4

APPLICATIONS OF
DERIVATIVES
OVERVIEW In this chapter we use derivatives to find extreme values of functions, to
determine and analyze the shapes of graphs, and to find numerically where a function
equals zero. We also introduce the idea of recovering a function from its derivative. The
key to many of these applications is the Mean Value Theorem, which paves the way to
integral calculus in Chapter 5.

Extreme Values of Functions

4.1
This section shows how to locate and identify extreme (maximum or minimum) values of
a function from its derivative. Once we can do this, we can solve a variety of problems in
which we find the optimal (best) way to do something in a given situation (see Section
4.6). Finding maximum and minimum values is one of the most important applications of
the derivative.

DEFINITIONS Let ƒ be a function with domain D. Then ƒ has an absolute

maximum value on D at a point c if

ƒsxd … ƒscd for all x in D

and an absolute minimum value on D at c if
y
ƒsxd Ú ƒscd for all x in D .
1
y
sin x
y
cos x

x
–␲ 0 ␲ Maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of the function ƒ. Absolute
2 2
maxima or minima are also referred to as global maxima or minima.
For example, on the closed interval [- p>2, p>2] the function ƒsxd = cos x takes on
–1
an absolute maximum value of 1 (once) and an absolute minimum value of 0 (twice). On
the same interval, the function gsxd = sin x takes on a maximum value of 1 and a
FIGURE 4.1 Absolute extrema for minimum value of - 1 (Figure 4.1).
the sine and cosine functions on Functions with the same defining rule or formula can have different extrema
[-p>2, p>2] . These values can depend (maximum or minimum values), depending on the domain. We see this in the following
on the domain of a function. example.

222
 4.1 Extreme Values of Functions 223

EXAMPLE 1 The absolute extrema of the following functions on their domains can be seen
in Figure 4.2. Notice that a function might not have a maximum or minimum if the domain is
unbounded or fails to contain an endpoint.

Function rule Domain D Absolute extrema on D

(a) y = x 2 s - q, q d No absolute maximum.

Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0.
(b) y = x 2 [0, 2] Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2.
Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0.
(c) y = x 2 (0, 2] Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2.
No absolute minimum.
(d) y = x 2 (0, 2) No absolute extrema.

y
x2 y y
x2 y y
x2 y y
x2 y

D
(– , ) D
[0, 2] D
(0, 2] D
(0, 2)

x x x x
2 2 2 2
(a) abs min only (b) abs max and min (c) abs max only (d) no max or min

FIGURE 4.2 Graphs for Example 1.

HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY Some of the functions in Example 1 did not have a maximum or a minimum value.
The following theorem asserts that a function which is continuous at every point of a
Daniel Bernoulli closed interval [a, b] has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum value on the in-
(1700–1789) terval. We look for these extreme values when we graph a function.

THEOREM 1—The Extreme Value Theorem If ƒ is continuous on a closed interval

[a, b], then ƒ attains both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute
minimum value m in [a, b]. That is, there are numbers x1 and x2 in
[a, b] with ƒsx1 d = m, ƒsx2 d = M, and m … ƒsxd … M for every other x in
[a, b].

The proof of the Extreme Value Theorem requires a detailed knowledge of the real
number system (see Appendix 6) and we will not give it here. Figure 4.3 illustrates possi-
ble locations for the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b].
As we observed for the function y = cos x, it is possible that an absolute minimum (or ab-
solute maximum) may occur at two or more different points of the interval.
The requirements in Theorem 1 that the interval be closed and finite, and that the
function be continuous, are key ingredients. Without them, the conclusion of the theorem
224 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

(x2, M)

y
f (x)
y
f (x)
M
M
x1 m
x x
a x2 b a b
m
Maximum and minimum
at endpoints
(x1, m)
Maximum and minimum
at interior points

y
f (x)

y
f (x)
M M

m
m
x x
a x2 b a x1 b
Maximum at interior point, Minimum at interior point,
minimum at endpoint maximum at endpoint

FIGURE 4.3 Some possibilities for a continuous function’s maximum and

minimum on a closed interval [a, b].

y need not hold. Example 1 shows that an absolute extreme value may not exist if the inter-
No largest value
val fails to be both closed and finite. Figure 4.4 shows that the continuity requirement can-
1 not be omitted.
y
x
0
x1 Local (Relative) Extreme Values
x
0 1 Figure 4.5 shows a graph with five points where a function has extreme values on its do-
Smallest value main [a, b]. The function’s absolute minimum occurs at a even though at e the function’s
value is smaller than at any other point nearby. The curve rises to the left and falls to the
FIGURE 4.4 Even a single point of
right around c, making ƒ(c) a maximum locally. The function attains its absolute maxi-
discontinuity can keep a function from
mum at d. We now define what we mean by local extrema.
having either a maximum or minimum
value on a closed interval. The function
x, 0 … x 6 1
y = e DEFINITIONS A function ƒ has a local maximum value at a point c within its
0, x = 1
domain D if ƒsxd … ƒscd for all x H D lying in some open interval containing c .
is continuous at every point of [0, 1]
except x = 1 , yet its graph over [0, 1]
A function ƒ has a local minimum value at a point c within its domain D if
does not have a highest point.
ƒsxd Ú ƒscd for all x H D lying in some open interval containing c .

If the domain of ƒ is the closed interval [a, b], then ƒ has a local maximum at the endpoint
x = a, if ƒ(x) … ƒ(a) for all x in some half-open interval [a, a + d), d 7 0. Likewise, ƒ
has a local maximum at an interior point x = c if ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x in some open inter-
val (c - d, c + d), d 7 0, and a local maximum at the endpoint x = b if ƒ(x) … ƒ(b) for
all x in some half-open interval (b - d, b], d 7 0. The inequalities are reversed for local
minimum values. In Figure 4.5, the function ƒ has local maxima at c and d and local min-
ima at a, e, and b. Local extrema are also called relative extrema. Some functions can
have infinitely many local extrema, even over a finite interval. One example is the func-
tion ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) on the interval (0, 1]. (We graphed this function in Figure 2.40.)
 4.1 Extreme Values of Functions 225

Absolute maximum
No greater value of f anywhere.
Local maximum Also a local maximum.
No greater value of
f nearby.
Local minimum
y
f (x)
No smaller value
of f nearby.
Absolute minimum
No smaller value of Local minimum
f anywhere. Also a No smaller value of
local minimum. f nearby.
x
a c e d b

FIGURE 4.5 How to identify types of maxima and minima for a function with domain
a … x … b.

An absolute maximum is also a local maximum. Being the largest value overall, it is
also the largest value in its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of all local maxima will
automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, a list of all local
minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one.

Finding Extrema
Local maximum value The next theorem explains why we usually need to investigate only a few values to find a
function’s extrema.

y
f (x)
THEOREM 2—The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values If ƒ has a
local maximum or minimum value at an interior point c of its domain, and if ƒ¿ is
defined at c, then

ƒ¿scd = 0.
Secant slopes  0 Secant slopes
0
(never negative) (never positive)
Proof To prove that ƒ¿scd is zero at a local extremum, we show first that ƒ¿scd cannot be
positive and second that ƒ¿scd cannot be negative. The only number that is neither positive
x
x c x nor negative is zero, so that is what ƒ¿scd must be.
To begin, suppose that ƒ has a local maximum value at x = c (Figure 4.6) so that
FIGURE 4.6 A curve with a local ƒsxd - ƒscd … 0 for all values of x near enough to c. Since c is an interior point of ƒ’s
maximum value. The slope at c, domain, ƒ¿scd is defined by the two-sided limit
simultaneously the limit of nonpositive
numbers and nonnegative numbers, is zero. ƒsxd - ƒscd
lim x - c .
x:c

This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at x = c and equal ƒ¿scd.
When we examine these limits separately, we find that
ƒsxd - ƒscd Because sx - cd 7 0
ƒ¿scd = lim+ x - c … 0. and ƒsxd … ƒscd
(1)
x:c

Similarly,
ƒsxd - ƒscd Because sx - cd 6 0
ƒ¿scd = lim- x - c Ú 0. and ƒsxd … ƒscd (2)
x:c

Together, Equations (1) and (2) imply ƒ¿scd = 0.

This proves the theorem for local maximum values. To prove it for local minimum
values, we simply use ƒsxd Ú ƒscd, which reverses the inequalities in Equations (1)
and (2).
226 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

y Theorem 2 says that a function’s first derivative is always zero at an interior point
y
x3 where the function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined. Hence the only
1 places where a function ƒ can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are
1. interior points where ƒ¿ = 0,
x 2. interior points where ƒ¿ is undefined,
–1 0 1
3. endpoints of the domain of ƒ.
–1 The following definition helps us to summarize.

(a)
DEFINITION An interior point of the domain of a function ƒ where ƒ¿ is zero
or undefined is a critical point of ƒ.
y

1
Thus the only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical
y
x1/3 points and endpoints. However, be careful not to misinterpret what is being said here. A
x
function may have a critical point at x = c without having a local extreme value there.
–1 0 1 For instance, both of the functions y = x 3 and y = x 1>3 have critical points at the origin
and a zero value there, but each function is positive to the right of the origin and negative
–1 to the left. So neither function has a local extreme value at the origin. Instead, each func-
tion has a point of inflection there (see Figure 4.7). We define and explore inflection
(b)
points in Section 4.4.
Most problems that ask for extreme values call for finding the absolute extrema of a
FIGURE 4.7 Critical points without continuous function on a closed and finite interval. Theorem 1 assures us that such values
extreme values. (a) y¿ = 3x 2 is 0 at x = 0 , exist; Theorem 2 tells us that they are taken on only at critical points and endpoints. Often
but y = x 3 has no extremum there. we can simply list these points and calculate the corresponding function values to find
(b) y¿ = s1>3dx -2>3 is undefined at x = 0 , what the largest and smallest values are, and where they are located. Of course, if the in-
but y = x 1>3 has no extremum there. terval is not closed or not finite (such as a 6 x 6 b or a 6 x 6 q), we have seen that
absolute extrema need not exist. If an absolute maximum or minimum value does exist, it
must occur at a critical point or at an included right- or left-hand endpoint of the interval.

How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function ƒ on a

Finite Closed Interval
1. Evaluate ƒ at all critical points and endpoints.
2. Take the largest and smallest of these values.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒsxd = x 2 on

[-2, 1].

Solution The function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the only critical point is
where ƒ¿sxd = 2x = 0, namely x = 0. We need to check the function’s values at x = 0
and at the endpoints x = - 2 and x = 1:

Critical point value: ƒs0d = 0

Endpoint values: ƒs -2d = 4
ƒs1d = 1

The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x = - 2 and an absolute minimum

value of 0 at x = 0.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) = 10x (2 - ln x)
on the interval [1, e 2].
 4.1 Extreme Values of Functions 227

y Solution Figure 4.8 suggests that ƒ has its absolute maximum value near x = 3 and its
30
absolute minimum value of 0 at x = e 2. Let’s verify this observation.
(e, 10e)
We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the largest and
25
smallest of the resulting values.
20 The first derivative is
(1, 20)
15
1
10 ƒ¿(x) = 10(2 - ln x) - 10x a x b = 10(1 - ln x).
5
(e 2, 0) The only critical point in the domain [1, e 2] is the point x = e, where ln x = 1. The values
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 of ƒ at this one critical point and at the endpoints are

FIGURE 4.8 The extreme values of Critical point value: ƒ(e) = 10e
ƒ(x) = 10x(2 - ln x) on [1, e 2] occur at Endpoint values: ƒ(1) = 10(2 - ln 1) = 20
x = e and x = e 2 (Example 3).
ƒ(e 2) = 10e 2(2 - 2 ln e) = 0.
We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 10e L 27.2; it oc-
curs at the critical interior point x = e. The absolute minimum value is 0 and occurs at the
right endpoint x = e 2.

EXAMPLE 4 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒsxd = x 2>3 on the
interval [-2, 3].

Solution We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the
largest and smallest of the resulting values.
y The first derivative
y
x 2/3, –2 ≤ x ≤ 3
2 -1>3 2
ƒ¿sxd = x =
3 3
32 x
Absolute maximum;
Local also a local maximum
maximum 2 has no zeros but is undefined at the interior point x = 0. The values of ƒ at this one criti-
cal point and at the endpoints are
1
Critical point value: ƒs0d = 0
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 Endpoint values: ƒs - 2d = s - 2d2>3 = 2
3
4
Absolute minimum;
also a local minimum ƒs3d = s3d2>3 = 2
3
9.
FIGURE 4.9 The extreme values of We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 2
3
9 L 2.08, and it
ƒsxd = x 2>3 on [- 2, 3] occur at x = 0 and occurs at the right endpoint x = 3. The absolute minimum value is 0, and it occurs at the
x = 3 (Example 4). interior point x = 0 where the graph has a cusp (Figure 4.9).

Exercises 4.1
Finding Extrema from Graphs 3. y 4. y
In Exercises 1–6, determine from the graph whether the function has
y
f (x)
any absolute extreme values on [a, b]. Then explain how your answer
y
h(x)
is consistent with Theorem 1.
1. y 2. y

y
h(x) y
f (x)
x x
0 a c b 0 a c b

x x
0 a c1 c2 b 0 a c b
228 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

5. y 6. y In Exercises 15–20, sketch the graph of each function and determine

y
g(x) whether the function has any absolute extreme values on its domain.
y
g(x) Explain how your answer is consistent with Theorem 1.
15. ƒ(x) = ƒ x ƒ , -1 6 x 6 2
6
16. y = 2 , -1 6 x 6 1
x + 2
x x
0 a c b 0 a c b -x, 0 … x 6 1
17. g(x) = e
x - 1, 1 … x … 2

In Exercises 7–10, find the absolute extreme values and where they occur. 1
x, -1 … x 6 0
7. y 8. y 18. h(x) =
L
2x, 0 … x … 4
2
1 19. y = 3 sin x, 0 6 x 6 2p
x
–1 1 x x + 1, -1 … x 6 0
–1 –2 0 2 20. ƒ(x) =
L cos x, 0 … x …
p
2
9. y 10. y
(1, 2)
5 2 Absolute Extrema on Finite Closed Intervals
In Exercises 21–40, find the absolute maximum and minimum values
of each function on the given interval. Then graph the function. Iden-
x
–3 2 tify the points on the graph where the absolute extrema occur, and in-
–1 clude their coordinates.
2
x 21. ƒsxd = x - 5, -2 … x … 3
0 2 3
22. ƒsxd = - x - 4, -4 … x … 1
23. ƒsxd = x 2 - 1, -1 … x … 2
In Exercises 11–14, match the table with a graph.
11. 12. 24. ƒsxd = 4 - x , 2
-3 … x … 1
x ƒⴕ(x) x ƒⴕ(x)
1
25. Fsxd = - , 0.5 … x … 2
a 0 a 0 x2
b 0 b 0 1
26. Fsxd = - x , -2 … x … - 1
c 5 c 5
27. hsxd = 2
3
x, -1 … x … 8
13. 14. 28. hsxd = - 3x 2>3, -1 … x … 1
x ƒ ⴕ(x) x ƒ ⴕ(x)
29. g sxd = 24 - x , 2
-2 … x … 1
a does not exist a does not exist
b 0 b does not exist 30. g sxd = - 25 - x , 2
- 25 … x … 0
c 2 c 1.7 p 5p
31. ƒsud = sin u, - … u …
2 6
p p
32. ƒsud = tan u, - … u …
3 4
p 2p
33. g sxd = csc x, … x …
3 3
p p
34. g sxd = sec x, - … x …
a b c a b c 3 6
35. ƒstd = 2 - ƒ t ƒ , -1 … t … 3
(a) (b)
36. ƒstd = ƒ t - 5 ƒ , 4 … t … 7

37. g(x) = xe -x, -1 … x … 1

38. h(x) = ln (x + 1), 0 … x … 3

1
a b c a b c 39. ƒ(x) = x + ln x, 0.5 … x … 4

40. g(x) = e -x ,
2
(c) (d) -2 … x … 1
 4.1 Extreme Values of Functions 229

In Exercises 41–44, find the function’s absolute maximum and mini- Theory and Examples
mum values and say where they are assumed. 79. A minimum with no derivative The function ƒsxd = ƒ x ƒ has
41. ƒsxd = x 4>3, -1 … x … 8 an absolute minimum value at x = 0 even though ƒ is not differ-
entiable at x = 0 . Is this consistent with Theorem 2? Give rea-
42. ƒsxd = x 5>3, -1 … x … 8
sons for your answer.
43. g(ud = u , 3>5
- 32 … u … 1
80. Even functions If an even function ƒ(x) has a local maximum
44. hsud = 3u2>3, - 27 … u … 8 value at x = c , can anything be said about the value of ƒ at
x = - c ? Give reasons for your answer.
Finding Critical Points 81. Odd functions If an odd function g(x) has a local minimum
In Exercises 45–52, determine all critical points for each function. value at x = c , can anything be said about the value of g at
45. y = x 2 - 6x + 7 46. ƒ(x) = 6x 2 - x 3 x = - c ? Give reasons for your answer.
47. ƒ(x) = x(4 - x) 3 48. g(x) = (x - 1) 2(x - 3) 2 82. We know how to find the extreme values of a continuous function
2 x2 ƒ(x) by investigating its values at critical points and endpoints. But
49. y = x 2 + x 50. ƒ(x) = what if there are no critical points or endpoints? What happens
x - 2
then? Do such functions really exist? Give reasons for your answers.
51. y = x 2 - 32 2x 52. g(x) = 22x - x 2
83. The function
Finding Extreme Values V sxd = xs10 - 2xds16 - 2xd, 0 6 x 6 5,
In Exercises 53–68, find the extreme values (absolute and local) of the
function and where they occur. models the volume of a box.
53. y = 2x - 8x + 9
2
54. y = x - 2x + 4
3 a. Find the extreme values of V.
b. Interpret any values found in part (a) in terms of the volume
55. y = x 3 + x 2 - 8x + 5 56. y = x 3(x - 5) 2
of the box.
57. y = 2x 2 - 1 58. y = x - 42x 84. Cubic functions Consider the cubic function
1
59. y = 60. y = 23 + 2x - x 2
ƒsxd = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d .
2 3
1 - x2
x x + 1
61. y = 2 62. y = a. Show that ƒ can have 0, 1, or 2 critical points. Give examples
x + 1 x 2 + 2x + 2 and graphs to support your argument.
63. y = e x + e -x 64. y = e x - e -x b. How many local extreme values can ƒ have?
65. y = x ln x 66. y = x 2 ln x 85. Maximum height of a vertically moving body The height of a
67. y = cos-1 (x 2) 68. y = sin-1 (e x ) body moving vertically is given by

1 2
Local Extrema and Critical Points s = - gt + y0 t + s0, g 7 0,
2
In Exercises 69–76, find the critical points, domain endpoints, and ex-
treme values (absolute and local) for each function. with s in meters and t in seconds. Find the body’s maximum height.
69. y = x 2>3
sx + 2d 70. y = x 2>3
sx - 4d
2 86. Peak alternating current Suppose that at any given time t (in
seconds) the current i (in amperes) in an alternating current cir-
71. y = x 24 - x 2 72. y = x 2 23 - x cuit is i = 2 cos t + 2 sin t . What is the peak current for this cir-
4 - 2x, x … 1 3 - x, x 6 0 cuit (largest magnitude)?
73. y = e 74. y = e
x + 1, x 7 1 3 + 2x - x 2, x Ú 0 T Graph the functions in Exercises 87–90. Then find the extreme values
- x 2 - 2x + 4, x … 1 of the function on the interval and say where they occur.
75. y = e 2
-x + 6x - 4, x 7 1 87. ƒsxd = ƒ x - 2 ƒ + ƒ x + 3 ƒ , -5 … x … 5
1 1 15 88. gsxd = ƒ x - 1 ƒ - ƒ x - 5 ƒ , -2 … x … 7
- x2 - x + , x … 1
76. y = • 4 2 4
89. hsxd = ƒ x + 2 ƒ - ƒ x - 3 ƒ , -q 6 x 6 q
x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x, x 7 1
90. ksxd = ƒ x + 1 ƒ + ƒ x - 3 ƒ , -q 6 x 6 q
In Exercises 77 and 78, give reasons for your answers.
77. Let ƒsxd = sx - 2d2>3 . COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
a. Does ƒ¿s2d exist? In Exercises 91–98, you will use a CAS to help find the absolute ex-
trema of the given function over the specified closed interval. Perform
b. Show that the only local extreme value of ƒ occurs at x = 2 .
the following steps.
c. Does the result in part (b) contradict the Extreme Value Theorem?
a. Plot the function over the interval to see its general behavior there.
d. Repeat parts (a) and (b) for ƒsxd = sx - ad2>3 , replacing 2 by a.
b. Find the interior points where ƒ¿ = 0 . (In some exercises, you
78. Let ƒsxd = ƒ x 3 - 9x ƒ . may have to use the numerical equation solver to approximate a
a. Does ƒ¿s0d exist? b. Does ƒ¿s3d exist? solution.) You may want to plot ƒ¿ as well.
c. Does ƒ¿s - 3d exist? d. Determine all extrema of ƒ. c. Find the interior points where ƒ¿ does not exist.