
-Formation of
humus

Mineralization
-Release of
minerals

Leaching/Elluviation/P
odsolization
-releasing of minerals
in lower soil horizons
(b-horizon)

Factors affecting decomposition

 Detritus quality
o High Lignin and Chitin- Slow decomposition
o High sugar and N2- Fast decomposition
 Environment
o Temperature
 High temperature and moisture- Fast decomposition
  Very high temperature (desert)- Slow decomposition
 Very low temperature (tundra)- Slow decomposition
o Oxygen
 Aerobic environment- Fast decomposition
 Anaerobic environment- Slow decomposition
o Soil pH
 5.5-6.5 Fast decomposition

Productivity
 Production- Amount of biomass produced in unit area
 Productivity- Rate of biomass production
 In unit area, unit time, given environmental conditions, total biomass produced by an
ecosystem
 It is measures in –gm-2 yr-1/kgm-2 yr-1/joule m-2 yr-1/Calorie m-2 yr-1 in dry weight or fresh
weight
 It is variable in different ecosystem at different time
 It represents energy efficiency of an ecosystem
At producer level- primary level-
  Primary productivity
o Gross primary productivity (GPP)- Total photosynthesis
o Net primary productivity (NPP)- GPP-R (Respiration)
- NPP is the available biomass for the consumption of heterotrophs.
At consumers level- Secondary productivity- Biomass assimilated by herbivores/primary
consumers or rate of formation new organic matter by consumers.
At community level-Net community productivity (NCP)- Net biomass assimilated by a
community/ecosystem.
- NCP=NPP-HR (Heterotroph Respiration)
- NPP, GPP, NCP (all are related)
Factors Affecting Productivity
 All the factors affecting photosynthesis ie, light, temperature, water, nutrients
 Types of producers and photosynthetic efficiency of producers
Limiting factors of productivity
 In aquatic ecosystem
o Light
o Nutrients- Nitrogen-Oceans
- Phosphorus-Fresh water lakes
 In terrestrial ecosystem
o Water
o Nutrients- N, P, K
Highest productivity
 Tropical Rain Forest- 5 kgm-2/yr
 Coral reef
 Agro ecosystem-Rice/Sugarcane fields- 3-4 kgm-2/yr
Lowest productivity
o Tundra
o Deserts
o Deep lakes & oceans
 Global NPP of earth ecosystem- 170 billion ton/yr (Dry weight)
 Contribution of oceans- 1/3 part of 33%- 55 billion ton/yr
 Contribution of terrestrial ecosystem- 2/3 part or 67%-115 billion ton/yr
Q. Why decomposers and chemoautotrophs does not get any tropic level in an ecosystem?
Ans. The biomass assimilated by decomposers and chemoautotrophs can’t be measured
- It does not provide energy to other tropic level
- Decomposers got first tropic level in detritus food chain as provide energy to other
tropic levels
Q. Why Biomass produced measured in dry weight over fresh weight?
Ans. In fresh wt. 75% to 85 %is water and it is variable while dry weight is certain for each
Q Why ocean contributes very low (33%) in Global NPP of earth’s ecosystem?
Ans. Major part of oceans is unproductive due to lack of light.
- The major producers of oceans are planktonic algae which produces very low mass I
Energy Flow- to terrestrial ecosystem such as grass ad tree.
comparison
 Sunlight is the only source of energy in all ecosystem of the earth except deep
hydrothermal vents (inorganic matter)
 Follow 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics
 First law of Thermodynamics- Energy neither be created nor be destroyed, it only
conserved from one form to another form.
 Second law of Thermodynamics- Entropy/Disorderliness/Randomness of universe is
always increasing.
 Linderman’s 10% Law- Only 10 % energy reach to next tropic level 90% energy lost at
every tropic level.
 Energy flow is always unidirectional never cyclic.
 Maximum 3-4 trophic levels are present in an ecosystem, in both GFC and DFC.

Total Incident Light (TIL)

PAR-50% Lost - 50%

1-5% of TIL
or 2-10% of PAR in
GPP

NPP- Availablr for consumers

0.8-4% of TIL or
1.6-8% of PAR in NPP
Loss of energy at a tropic level
- Not utilized/not assimilated/fecal matter
- Respiration (R)
- Heat loss (H)

Cost of
Respiration

At producer level At Herbivore level At Carnivore level

20% of GPP 30% of assimilate 60 % of assimilate

Unidirectional Energy Flow Model

 It is very important to know how the solar energy captured by plants flows through
different organisms of an ecosystem.
 All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either directly or indirectly. So
you find unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
Is this in keeping with the first law of thermodynamics?
 Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of thermodynamics. They need
a constant supply of energy to synthesize the molecules they require, to counteract the
universal tendency toward increasing disorderliness.
 The green plant in the ecosystem are called producers. In a terrestrial ecosystem, major
producers are herbaceous and woody plants.
 Likewise, producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton,
algae and higher plants.
 You have read about the food chains and webs that exist in nature. Starting from the
plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are formed such that an animal feeds
on a plant or on another animal and in turn is food for another.
 The chain or web is formed because of this interdependency. No energy that is trapped
into an organism remains in it for ever.
 The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on to a consumer or the
organism dies.
 Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain/web. All animals depend
on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs.
 They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs. If they feed on the producers,
the plants, they are called primary consumers, and if the animals eat other animals
which in turn eat the plants (or their produce) they are called secondary consumers.
Likewise, you could have tertiary consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will
be herbivores.
 Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem and
molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
 The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more correctly primary
carnivores (though secondary consumers).
 Those animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled secondary
carnivores.
 A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:

Food chain
- Sequence of organisms, eating one another.
- It is theoretical, nature have food webs.
- The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of
decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria.
- They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or
detritus.
- These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete
digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic
materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them. In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is
the major conduit for energy flow.
- As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows
through the detritus food chain than through the GFC.
- Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels:
some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural ecosystem,
some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.
- These natural interconnection of food chains make it a food web.
- How would you classify human beings!
- Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a community according to
their feeding relationship with other organisms. Based on the source of their nutrition
or food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that is known as their
trophic level.
- Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the second
and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third.

Food Chain

Detritus Food Chain (DFC)

Grazing/Predator food chain (GFC/PFC) - Detrivores acts as major coduit for
energy flow.
- Predators/Herbivores/Grazers acts as
major conduit for energy flow - Both terrestrial ad aquatic ecosystems
have DFC
- Both terrestrial and aquatuc ecosystems
have GFC's - DFC's acts as major conduit for energy in
terrestrial ecosystem as oragnisms which
- GFC's acts as major conduit for energy are common in GFC and DFC connects GFC
flow in aquatic ecosystems with DFC
- Limitations of maximum 3-4 tropic levels
GFC in terrestrial ecosystem

o Grass GrasshopperBirdEagle
o GrassBirdSnakeHawk
o GrassRabbitSnakeEagle
o GrassDeerWolfLion
o GrassGoatWolfLion
- GFC in aquatic ecosystem
o PhytoplantonsZooplanktons Small Fish Large Fish
- DFC in aquatic ecosystem
o DetritousDetrivore
- DFC in terrestrial ecosystem
o DetritusEarthwormBirdEagle
o DetritusInsectFrogSnakeHawk
o DetritusBirdEagle
o DetritusInsectBirdHawk

Food Web
Interconnected food chains.
Ecological Pyramids
- By C.Elton
- Pyramids of various parameters at different tropic levels f an ecosystem.
- Parameters
o Number
o Biomass
o Energy
- Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:
- Variable with season
- Not includes decomposers
- Not give proper functional representation to organisms, feeding more than one tropic
level

Pyramids of numbers- Both upright and inverted

Pyramid of number in grassland.

Pyramid of Number in forest Pyramid of numbers in temperate forest in

summer season
Pyramid of number in ocean/pond/lake- upright Pyramid of number in a tree
having large number of insects and
insectivorous birds.

Pyramid of biomass- Both upright and inverted

Pyramid of biomass in ocean/pond/natural lake

Pyramid of energy-Always upright

Nutrient cycling/Bio-Geo chemical cycle

-Cycling of nutrients (protoplasmic elements – C,H,O,N,S,P) between biotic and abiotic
components of a habitat

Biogeochemical Cycles

Gaseous Cycle-Cycling of Sedimentary cucles- Cycles of

nutrients whose reservoir lies nutrient whose reservoir lies in
in hydrosphere atmosphere rocks/sediments/lithosphere-
There is no gaseous exchange
- There is gaseous exchange phase between organism and
phase between organism and environment ex-Phosphorus,
environment (Carbon-cycle) Sulphur cycle
ex- C,H,O,N cycle
Input of nutrients in ecosystems-
- From reservoir- atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
- Activity of N2 fixing microbes
- Dry deposition
- Wet deposition
Output of Nutrients from ecosystems-
- Run off water Activity of Denitrifying bacteria
- Soil erosion Harvesting and transport of plant materials
Internal nutrient cycling
- Uptake of nutrients- by producers
- Recycle of nutrients- by decomposers
- Retention- Uptake-Recycle
Nutrient Immobilization- By decomposers (microbes)
- It is a way of nutrient conservation in an ecosystem
Effect of under-grazing
- Energy flow blocks
- Slows nutrient cycling, accumulation of decaying plant material within makes ecosystem
polluted and also sensitive to fire because of rubbing of trees during autumn season
Effect of overgrazing
- Excessive output of nutrients from ecosystem which makes ecosystem highly deficient
in nutrient
- Disturbs nutrient cycle and energy flow
- It converts the ecosystem into waste land
Carbon Cycle- When you study the composition of living organisms, carbon constitutes 49 per
cent of dry weight of organisms and is next only to water.
 If we look at the total quantity of global carbon, we find that 71 per cent carbon is found
dissolved in oceans.
 This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Do
you know that the atmosphere only contains about 1per cent of total global carbon?
Fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs through
atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
 According to one estimate 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed annually in the biosphere
through photosynthesis.
 A considerable amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory
activities of the producers and consumers.
 Decomposers also contribute substantially to CO2 pool by their processing of waste
materials and dead organic matter of land or oceans.
 Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic
activity are additional sources for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
 Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle.
 Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport have
significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Phosphorus Cycle- Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids
and cellular energy transfer systems.
 Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and
teeth.
 The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates.
 When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil
solution and are absorbed by the roots of the plants.
 Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.
 The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising
bacteria releasing phosphorus.
 Unlike carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere. Can
you differentiate between the carbon and the phosphorus cycle? The other two major
and important differences between carbon and phosphorus cycle are firstly,
atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs,
and, secondly, gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment
are negligible.
Nitrogen Cycle-
Ecological Succession-
Similarity between Evolution and Succession
 Both involve changes, under the influence of environment in the course of time
Difference
 Unit of succession is community while of evolution is a species or population of a
species or succession is predictable but evolution is not
 Succession and evolution are parallel phenomenon.

 An important characteristic of all communities is that their composition and structure

constantly change in response to the changing environmental conditions.
 This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical
environment.
 These changes lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the
environment and that is called a climax community.
 The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is
called ecological succession.
 During succession some species colonise an area and their population become more
numerous whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear.
 The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called
sere(s).
 The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral communities.
In the successive seral stages there is a change in the diversity of species of organisms,
increase in the number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total
biomass.
 The present day communities in the world have come to be because of succession that
has occurred over millions of years since life started on earth.
 Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel processes at that time.
Succession is hence a process that starts in an area where no living organisms are there
– these could be areas where no living organisms ever existed, say bare rock; or in areas
that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there.
 The former is called primary succession, while the latter is termed secondary succession.
Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly cooled lava, bare rock,
newly created pond or reservoir.
 The establishment of a new biotic community is generally slow. Before a biotic
community of diverse organisms can become established, there must be soil.
 Depending mostly on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several
thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock.
 Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been
destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been
flooded.
 Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Description of ecological succession usually focuses on changes in vegetation. However,
these vegetational changes in turn affect food and shelter for various types of animals.
 Thus, as succession proceeds, the numbers and types of animals and decomposers also
change.
 At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or human induced
disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert a particular seral stage of succession
to an earlier stage.
 Also such disturbances create new conditions that encourage some species and
discourage or eliminate other species.
 Succession of Plants Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very
wet areas) or it is on very dry areas – succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch,
respectively.
 Hydrarch succession takes place in wet areas and the successional series progress from
hydric to the mesic conditions.
 As against this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from
xeric to mesic conditions.
 Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions
(mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
 The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
 In primary succession on rocks these are usually lichens which are able to secrete acids
to dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil formation. These later pave way to some
very small plants like bryophytes, which are able to take hold in the small amount of
soil.
 They are, with time, succeeded by higher plants, and after several more stages,
ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed.
 The climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
With time the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.
Hydrosere- In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small phytoplanktons,which
are replaced with time by rooted-submerged plants, rooted-floating angiosperms followed by
free-floating plants, then reedswamp, marsh-meadow, scrub and finally the trees.
 The climax again would be a forest.
 With time the water body is converted into land
 In secondary succession the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil,
availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules present.
 Since soil is already there, the rate of succession is much faster and hence, climax is also
reached more quickly.
 What is important to understand is that succession, particularly primary succession, is a
very slow process, taking maybe thousands of years for the climax to be reached.
 Another important fact is to understand that all succession whether taking place in
water or on land, proceeds to a similar climax community – the mesic.
 Change in Community Characters during succession

CHECK YOUR CONCEPT

1. Chemosynthetic bacteria found around deep-sea vents are examples of
(A) Producers (B) Decomposers.
(C) Chemical cycling. (D) Secondary productivity.
2. Primary productivity
(A) is equal to the standing crop of an ecosystem.
(B) is greatest in freshwater ecosystems.
(C) is the rate of conversion of light to chemical energy in an ecosystem.
(D) is inverted in some aquatic ecosystems.
3. Productivity in terrestrial ecosystems is affected by
(A) Temperature.
(B) Light intensity.
(C) Availability of nutrients and water.
(D) All of the above.
4. Secondary productivity
(A) is measured by the standing crop.
(B) is the rate of biomass production in consumers*.
(C) is greater than primary productivity.
(D) is 10% less than primary productivity.
5. Which of these processes is incorrectly paired with its description?
(A) Nitrification––oxidation of ammonium in the soil
(B) Nitrogen fixation––reduction of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
(C) Denitrification––removal of nitrogen from organic compounds
(D) Ammonification––decomposition of organic compounds into ammonia
6. What do primary producers have available to convert into biomass?
(A) 10% of secondary productivity (B) Energy used for respiration
(C) Gross primary productivity (D) Net primary productivity
7. Which of the following trophic levels would have the largest numbers of individuals?
(A) Primary producers (B) Omnivores
(C) Primary consumers (D) Tertiary consumers
8. The phosphorus cycle differs from the carbon cycle in that
(A) Phosphorus does not enter living organisms, whereas carbon does.
(B) The phosphorus cycle does not include a gaseous phase, whereas the carbon cycle
does.
(C) The phosphorus cycle includes a solid phase, whereas the carbon cycle does not.
(D) The primary reservoir of the phosphorus cycle is the atmosphere, whereas the
primary reservoir for the carbon cycle is in rock.
9. Which of the following biogeochemical cycles is characterized by a form which is a major
green house gas?
(A) Carbon cycle (B) Nitrogen cycle
(C) Phosphorus cycle (D) Sulphur cycle
10. Which of the following biogeochemical cycles has a major reservoir in sedimentary
rock?
(A) Carbon cycle (B) Nitrogen cycle
(C) Phosphorus cycle / Sulphur cycle (D) Hydrological cycle
11. In the human-induced condition called eutrophication, the main biogeochemical cycle
that is altered is the _________ cycle, and the effect is to create ________ conditions
and decrease species diversity.
(A) Hydrological, aerobic (B) Phosphorus, anaerobic
(C) Hydrological, aerobic (D) Phosphorus, aerobic
12. Slow rate of decomposition of fallen logs in nature is due to
(A) Anaerobic environment around them. (B) Low cellulose content
(C) Low moisture content (D) Poor nitrogen content
13. The total amount of energy that plants assimilate by photosynthesis is called
(A) Gross primary production (B) Net primary production
(C) Biomass. (D) A pyramid of energy
14. When a peacock eats snakes which eats insects thriving on green plants, the peacock is
(A) A primary consumer (B) A primary decomposer
(C) A final decomposer (D) The apex of the food pyramid.
15. In an ecosystem, the population of
(A) Primary producer is greater than primary consumers
(B) Secondary consumers is largest
(C) Primary consumers out number primary producers
(D) Primary consumer is least dependent upon primary producers.
16. Which is correct sequence in the food chain?
(A) Grass  Wolf  Deer  Buffalo
(B) Bacteria  Grass  Rabbit  Wolf
(C) Grass  Insect  Bird  Snake
(D) Grass  Snake  Insect  Deer.
17. When a big fish eats a small fish which eats water fleas supported by phytoplankton, the
water fleas are :
(A) Producer (B) Primary consumers
(C) Secondary consumers (D) Top consumer in this top chain.
18. A food chain consists of –
(A) Producer only (B) Producer and consumer
(C) Consumers (D) Decomposers.
19. In a forest system, green plants are
(A) Primary producers (B) Primary consumers
(C) Consumers (D) Decomposers
20. Ecosystem has two components
(A) Plants and animals (B) Weeds and trees
(C) Biotic and abiotic (D) Frogs and man.
21. In a food chain, herbivores are
(A) Primary consumers (B) Primary producers
(C) Secondary consumers (D) Decomposers.
22. Percentage of nitrogen in air is about
(A) 78% (B) 69% (C) 21% (D) 0.03 – .03%
23. The transfer of energy in food chain is
(A) Bidirectional (B) Unidirectional
(C) Multi-directional (D) Reversible
24. Which of the following is an abiotic component of the ecosystem?
(A) Bacteria (B) Humus (C) Plants (D) Fungi.
25. Which of the following process helps in nutrient conservation?
(A) Mineralization (B) Immobilization
(C) Leaching (D) Nitrification.
26. Which of the following represents the sedimentary type of nutrient cycle?
(A) Nitrogen (B) Carbon (C) Phosphorus (D) Oxygen.
27. What fraction of assimilated energy is used in respiration by the herbivores?
(A) 20% (B) 30% (C) 40% (D) 60%
28. The secondary productivity means
(A) Rate of increase in the biomass of autotrophs
(B) Rate of increase in the biomass of heterotrophs
(C) The rate at which the organic molecules are formed in an autotroph
(D) The rate at which organic molecules are used up by an autotroph.
29. Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(A) Producers (B) Primary consumers
(C) Secondary consumers (D) Decomposers.
30. Second most important trophic level is a lake is
(A) Phytoplankton (B) Zooplankton (C) Benthos (D) Fishes.
31. Secondary producers are
(A) Herbivores (B) Producers (C) Carnivores (D) None
32. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), if incident solar
radiation is considered 100%.
(A) 100% (B) 50% (C) 1 – 5% (D) 2 – 10%.
33. Identify the incorrect statement from the following.
(A) Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted as the biomass of fish far exceeds
that of phytoplankton’s.
(B) Pyramid of energy is mostly upright, but sometimes it may be inverted.
(C) Food chains are generally short with few trophic levels as only 10% of the energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level.
(D) Pyramids of number and biomass may be either upright or inverted.
34. Which of the following process will be most adeversely affected if microorganisms are
removed from a forest ecosystem?
(A) Solar energy fixation and nutrient cycling.
(B) Decomposition of organic matter and photosynthesis.
(C) Nitrogen fixation and decomposition of organic matter
(D) Carbon assimilation and nitrogen fixation.
35. Food chains differ from food webs in that –
A. Food chains are a single sequence of who eats whom in a community.
B. Food chains better represent the entire community.
C. Food webs represent the complex interaction among food chain.
D. Food chain is the flow of energy in a population.
(A) A, C (B) A, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
36. Causes of succession include –
A. climate change
B. one species altering the environment for the next species
C. different species dispersal mechanism
(A) B + C only (B) A + B only (C) A + B + C (D) Only A
37. Which of the following is / are trend (s) in ecological succession
A. an increase in complexity of species
B. an increase in productivity
C. an increase in community stability and species diversity
D. a decrease in nonliving organic materials
(A) A, C (B) A, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
38. Primary productivity depends upon –
A. The plant species inhabiting a particular area.
B. Availability of nutrients
C. Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
(A) B and C only (B) A + B only
(C) A + B + C (D) Only A
39. Which of the following ecological pyramids may be upright or inverted?
A. pyramid of energy B. pyramid of number
C. pyramid of biomass D. none
(A) A, C (B) B, C (C) A, B, C (D) D
40. The total amount of energy that plants assimilate by photosynthesis is called –
(A) Gross primary productivity (B) Net primary productivity
(C) Biomass (D) Eutrophication
41. Which of the following statement(s) is / are correct about biogeochemical cycle –
A. Carbon and nitrogen cycle faster than phosphorus cycle
B. All biogeochemical cycles include both organisms and nonliving components
C. Most elements remain longest in the living portion of their cycle
D. The chemical elements used by organism in large quantities cycle back and forth
between organisms and environment.
 (A) A, C (B) A, B, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
42. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but can recover after some time if damaging
effect stops will be having –
(A) High stability and low resilience (B) Low stability and low resilience
(C) High stability and high resilience (D) Low stability and high resilience
43. The cycle most important for modifying temperature fluctuation is –
(A) Water cycle (B) Carbon cycle
(C) Nitrogen cycle (D) P-cycle
44. Which is / are true regarding ecosystem?
A. Self sufficient unit.
B. Cycle exchange of materials between living beings and environment
C. Requirement of input of energy
D. Characterized by a major vegetation type
(A) A, C (B) A, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
45. Combustion of fossil fuels most directly affects the
(A) Carbon cycle (B) Water cycle.
(C) Nitrogen cycle. (D) Phosphorus cycle.
46. Which of the following include(s) ecosystem services –
A. purification of air and water by forests
B. forests mitigate droughts and flood
C. forests act as store house of carbon
D. forests influence hydrological cycle
(A) A, C (B) A, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
47. Select the correct statement(s) –
A. The factors affecting decomposition are chemical nature of detritus and the climatic
factors.
B. It detritus is rich in lignin and chitin decomposition is very fast
C. Decomposition is very slow if the detritus is rich in nitrogen
D. Detritus is the raw material for decomposition
(A) A, C (B) A, D (C) A, B, C (D) A, B, C, D
48. Ecological succession is –
(A) Directional but unpredictable (B) Directionless but predictable
(C) Directional and predictable (D) Directionless and unpredictable
49. Succession is a –
(A) Long term process
(B) Very fast process
 (C) Process leading the development of a population
(D) Migration
50. A dynamic equilibrium is established between community and environment when –
(A) Climax is attained (B) Pioneers are found
(C) Seral communities are growing (D) None
51. Which is correct?
(A) Primary succession occurs faster than secondary succession.
(B) Secondary succession occurs faster than primary succession
(C) Primary and secondary succession occurs at the same rate
(D) None
52. Food chain starts with –
(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis (C) N2-fixation (D) None
53. Herbivores are –
(A) Primary consumer
(B) T3
(C) T2
(D) Primary consumers or T2
54. In which of the following areas does the primary succession occur?
(A) Abandoned farm land
(B) Land which has been flooded
(C) Forest destroyed by fire
(D) Newly created pond.
55. Which of the following statements about the food chain is false?
(A) Detritus food chain begins with dead organic matter
(B) Carnivores are secondary consumers
(C) Primary consumers are herbivores
(D) Earthworm in detritus food chain is a primary producer
56. Go through the following statements.
A. Primary productivity of all ecosystem is a constant.
B. The annual net primary productivity of the whole of the biosphere is 17 million tons
(dry weight) of organic matter.
C. Net primary productivity is the amount of biomass available for consumption by
carnivores.
D. Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
decomposers.
E. Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area.
 Which of the above statements about productivity is true?
(A) A and B (B) B and C (C) C and D (D) Only E
57. Column I Column II
I. Primary succession (A) Autotrophs
II. Climax community (B) Community that has completed succession
III. Consumer (C) Colonization of a new environment.
IV. Producer (D) Animals
(A) I – C, II – B, III – D, IV – A (B) I – C, II – A, III – D, IV – B
(C) I – A, II – C, III – B, IV – D (D) I – B, II – C, III – D, IV – A
58. Column I Column II
I. Phosphorus (A) Atmosphere
II. Carbon (B) Producers
III. Goat (C) Rock
IV. Grasses (D) T2
(A) I – C, II – B, III – D, IV – A (B) I – C, II – A, III – D, IV – B
(C) I – A, II – C, III – B, IV – D (D) I – B, II – C, III – D, IV – A
59. Column I Column II
I. Pioneer community on lithosphere (A) Lichens
II. Ecological succession (B) Mesophytes
III. Climax community (C) Community replacement
IV. Ecological pyramid (D) Elton
(A) I – C, II – B, III – D, IV – A (B) I – C, II – A, III – D, IV – B
(C) I – A, II – C, III – B, IV – D (D) I – B, II – C, III – D, IV – A
60. Which of the following is false?
I. Quantity of biomass in a trophic level at a particular period is called standing crop.
II. The energy content in a trophic level is determines by considering a few individuals of
a species in that trophical level
III. The succession that occurs in nearly cooled lava is called primary succession.
IV. Rate of succession is faster in the secondary succession.
(A) Only II (B) Only III (C) Only V (D) Only I and IV
61. Which of the following is correct?
(A) Decomposition is largely a non oxygen requiring process.
(B) The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and
climatic factors
(C) In particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is faster if detritus is rich in lignin
and chitin and decomposition is slower if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-
soluble substances like sugars.
 (D) Temperature and soil moisture and the least important climatic factors that
regulate, decomposition through their effect on the activities of soil microbes
62. Which of the following is wrong?
(A) GFC and DFC are not interconnected
(B) GFC and DFC are interconnected
(C) GFC and DFC forms food web
(D) Some of the organism of DFC are prey to GFC animals
63. Which of the following statement is correct?
A. An important characteristic of all communities is that composition and structure
constantly change in response to the changing environmental condition
B. These changes lead finally to a community that is in equilibrium with itself and not
the environmental conditions and that is called climax community
C. The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are
called sere(s).
(A) A, B, C is correct (B) A and B is correct
(C) B and C is correct (D) A and C is correct
64. The two major differences between carbon and phosphorus cycle are
A. Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon
inputs
B. Sedimentary inputs of phosphorus are much greater than carbon inputs
C. Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organic and environmental is not
negligible
D. Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organic and environment are negligible
(A) A, B (B) B, D (C) A, D (D) B, C
65. Which of the following statements are correct?
A. Detritivores break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.
B. By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil
horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
C. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler organic substances. This
process is called catabolism.
(A) A, B, C (B) A, B (C) B, C (D) A, C
66. Which of the following statements regarding decomposition is false?
I. Warm and moist conditions favours decomposition.
II. Decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in chitin and lignin.
III. Earthworm is detrivore.
 IV. Precipitation of soluble inorganic nutrients in the soil horizon as unavailable salt is
called mineralization.
V. Detritus is the raw material for decomposition.
(A) Only II (B) Only I (C) Only IV (D) Only V
67. Represents –

Dry wt.
(A) Pyramid of number in, tree ecosystem
(B) Pyramid of biomass in tree ecosystem
(C) Pyramid of biomass in lake ecosystem
(D) Pyramid of number in sea ecosystem
68. Represents –

(A) Carbon cycle (B) N2 cycle (C) O2 cycle (D) Phosphorus cycle
69. Which of the following given below pyramids represents the variation in biomass at
different trophic levels in pond ecosystem?

(A) (B) * (C) (D)

70. Choose the odd one out w.r.t. succession
(A) Succession and evolution are parallel processes
(B) In abandoned farmlands, primary succession occurs
(C) Involved changes at every trophic level
(D) Generally shows a trend from xerix to mesic conditions
71. Organisms which are associated with first as well as third trophic level are
(A) Microconsumers (B) Phytoplanktons
(C) Chemoautotrophs (D) Insectivorous plants
72. The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over –a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is called primary production, which is expressed as
(A) g–2 (B) kcal m–2 (C) (kcal m–2) yr–1 (D) Both (a) & (b)
73. During the stages of succession in a given ecosystem the following changes in
characteristics may be observed.
Characteristic Stages in ecosystem development
Early Late
A. Total organic matter Low High
B. Species diversity Low High
C. Size of organism Small Large
D. Productivity Low High
E. Food chains Short Long
Which one of the characteristics, A, B, C, D or E is responsible for the apparent high
degree of stability associated with a climax ecosystem?
(A) B (B) D (C) A (D) E
74. The overall productivity in terrestrial ecosystems is limited by
(A) Temperature (B) Water
(C) Sunlight (D) Nutrients
75. Productivity at the second trophic level is always
(A) Greater than the productivity of first trophic level
(B) Less than the productivity at the first trophic level
(C) Equal to the productivity at the first trophic level
(D) Extremely variable compared to the productivity at the first trophic level
76. Which one of the following animals may occupy more than one trophic levels in the
same ecosystem at the same time?
(A) Sparrow (B) Lion (C) Goat (D) Frog
77. Tip of an ecological pyramid is occupied by –
(A) Producers
(B) Herbivores
(C) Carnivores
(D) None of the above
78. Following are the different stages in primary succession in water body.
 The correct sequence of stages is –
(A) F – E – G – A – B – C – D (B) A – C – E – G – B – D – F
(C) A – G – F – B – C – D – E (D) G – F – E – D – C – B – A
79. Mr. X is eating yoghurt. For this he is occupying the trophic level –
(A) First (B) Second (C) Third (D) Fourth
80. The free floating organisms of an open sea and the shore are collectively called
(A) Planktons (B) Benthos (C) Nektons (D) Sea anemone.
81. Which creatures are direct or indirect food of all creatures on the ocean’s surface?
(A) Protozoans (B) Phytoplanktons (C) Fish (D) Aquatic insects
82. Which one of the following ecosystem types has the highest annual net primary
productivity?
(A) Tropical deciduous forest (B) Temperate evergreen forest
(C) Temperate deciduous forest (D) Tropical rain forest
83. Some of the stages in the hydrarch are labelled as
A. Marsh meadow stage B. Reed swamp stage C. Submerged plant stage
D. Phytoplankton stage E. Submerged free floating plants stage
Identify the choice that represents the correct sequence of these stages.
(A) D, C, E, B and A (B) C, E, A, B and D
(C) B, D, C, A and E (D) D, E, C, B and A
84. Which one of the following is considered as pioneer community in xerarch?
(A) Annual herb (B) Perennial herb (C) Shrub stage (D) Lichen*.
85. The dominant second trophic level, in a lake ecosystem is
(A) Phytoplankton (B) Zooplankton (C) Benthos (D) Plankton
86. The correct sequence of plants in a hydrosere is
(A) Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia  Scirpus  Lantana  Oak
(B) Pistia  Volvox  Scipus  Hydrilla  Oak  Lantana
(C) Oak  Lantana  Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia  Scitpus
(D) Oak  Lantana  Scirpus  Pistia  Hydrilla  Volvox.
87. Which one of the following types of organisms occupy more than one trophic level in a
pond ecosystem?
(A) Fish (B) Zooplankton (C) Frog (D) Phytoplankton.
88. A consumer whose carbon atoms have already passed through three species is a –
(A) Scavenger (B) Tertiary producer
(C) Tertiary consumer (D) Secondary consumer
89. In recycling of mineral elements within an ecosystem, the responsible direct causal
organism are called
(A) Decomposers (B) Producers
(C) Primary consumers (D) Secondary consumers
90. A. GFC is major conduit of energy flow in aquatic ecosystem
B. Food chain maintains stability in an ecosystem by providing alternate organisms at
different trophic level.
C. DFC may be connected to GFC.
(A) All are correct (B) A and B are incorrect
(C) Only B is incorrect* (D) B and C are correct
91. The rate of formation of new organic matter by rabbit in a grassland, is called :
(A) Net productivity (B) Secondary productivity
(C) Net primary productivity (D) Gross primary productivity
92. The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by plants like :
(A) Azolla (B) Typha (C) Salix (D) Vallisneria
93. The important steps, in the process of decomposition are
(A) Fragmentation and mineralization
(B) Leaching and catabolism
(C) Humification and mineralization
(D) All of these.
94. In an ecosystem, at a particular time, standing crop
(A) Total living material (B) Total detritus
(C) Both (a) and (b) (D) Total nutrients present in the crop.
95. Match the following –
Column I Column II
A. Earthworm (i) Catabolism
B. Bacterial and fungal enzymes (ii) Breaks down detritus into
smaller particles
C. Accumulation of dark coloured (iii) Detritivores
amorphous substance
D. Fragmentation (iv) Humus
(A) A – (iii); B – (ii); C – (iv); D – (i) (B) A – (iii); B – (i); C – (iv); D – (ii)
(C) A – (ii); B – (i); C – (iv); D – (iii) (D) A – (ii); B – (iii); C – (iv); D – (i)
96. The mass of living material at a trophic level at a particular time is called
(A) Net primary productivity (B) Standing Crop
(C) Gross primary productivity (D) Standing state
97. In an ecosystem the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis is
termed as
(A) Secondary productivity (B) Net productivity
(C) Net primary productivity (D) Gross primary productivity
98. Who are the major predators of plants?
(A) Bacteria (B) Fungi (C) Birds (D) Insects
99. Which of the following ecological pyramids is generally, inverted?
(A) Pyramids of numbers in grassland
(B) Pyramid of energy
(C) Pyramid of biomass in a forest
(D) Pyramid of biomass in a sea

1. A 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. C
6. D 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. C
11. B 12. C 13. A 14. D 15. A
16. C 17. B 18. B 19. A 20. C
21. A 22. A 23. B 24. B 25. B
26. C 27. B 28. B 29. A 30. B
31. A 32. B 33. B 34. C 35. A
36. C 37. C 38. C 39. B 40. A
41. B 42. D 43. A 44. C 45. A
46. D 47. B 48. C 49. A 50. A
51. B 52. B 53. D 54. D 55. D
56. D 57. A 58. B 59. C 60. A
61. B 62. A 63. D 64. B 65. A
66. C 67. C 68. D 69. B 70. B
71. D 72. B 73. D 74. A 75. B
76. A 77. C 78. A 79. C 80. A
81. B 82. D 83. A 84. D 85. B
86. A 87. A 88. C 89. A 90. C
91. B 92. D 93. D 94. A 95. B
96. B 97. D 98. D 99. D
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUATIONS

AIPMT-2006
1. Which one of the following is not used for construction of ecological pyramids ?
(a) Rate of energy flow (b) Fresh weight
(c) Dry weight (d) Number of individuals
AIPMT-2007
2. Consider the following statements concerning food chains :-
(a) Removal of 80% tigers from an area resulted in greatly increased growth of
vegetation
(b) Removal of most of the carnivores resulted in an increased population of deers
(c) The length of food chains is generally limited to 3-4 trophic levels due to energy loss.
(d) The length of food chains may very from 2 to 8 trophic levels. Which two of the
above statements are correct ?
a. a, d b. a, b c. b, c d. c, d
3. The slow rate of decomposition of fallen logs in nature is due to their :- (1) Anaerobic
environment around them (2) Low cellulose content (3) Low moisture content (4) Poor
nitrogen content
AIPMT-2009
4. The correct sequence of plants in a hydrosere is:-
(a) Oak  Lantana  Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia  Scirpus
(b) Oak  Lantana  Scirpus  Pistia  Hydrilla  Volvox
(c) Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia  Scirpus  Lantana  Oak
(d) Pistia  Volvox  Scirpus  Hydrilla  Oak  Lantana
AIPMT-2010
5. The biomass available for consumption by the herbivores and the decomposers is called
: (a) Gross primary productivity (b) Net primary productivity
(c) Secondary productivity (d) Standing crop
6. Which of the following representations shows the pyramid of numbers in a forest
ecosystem :-
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
AIIMS-2010
7. Crustose lichens, those invaded barren land, first of all, are :-
(a) Pioneer species (b) Edge species
(c) Link species (d) Keystone species
AIPMT-2011
8. Mass of living matter at a trophic level in an area at any time is called :-
(a) Standing crop (b) Detritus (c) Humus (d) Standing state
9. Which one of the following statements is correct for secondary succession ?
(a) It begins on a bare rock
(b) It occurs on a deforested site
(c) It follows primary succession
(d) It is similar to primary succession except that it has a relatively fast pace*.
10. Both, hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to :
(a) Excessive wet conditions
(b) Medium water conditions
(c) Xeric conditions
(d) Highly dry conditions
11. Which one of the following animals may occupy more than one trophic levels in the
same ecosystem at the same time ?
(a) Frog (b) Sparrow (c) Lion (d) Goat
12. The breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by earthworm is a process called :
(a) Catabolism (b) Humification (c) Fragmentation (d) Mineralisation
13. Consider the following statements (A)-(D) each with one or two blanks.
(A) Bears go into ......(1)..... during winter to .......(2)...... cold weather
(B) A conical age pyramid with a broad base represents ....(3)..... human population.
(C) A wasp pollinating a fig flower is an example of ........(4)......
(D) An area with high levels of species richness is known as ............(5)..........
Which one of the following options, gives the correct fill ups for the respective blank
numbers from (1) to (5) in the statements?
(a) (1) - hibernation, (2) - escape, (3) - expanding, (4)- mutualism (5) - hot spot,
(b) (1)- aestivation, (2)- hibernation (3) - stable (4) - commensalism, (5) - marsh
(c) (1) - aestivation, (2) - escape, (3) - stable, (4)- parasitism, (5)- grassland
(d) (1)- hibernation, (2)-aestivation (3) - expanding, (4) commensalism, (5) - biodiversity
park
AIPMT-2012
14. Which one of the following is not a functional unit of an ecosystem :-
 (a) Productivity (b) Stratification
(c) Energy flow (d) Decomposition
15. The upright pyramid of number is absent in :-
(a) Lake (b) Grassland (c) Pond (d) Forest
16. Which one of the following is not a gaseous biogeochemical cycle in ecosystem ?
(a) Nitrogen cycle (b) Carbon cycle
(c) Sulphur cycle (d) Phosphorus cycle
17. Given below is an imaginary pyramid of numbers. What could be one of the possibilities
about certain organisms at some of the different levels?
(a) Level one PP is "Pipal trees" and the level SC is "sheep"
(b) Level PC is "rats" and level SC is "cats"
(c) Level PC is "insects" and level SC is "small insectivorous birds
(d) Level PP is "Phytoplanktons" in sea and "Whale" on top level TC.

18. Identify the possible link "A" in the following food chain :
Plant  Insect  Frog  "A"  Eagle
(a) Cobra (b) Parrot (c) Rabbit (d) Wolf
19. The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by plants like :-
(a) Salix (b) Vallisneria (c) Azolla (d) Typha
20. Identify the likely organisms (a), (b), (c) and (d) in the food web shown below :

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
21. The rate of formation of new organic matter by rabbit in a grassland, is called :-
(a) Net primary productivity (b) Gross primary productivity
(c) Net productivity (d) Secondary productivity
NEET-2013
22. Secondary productivity is rate of formation of new organic matter by :
(a) Decomposer (b) Producer (c) Parasite (d) Consumer
23. Which one of the following processes during decomposition is correctly described ?
(a) Leaching – Water soluble inorganic nutrients rise to the top layers of soil
(b) Fragmentation – Carried out by organisms such as earthworm
(c) Humification – Leads to the accumulation of a dark coloured substance humus which
undergoes microbial action at a very fast rate
(d) Catabolism – Last step in the decomposition under fully anaerobic condition
AIPMT-2013
24. Given below is a simplified model of phosphorus cycling in a terrestrial ecosystem with
four blanks (A-D). Identify the blanks :-

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

25. If 20 J of energy is trapped at producer level, then how much energy will be available to
peacock as food in the following chain ?
Plan mice  snake  peacock
(a) 0.02 J (b) 0.002 J (c) 0.2 J (d) 0.0002 J
AIIMS-2014
26. Which of the following is true?
(a) High altitude have higher biodiversity than low altitude
(b) Low altitude have higher biodiversity than high altitude
(c) Amphibians have high biodiversity among vertebrates
(d) Bryophytes have higher biodiversity than angiosperms
27. The mass of living material at a trophic level at a particular time is called :
(a) Standing state (c) Net primary productivity
(c) Standing crop (d) Gross primary productivity
28. In an ecosystem the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis is
termed as:
(a) Gross primary productivity (b) Secondary productivity
(b) Net productivity (d) Net primary productivity
29. Secondary Succession takes place on/in :
(a) Degraded forest (b) Newly created pond
(c) Newly cooled lava (d) Bare rock
AIPMT-2015
30. Most animals that live in deep oceanic waters are:
(a) Detritivores (b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers (d) Tertiary consumers
31. In which of the following both pairs have correct combination ?

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

32. During ecological succession :

(a) The changes lead to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment
and is called pioneer community
(b) The gradual and predictable change in species composition occurs in a given area
 (c) The establishment of a new biotic community is very fast in its primary phase
(d) The numbers and types of animals remain constant
NEET-2016
33. The term ecosystem was coined by :-
(a) E.P. Odum (b) A.G. Tansley (c) E. Haeckel (d) E. Warming
34. Which of the following would appear as the pioneer organisms on bare rocks?
(a) Lichens (b) Liverworts (c) Mosses (d) Green algae
35. The primary producers of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystem are :
(a) Blue-green algae (b) Coral reefs
(c) Green algae (d) Chemosynthetic bacteria
NEET-2017
36. Which of the following ecologists has tried to put price-tags on nature’s life support
services ?
(a) David Tilman (b) Robert Constanza
(c) Paul Ehrlich (d) Robert May
37. The sequential events from initial stage till climax stage in a succession are called :-
(a) Ecesis (b) Sere (c) Nudation (d) Migration
38. Which of the following statements is not true ?
(a) A single organism can feed at several trophic levels
(b) Detritivores feed at all trophic levels except the producer level
(c) Primary consumers are herbivores
(d) Energy pyramids of an ecosystem tend to diminish at higher trophic levels
NEET-2018
39. What type of ecological pyramid would obtained with the following data ? Secondary
consumer :
120g Primary consumer : 60 g Primary producer : 10 g
(a) Inverted pyramid of biomass
(b) Pyramid of energy
(c) Upright pyramid of numbers
(d) Upright pyramid of biomass
AIIMS-2018
40. GFC stands for :-
(a) Grazing forest chain
(b) Grazing food chain
(c) Gaining food chain
(d) Global food chain
NEET-2019
41. Which of the following ecological pyramids is generally inverted?
(a) Pyramid of biomass in a sea
(b) Pyramid of biomass in grassland
(c) Pyramid of energy
(d) Pyramid of biomass in a forest
NEET-2020
42. The rate of decomposition is faster in the ecosystem due to the following factors
EXCEPT:
(a) Detritus rich in sugars
(b)Warm and moist environment
(c) Presence of aerobic soil microbes
(d) Detritus richer in lignin and chitin
43. Which of the following statement is incorrect regarding the phosphorus cycle?
(a) Phosphates are the major form of phosphorus reservoir
(b) Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria facilitate the release of phosphorus from organic
remains
(c) There is the appreciable respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere
(d) It is a sedimentary cycle
44. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(a) Biomass decreases from first to fourth trophic level
(b) Energy content gradually increases from first to fourth trophic level
(c) Number of individuals decreases from first trophic level to fourth trophic level
(d) Energy content gradually decreases from first to fourth trophic level
45. Match the trophic levels with their correct species examples in the green land
ecosystem
1. Fourth trophic level i. Cow
2. Second trophic level ii. Vulture
3. First trophic level iii. Rabbit
4. Third trophic level iv. Grass
Select the correct option
a b c d
(a) iii ii i iv
(b) iv iii ii i
(c) i ii iii iv
(d) ii iii iv i
46. In relation to GPP and NPP of an ecosystem, which one of the following statements is
correct?
(a) GPP is always more than NPP
(b) GPP and NPP are one and same
(c) There is no relationship between GPP and NPP
(d) GPP is always less than NPP
NEET-2021
47. Which of the following statement is not correct?
(a) Pyramid of energy is always upright
(b) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem is upright
(c) Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted
(d) Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally upright
48. In the equation GPP-R=NPP, R represents:
(a) Environmental factor
(b) Respiration losses
(c) Radiant energy
(d) Retardation factor
49. The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium etc. present in
the soil at any given time, is referred to as the-
(a) Nutrient status of soil
(b) Standing state
(c) Standing crop
(d) Mineral state
1. b 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. b
6. b 7. a 8. a 9. d 10. b
11. b 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. d
16. d 17. c 18. a 19. b 20. c
21. d 22. d 23. b 24. c 25. a
26. b 27. c 28. a 29. a 30. a
31. b 32. b 33. b 34. a 35. d
36. b 37. b 38. b 39. a 40. b
41. a 42. d 43. c 44. b 45. d
46. a 47. d 48. b 49. b