EXPERIMENTT1

AIM
To determine resistance per cm ofa given wire by plotting
difference versus current.
a graph of potential

APPARATUS
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) V and an ammeter (0-3) A of appropriate range, a
battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
47

THEORY

According to the Ohm's law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportiona
to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature,
a
dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same. IfI be the current flowing through
conduetor and V be the potential difference acrosa its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,
I« V
VoI or V=RI
where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor.

or ...Working formula

R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.
In S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current I in ampere,
the resistance R is measured in ohm.
ratio VII
() To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the
remains constant fora given resistance, therefore a graph between the potential difference (V)
and the current U) must be a straight line.

(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMM

Battery
HH mw
Rheostat

Unknown resistance
wire
- w~

L
Fig. Circuit diagram.

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if
any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While mak
ing connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are
joined towards the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count ofvoltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are
working properly.
 COMPHET

48
rheostat such that
a
measurable
urTent pass
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the resistance wire.
the d
and current )I
current
through the resistance coil or
voltmeter
from
differenceV
7. Note down the value of potential
ammeter.
so that both
ammeter meter sho.
and voltmeter show
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly
divisions readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammerer
these steps:
Note. In of battery eliminator, follow
case
and put the constant point i n rheostatat
at
eliminator
Turn the knob at 2 Vin battery voltmeter and ammeter.
x e d position. Now record the reading in
different voltage such
the rheostat, turn the knob of battery to
that 4, 6,disturbing
Without 8, 10 and 12 Volts and record corresponding readingS In voltmeter and

ammeter.

10. Take at least five sets of independent observations.

11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and fi
its length by the metre scale.
12. Record your observations.

Rheostat
One way
key

Battery eliminator
or Battery

Resistance wire
ww

wl lny
Ammeter

Fig Ama Voltmeter

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCCE 49

OBSERVATIONS

1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l = ..
2. Range

Range of the given ammeter =,

Range of the given voltmeter .
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of voltmeter = .

4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e, = .
Zero error in voltmeter, e =..

5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, c =-ej = . .

Zero correction for voltmeter, c2 -e2

6. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Serial No. of Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V) VR

Obs. Observed Corrected Observed Corrected (Ohm)
V Vo+ C2
I=1+C
(26)
Vo
(3a) (3b) (4)
(1) (2a)
****

2
3. ****

A. **
***'

5.

Mean value of resistance, R = . . ohms.

CALCULATIONS
1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
between potential difference V (column 3b) and current I (column 26),
2. Plot a graph
taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
 w w w w r e e n o e o o n

www*w w
www.we*gw

Difference and Current

between Potential
Graph
Scale a-s ******

X-axis: 1 cm 0.5 V of potential difference

Y-axis: 1 cm = 0.25 mA of current
* ..

YA
1.5

R
1.0

0.5 C
w*

O 1.0 2.0 3.0

Potential difference Vin volts
Fig. Graph between potential difference
and current. It is a straight line.

From graph, the resistance can be caleulated.

In AABC, AB
tan 6= CB AV
AV
cot= AI
AV
but R
R = cote
then,
R . . 2.
V
3. Constant ratio gives resistance of the wire.
4. Resistance of the wire per cm = . . N cm1,

RESULTT
) Resistance per cm of the wire is.. Q cm-1
(ii) The graph between V andl 18 a straight line.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

moving the
tions near their ends by rubbing with sand Dactions after removing the insu
ammeter should be of per, per.
3. Voltmeter and
rheostat should be used
proper
t range.
4. A low resistance
A low re
5. The key should be inserted
only while taking observations r e s i s

tance (otherwise its reslstance will increase avoid heating

toa
 MEASUREMENT OF RE
ISTANCE
51
sOURCES OF ERROR
1The instrument screws
9 Thick connecting wiresmay be loose.
may not be
3. Rheostat may have
high resistance.available.

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM

To find res+stance of a given wire

resistivity (specifi resistance) of its
using metre bridge and hence determine the
material.
APPARATUS

A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell

(Battery eliminator), a galvanometer,
resistance box, a JOCkey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw a metre scale, a set
gauge,
square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY

() The unknown resistance X is given by

X= (100-1)
where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap
of metre bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end
upto balance point.
(i) Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is
given by
P
XTD
4L
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Known resistance Unknown resistance
R X
W
HR. B. -L-
LResistance
box B

(G) Galvanometer
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
ullululuuluulualualuluuluuluululuuluuluululuuluulu

C
A
(100 )
E
K

Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator)

bridge.
Fig. Circuit diagram-Metre
 AL PHYSICS-XI
COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSics

52

PROCEDURE
For Resistance
diagram.
Arrange the apparatus shown in arrangement
. as
resistance is to be the rightgap
determined in the right a
2. Connect the resistance wire whose
of the wire forms loop.
a
Detween C and B. Take care that no part
hand gap between A and B.
resistance box of low range in the left
.4. Connect
Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
resistance box, plug the key K.
. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the
at right of end bridge wire,
the
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then shows deflections in
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer
deflection is one side onlv
directions, the connections are correct. If the
oPposite or take help of your teacher and
then there is some fault in the circuit. Check
rectify the fault.
from left to right till galvanometer
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire
is touching the wire is nul
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey
point D.
box such that there is no
9. Choose appropriate value of R from the resistance
an
in the middle of the wire
deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly
i.e., between 45 cm to 55 cm).
know length AD l.
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to
=

the value ofR

11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing
in steps.
12. Record your observations.
Cell or battery
eliminator One way key

Battery eliminator or
Leclanche cell-

Resistance box
= ? Unknown
WMwire

30 40 50 (100 01oo
10 20 60 70 80 90 100
ullululunyhuluuluulunulhulunuluuhuuluulualuuluuhuululuu
Scale
Bridge wire

Galvanometer
Fig. Arrangement diagram.
V

For Specific Resistance

where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and
13. Cut the resistance wire at the points
find its length by using a metre scale.
four places, in two mutually perpen-
14. Measure the diameter of the wire at least at
dicular directions at each place with the help of screw gauge.

15. Record your observations as given in tables.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Length of given wire L = . cm.

2. Table for unknown resistance X)

Serial No. of Resistance from the Length AB =1 Length Unknown resistance

X=R00-0
Obs. resistance box cm) BC (100-)
R (cm) (ohm)
(ohm)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
(1)
2. *1 0
*

3. *****

4 66
3. Least count of the screw gauge
Pitch of screw gauge = . mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale = .
Pitch
L C . of the given serew gauge No. of divisions on the circular scale
. mm

Zero error e = , °°° .. mm

mm
Zero correctionc = -e. . .

4. Table for diameter (D) of the wire

Circular Scale Reading Observed diameter Corrected
Serial No.|Linear Secale
circular Value D=N+n xLC. diameter
of Obs. Reading N No.
of
(mm) 8cale division n x LC.) (mm) D=D+
(mm)
on reference (mm)
line (n)
(1) (2) (3a) (36) (4) (5)

1. (a)
D, (a) = D, (a) ="
(b)
D, (6) =
D, (6) = .

2. (a) 0 D, (a) = D,(a) .

D, (b) = D, (6) = .
(6)
3. (a) D, (a) = D, (a)= .
D, (6) = D (6) =
(6) 0
4. (a) D,(a) = D (a) = .

(6) 0 D (6) = D, (6) = . .

54 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS.

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculation for X
L. From
position of D, find l cm and write in column 3 of Table 1.
2. Find
length (100-1) cm and write in column 4.
3. Calculate X and
write in column 5.

Mean X=AtX +X3 +X4. . ohm Ga4

2. Calculation for D
Mean corrected diameter D(a)+ D,6)+.. .. + D,(a) +D, (6)
8
...
mm= ...... Cm
3.Calculation for Specific Resistance
Specific resistance of the material of the
given wire,
P X . D?
4L
ohm-cm 2
ohm-m 2 9
Standard value of the specific resistance of the 2/9tto
Po ohm-m
material of the given wire (if given),
Percentage error -Pox 100
nlo.
RESULT
1. The value of unknown resistance X
..=

2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire ,=

3. Percentage error = ...

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance boOx should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
observations are to be taken
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the
and 55 cm.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm
null point to avoid error of parallax.
6. Set square should be used to note
should be measured in two mutually perpendicular
7. At one place, diameter of wire
directionns.
8. The wire should not make
a loop.

SOURCES OF ERROR
be loose.
1. The instrument screws may
be clean.
2. The plugs may not
uniform thickness.
3. The wire may not have
T h e s c r e w gauge may have
faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE 55

EXPERIMENT 3
AIM
To veriy the laws ofecombination (weries) of resiatances using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS

A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box,

a jockey, two
resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand
paper and connecting wires.

THEORY

(i) The resistance (r) of aresistance wire or coil is given byr =(100-R
where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
) When two resistances r and r, are connected in series, then their combined resistance

R, =ritr2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
(i) In series

B
ZkzzzzzA
(100-)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ulnulunlnluululuuluulululuyluuuluuluulnlulllululuukA

D
A
, C

Fig. Series combination of resistances.

ü) Resistances in series
2
- W
Fig. Resistances in series.
56 cOMPREHENSIVE PRACTICALPHYSICS
PROCEDURE
1. Mark the two resistance coils
2. To
as r and r2*
and
findr, r, proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (Ifr, and ra are not know
3. Connect the two coils r, and r, in series as shown in
figure in the right gap of met
known.
bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of
vations. obser
4. Record your observations as follows.
OBSERVATIONS
Table for length () and unknown resistance
(X)
Resistance Serial Resistance Length
col
Length Resistance Mean
No. of from the AD = DC =100-1 r=(100-Z.R resistance
Obs. resistance (cm)
box
(cm) (ohm)
R(ohm)
(1) (2) (3) 4 1
(5) (6) (7)
Tonly
2.
3. T
T2 only 1
2.
3. T2
r and r, in 1.
series 2.
3. R, =.
 CALCULATIONS
1. Calculation for r, only, r, only, r, and r, in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R, =

Theoreticalvalue of R =r+T2
Difference (if any)

RESULT
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R, are same
Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.
PRECAUTIONS
Same as given in Experiment 1.
 EXPERIMENT 4|
AIM
To verify the laws of combination
APPARATUS
(parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell
(battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance
aa jjockey, two resistance wires or two resistance box,
coils known resistances, a set square, sand
paper and connecting wires.
THEORY

() The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by r =o0 ,R

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in
the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
(ü) Whenr and r, are connected in
parallel, then their combined resistance
R Ti+2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
) In parallel

B
ww
ZkzzzzZZ
(100-)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ALluhuulhuluuluhunluuluhululugduluuluuhunlunhuluuluul4
2

La
Fig. Parallel combination of resistances.

(i) Resistances in parallel

w
Fig. Resistances in parallel.
 COMPREHENSIVE CTICALPHYSIC
58

PROCEDURE
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r and ra
in Experiment 1. (fr, and r2 are not) nom
2. Tofind and r2 proceed same way as
shown in figure in the right gap ofm
3. Connect the two coils r, and r, in parallel
as

of this combination. Take at least

three sets ofoh
bridge and find the resistance
vations.
4. Record your observations.

OBSERVATIONS
Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (X)
:

Resistance Serial Resistance Length Length Resistance Mean

coil No. of from the AD= DC= 100-1 (100-.R
200.R resistance

Obser resistance (cm) (cm) (ohm)

vation box
R (ohm)
(1 (2) (3) (4 (5) (6) (7)

T only 1.

2.

3.

T2 only 1.

2. Ta
3.

1.
randr2
in parallel 2. R
3.
CALCULATIONS
for verification of laws
Calculation

Experimental
value of R, =

Theoretical value of R=
+2

Difference (if any)

 59
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

RESULT

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R, a r e s a m e .

law of
Hence, resistances in parallel is verified.
PRECAUTIONS
Same as in Experiment 1.
 EXPERIMENTT7
AIM
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find
merit.
its figure of

APPARATUS

A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 S2

nd 200 Q) resistance boxes, two one-way
and
keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an
ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORYY

() The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method

GR.S
R-S
.(1)
where R is the resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
E
i) The figure of merit, =
(R+Ge .(2)
where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and 0 is the deflection
produced with resistance R.
(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,
=nk .(3)
where n is the total number of divisions the
on
galvanometer scale on either side of zero.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

E
K
H
K

1-1
K2
Fig. Resistance of galvanometer. Fig. Figure of merit.
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PH
86 HYSICS
PROCEDURE
method
a) kesistance of galvanometer by half deflection
. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Q) from the resistance box R and inge
inser
the key K only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within
the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be 0.
6. Insert the key K, also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of8
such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained
in step 5 i.e., 0/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting8
every time.
b) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltme
ter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter
with -ve of the cell. Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtaina certain deflection 8 (say 30 divisions) when the
circuit is closed.
and deflection 0.
12. Note the values of resistance R
note the galvanometer deflection agoin
13. Now change the value of R and
of the battery with different volta g e s like
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells
2,4, 6, 8, volts from battery eliminator.
the formula.
15. Find the figure of merit k using
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONI
1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method
Serial No. Half Galvanometer
Resistance Deflection Shunt
resistance
of Obs R in the resistance deflectioon
RS
(ohm) Galvanometer S G R-S
6 (ohm) 2
(ohm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1.
2.
47
3.
OD
4.

2 C0
GALVANOMET RAND VOLTMETER

87
2.
Table for
figure of merit
SerialNo. Number of e.m.f. of the cells
of Obs cells E(V) Resistance Deflection Figure of merit
or
reading of
(Battery battery eliminator from R.B.
R (ohm)
e (div.) E
eliminator) k (R+GH
(1 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1.
2 490
3. 3 6
89 20
4. 29
Number of divisions in the I16SoD 30
1. Calculation for G
galvanometer scale, n = .

() Calculate G, using formula, G RS

=
and write it in column 6
R-S of Table 1.
(ii) Take mean of values of G recorded
in column 6 of Table 1.
2. Calculation for k

) Calculate k, using formula, E

k = -

and write it in column 6 of Table 2.

(i) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.
RESULT
1. Resistance of given
galvanometer = . . Q
2. Figure of merit of given
galvanometer = A/dn.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the
circuit (otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the gal-
vanometer or ammeter can be damaged).

SOURCESs OF ERROR
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose,
4. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.

* The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.