8

Dental Amalgams
OUTLINE
Amalgam Alloy Clinical Performance of Amalgam Restorations
Clinical Manipulation of Amalgam for Restorations Safety of Amalgam Restorations
Properties of Amalgams

KEY TERMS
Amalgam An alloy containing mercury.
  Dental amalgam An alloy that is formed by reacting mercury with
 

Amalgamation The process of mixing liquid mercury with one or

  silver, copper, and tin, and that may also contain palladium, zinc,
more metals or alloys to form an amalgam. and other elements to improve handling characteristics and
Condensation The process of pressing dental amalgam by force to
  clinical performance.
remove excess mercury and ensure continuity of the matrix phase. Dental amalgam alloy (alloy for dental amalgam) An alloy of
 

Creep The time-dependent strain or deformation that is produced

  silver, copper, tin, and other elements that is processed in the
by a stress. The creep process can cause an amalgam restora- form of powder particles or as a compressed pellet.
tion to extend out of the restoration site, thereby increasing its Marginal breakdown The gradual fracture of the perimeter or
 

susceptibility to marginal breakdown. margin of a dental amalgam filling, which leads to the formation
Delayed expansion The gradual expansion of a zinc-containing
  of gaps between the amalgam and the tooth.
amalgam over a period of weeks to months. This expansion is Trituration The mixing of amalgam alloy particles with mer-
 

associated with the development of hydrogen gas, which is cury in a device called a triturator; the term is also used to
caused by the incorporation of moisture in the plastic mass dur- describe the reduction of a solid to fine particles by grinding
ing its manipulation in a cavity preparation. or friction.

When metal particles are mixed with mercury in certain propor- of spherical particles during the early 1960s. Despite amalgam’s
tion at room temperature, the mixture appears plastic initially. At long history of success as a restorative material, there have been
that consistency, the mixture can be adapted to any shape with periodic concerns regarding the potential adverse health effects
light pressure. Meanwhile, the outer portion of the particle in the arising from exposure to mercury in dental amalgam. Because
mixture dissolves into mercury that slowly hardens the mixture. of advances in resin-based composites and adhesive technology in
When the solubility of the metal in mercury is exceeded, crystals dentistry, the use of amalgam has declined substantially. Dental
of mercury-containing compounds start to precipitate within the amalgam use will be limited in the future and may eventually be
mercury. The process increases the firmness of the mixture, which phased out of the clinician’s armamentarium.
enables sculpting of the mixture to the desirable anatomical form As with other materials discussed in this book, practical skill
with instruments. The reaction continues at a slower rate as the and sound scientific familiarity with the material are needed for
mixture transforms into a solid with sufficient strength to resist making high-quality restorations. Even when no new amalgams
fracture. The reaction process is called amalgamation, and the are being placed in patients, there will still be billions of amalgam
metallic solid containing mercury is called amalgam. restorations remaining in patients’ mouths. Many of these resto-
rations will require attention, such as for replacement, repair, or
CRITICAL QUESTION refurbishing procedures. In this chapter, amalgam structure, prop-
After reacting with liquid mercury, how do the original powder particles erties, and manipulation characteristics are discussed. However,
become structural components of the set dental amalgams? these concepts require an understanding of several key terms com-
monly used by the dental profession.
Before these alloys combine with mercury, they are known as
Amalgam Alloy dental amalgam alloys. They are usually provided as (1) irregu-
larly shaped particles (Figure 8-1, A) produced by milling or lathe-
The amalgams used today are largely based on the formulation cutting a cast ingot of the amalgam alloy, (2) as spherical particles
published by G. V. Black in 1895. The major modifications to (Figure 8-1, B) produced by atomizing the liquid alloy in a cham-
that formulation were raising the copper content and the making ber filled with inert gas, or (3) as a mixture of both lathe-cut and

153
154 PA RT I I Direct Restorative Materials

A B C
• Figure 8-1  Particle shapes of dental amalgam alloys. A, Conventional lathe-cut alloy (×100). B, Spheri-
cal alloy (×500). C, Typical admix high-copper alloy powder showing the lathe-cut silver-tin particles and
silver-copper spherical particles (×500).

A B C

• Figure 8-2  Types of amalgam trituration capsules. A, Reusable cap-

sules with pestle. B, Preproportioned capsule with pestle. C, Prepropor-
tioned capsule without pestle.

spherical particles (Figure 8-1, C). The powder may also be com- • Figure 8-3  A programmable triturator.
pacted in the form of pellets, which are readily crushed to powder
during trituration, the process of mixing mercury and alloy. TABLE 8-1   Composition of Some Typical Commercial
Originally, the dentist had to dispense alloy powder and mercury Amalgam Alloys
in a mortar and mix them together with a pestle by hand. Later, the
components were dispensed in a reusable capsule (Figure 8-2) with COMPOSITION (MASS %)
a pestle and triturated by a power-driven mechanical device called Amalgam Ag Sn Cu Zn
a triturator (Figure 8-3). Today, disposable amalgam capsules are
widely available. Each capsule contains a predetermined amount Low copper (lathe-cut) 70.3 25.9  2.8 0.9
of alloy powder and mercury in a sealed pouch, and the capsule is Low copper (spherical) 72.0 25.0  3.0 —
sealed to prevent evaporation of the mercury.
High copper (admix) 69.5 17.7 11.8 1.0

Composition High copper (spherical) 61.0 26.0 13.0 —

Amalgam alloys are classified as either a low-copper (conventional)

or high-copper alloy (Table 8-1). In both types, the major compo- CRITICAL QUESTION
nents of the alloys are silver and tin.
How can zinc be a beneficial additive to alloy for dental amalgam but also a
The Silver-Tin System component that can potentially cause significant postoperative discomfort to
the patient?
Figure 8-4 is an equilibrium-phase diagram of the silver-tin alloy
system. Conventionally, starting from the left of the phase dia-
gram, each phase is designated in Greek alphabetical order. The Low-Copper Alloys
ratio of silver to tin in Table 8-1 shows that amalgam alloys have a Silver-tin alloys are quite brittle and difficult to blend uni-
narrow range of compositions, falling within the β + γ and the γ
    formly unless a small amount of copper is substituted for silver.
phases of the diagram. The chief function of zinc in an amalgam alloy is to act as a
 CHAPTER 8  Dental Amalgams 155

Lathe-Cut Powder
1000
960.5° An as-cast ingot is first annealed to retain a uniform phase, and
then placed in a milling machine or in a lathe to be fragmented by
+ Liquid a cutting tool or bit. The powders obtained from cutting are acid-
800 washed to produce a more reactive surface. Because the stresses
Liquid induced into the particle during cutting are not uniform and can
724°
slowly be self-relieved over time, they can cause the performance
of the amalgam to be inconsistent.
Temperature (°C)

+ Liquid
600
Atomized Powder
480°
The molten amalgam alloy is atomized into fine spherical droplets of
400 (Ag3Sn) metal in a chamber of inert gas. If the droplets solidify before hitting
232°
+ Liquid a surface, the spherical shape is preserved, and these atomized pow-
ders are called spherical powders. Like the lathe-cut powders, spherical
+ 221° powders are given an annealing heat treatment and surface washing.
200 + Note in Table 8-1 that alloys for making spheres do not contain zinc
96.5% because there is no oxygen in the chamber to cause oxidation.
+
26.8%
Particle Size
0
The average particle sizes of modern powders range between 15
Ag 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Sn
and 35 μm. Smaller particles greatly increase the surface area per
Composition (wt%, tin)
unit volume of the powder. A powder containing tiny particles
• Figure 8-4  Equilibrium-phase diagram of silver-tin system. requires a greater amount of mercury to form an acceptable amal-
gam. The particle-size distribution can affect the character of the
finished surface. When the amalgam has partially hardened, the
tooth anatomy is carved in the amalgam with a sharp instru-
deoxidizer that reacts with oxygen during melting to minimize ment. During carving, the larger particles may be pulled out of
the oxide formation of other constituents. Alloys without zinc the matrix, producing a rough surface. Such a surface is probably
are more brittle, and their amalgams tend to be less plastic more susceptible to corrosion than a smooth surface. A smaller
during condensation and carving. The specification of the average particle size tends to produce a more rapid hardening of
American Dental Association (ADA) for amalgam alloys allows the amalgam, with greater early strength.
some mercury in the alloy powder. The structure of these con-
ventional alloys was dominated by Ag3Sn (γ phase), with some Lathe-Cut Powder Versus Spherical Powder
Cu3Sn (ε phase). Amalgams made from lathe-cut powders or admixed powders
tend to resist condensation better than amalgams made entirely
High-Copper Alloys from spherical powders. Because freshly triturated amalgams from
The first high-copper alloy was formulated by mixing one part spherical powders are very plastic, one cannot rely on the pressure
of silver-copper eutectic spherical spheres particles with two parts of condensation to establish the proximal contour for a class II res-
lathe-cut particles of Ag3Sn. This modification raises the copper toration. Spherical alloys require less mercury than typical lathe-
content to 11.8% by weight. This is often called dispersed-phase cut alloys because spherical alloy powder has a smaller surface area
alloy or admixed high-copper alloy. A second type of high-copper per volume than does the lathe-cut powder. Amalgams with low
alloy was made by melting all components of the dispersed- mercury content generally have better mechanical properties.
phase alloy. This process yields a single composition system. The
presence of the higher copper content makes cutting the powder CRITICAL QUESTION
into particles difficult. Thus they are often provided in a spheri-
cal form that is produced by an atomization process. The copper Through what mechanism does the addition of 6 wt% or more of copper by
content of this group of alloys could be as high as 30% by weight. weight prevent the formation of the undesirable γ2 phase?
Various amounts of indium or palladium have been included in
some commercial systems. Amalgamation
As discussed earlier, modern dental amalgam alloys are based
Gallium-Based Alloys on the intermetallic compound Ag3Sn; therefore the main reac-
Gallium, when alloyed with indium or tin, can be a liquid at room tion occurring after trituration with mercury will mainly be that
temperature. It has been used to triturate with alloys for high- between Ag3Sn and mercury. Other elements in the alloy, espe-
copper amalgam as a substitute for mercury. cially copper, also play a significant role in the final microstruc-
tures of set amalgams.
Powder Configuration Low-Copper Alloys
Dental amalgams are made by mixing alloy powders with mer- The main reaction products of low-copper alloy are the body-
cury. The reaction begins at the particle–mercury interface. There- centered cubic Ag2Hg3 (γ1) phase and the hexagonal Sn7-8Hg (γ2)
fore the physical configuration and condition of the particles have phase (Figure 8-5). Both phases are designated γ because they
a significant influence on the setting process. happen to be the third phase of the respective Ag-Hg and Sn-Hg
156 PA RT I I Direct Restorative Materials

Low-copper alloy Symbols and stoichiometry of phases

Ag3Sn + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Sn7-8Hg + unreacted Ag3Sn
Phase Symbols Composition
High-copper admix alloy
γ Ag3Sn
Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Sn7-8Hg + unreacted Ag-Cu + unreacted Ag3Sn
γ Ag2Hg3
1
Secondary Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3 + unreacted Ag-Cu γ2 Sn7-8Hg
solid-state reaction
ε Cu3Sn
High-copper spherical alloy
η (η') Cu6Sn5
[Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn] + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5 + unreacted [Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn]
• Figure 8-5  Reactions of low-copper and high-copper amalgams and symbols of phases involved in the
setting of dental amalgams.

Ag-Sn
Alloy Ag
Sn Alloy

Ag
Sn Ag-Sn Alloy
Alloy

Mercury

A B

C D

• Figure 8-6  Schematic drawings that illustrate the development sequence of the amalgam microstruc-
ture when lathe-cut, low-copper, alloy particles are mixed with mercury. A, Dissolution of silver and tin into
mercury. B, Precipitation of γ1 crystals in the mercury. C, Consumption of the remaining mercury by growth
of γ1 and γ2 grains. D, The final set amalgam. The dark patches are voids.

systems. Because the solubility of silver in mercury is much lower The physical properties of the set amalgam depend on the rela-
than that of tin, the Ag2Hg3 phase precipitates first and is desig- tive percentages of each microstructural phase. The greater the
nated as γ1, whereas the Sn7-8Hg phase precipitates later and is des- number of unreacted Ag-Sn particles retained in the final struc-
ignated as γ2. There is evidence from x-ray diffraction and thermal ture, the stronger the amalgam will be. The γ2 phase is the weakest
analyses of set amalgam that a δ phase, which is richer in mercury and least stable in a corrosive environment and may suffer corro-
than γ2, is present in low-copper alloy instead of γ2. The existence sion attack, especially in the crevices of the restorations. A reaction
of γ2 or δ phases in low-copper amalgams remains an unresolved between Cu3Sn (ε phase) and γ2 also occurs and yields Cu6Sn5
question. For the purpose of this discussion, the Sn-Hg phase is (η′ phase) to a lesser extent because of the low copper content.
designated as γ2. Figure 8-7 illustrates the features found in a typical microstructure
The low-copper alloy is usually mixed with mercury in about of amalgam made from a lathe-cut, low-copper alloy.
a 1:1 ratio. This amount of mercury is insufficient to consume
the alloy particles completely; consequently, unreacted particles
CRITICAL QUESTION
are present in the set amalgam. Thus a typical low-copper amal-
gam is a composite in which the unreacted particles are distributed Compared with amalgams made from admixed high-copper alloys, what are
within the γ1 and γ2 phases. The sequence of amalgamation of the the benefits and the risks of the amalgams made from high-copper, single-
silver-tin alloy is shown schematically in Figure 8-6. composition, spherical particles?
 CHAPTER 8  Dental Amalgams 157

Ag-Cu

η'

γ1

• Figure 8-8  Scanning electron micrograph of an admixed high-copper

• Figure 8-7  A scanning electron micrograph of a low-copper amalgam amalgam. The various phases and reaction layer are labeled. The ε phase
(×1000). The micrograph features remaining β and γ phases (the large, is part of the lathe-cut particle. The small, very light, drop-shaped areas
dark areas labeled P), ε phase (small, dark patches labeled E), γ1 phase on the particle phase are high in mercury because of the freshly polished
(light background labeled G1), γ2 phase (small grains labeled G2), and specimen (×1000).
voids (left-center and right-center areas labeled V).

are spheres, but a formulation with all lathe-cut particles is also

available.
High-Copper Alloys When triturated with mercury, silver and tin from the Ag-Sn
As discussed earlier, high-copper alloy powders are available in a two- phases dissolve in mercury. Very little copper dissolves in mer-
phase admixed powder and a single-composition, single-phase pow- cury. The γ1 crystals grow, forming a matrix that binds together
der, each with a unique amalgamation process (Figure 8-5). the partially dissolved alloy particles. The η' crystals are found
as meshes of rod-like crystals at the surfaces of alloy particles
dispersed in the matrix. In most single-composition amalgams,
Admixed Alloys little or no γ2 forms (see Figure 8-5). Figure 8-9 shows the micro-
When mercury mixes with an admixed alloy powder, the silver in structure of a typical single-composition amalgam. This structure
the Ag-Cu spheres and the silver and tin from Ag-Sn particles dis- includes unreacted alloy particles, γ1 grains, and η' crystals.
solve into the mercury. Although both γ1 and γ2 crystals form, as
in lathe-cut alloys, the tin in mercury diffuses to the surfaces of the CRITICAL QUESTION
Ag-Cu alloy particles and reacts with the copper to form a layer of
η'-phase crystals on the surface. The η' layer on the surface of Ag-Cu What steps can be taken by a dentist to extend the survival time of amalgam
alloy particles also contains γ1 crystals because the γ1 and η′ phases restorations?
form simultaneously. In this reaction, the γ2 phase forms along with
the η' phase, but the γ2 phase later reacts with copper from Ag-Cu
spheres, yielding additional η' phase (the secondary solid-state reac- Clinical Manipulation of Amalgam for
tion in Figure 8-5). The γ2 phase can be eliminated with at least Restorations
12% of copper by weight in the alloy powder. Figure 8-8 illustrates
the microstructure of an admixed amalgam. As in the low-copper A good modern dental amalgam alloy can be manipulated so that the
amalgams, admixed amalgam is a composite of γ1 because of the restoration lasts, on average, 12 to 15 years. The cavity preparation
matrix phase with discrete unreacted alloy particles. must be designed correctly, and the amalgam must be manipulated
properly so that no part of the amalgam restoration is placed under
Single-Composition Alloys excessive tensile stress. The manipulation variables discussed in this
The major components of single-composition particles are usually section are the mercury/alloy ratio, trituration, and condensation.
silver, tin, and copper. The copper content of various single-com-
position alloys ranges from 13% to 30% by weight. Some alloys CRITICAL QUESTIONS
contain a small quantity of indium or palladium. Several phases
are found in each single-composition alloy particle, including the What is the ideal mercury/alloy ratio for an admixed amalgam and a spherical
β phase (Ag-Sn), γ phase (Ag3Sn), and ε phase (Cu3Sn). Some particle amalgam? What are the consequences of insufficient and excess
of the alloys may also contain the η' phase. The particles usually amounts of mercury for the amalgam restorations?
158 PA RT I I Direct Restorative Materials

CRITICAL QUESTION
How should the optimal trituration time be determined for a given dental
amalgam product?

Mechanical Trituration
The objective of trituration is to ensure proper amalgamation of
the mercury and alloy and provide the optimal consistency for
condensation. The focus of trituration includes the triturator and
the consistency of the mixture.
Triturators
The main mixing mechanism of a triturator is a reciprocating
arm holding the capsule under a protective hood. The hood is to
confine mercury that might escape into the room and to prevent
a capsule from being accidentally ejected from the amalgamator
during trituration. Older models are usually a single-speed device
with an automatic timer to set the length of mixing. Later models
have multiple speed settings. A modern triturator is often micro-
processor controlled (Figure 8-3) and contains preset trituration
programs for several materials. These newer models can also be
programmed by the operator to include other materials. The cap-
sule serves as a mortar. A cylindrical metal or plastic piston of
• Figure 8-9  A scanning electron micrograph of a high-copper, single- smaller diameter than the capsule is inserted into the capsule, and
composition amalgam (×560). The micrograph features unreacted alloy par- this serves as the pestle. Spherical alloys often do not need a pestle
ticles (labeled P), γ1 matrix phase (labeled G1), and η' crystals (labeled H). (Figure 8-2).
Alloy manufacturers often provide a list of recommended time
schedules and speed settings in cycles per minute for their alloys
Mercury/Alloy Ratio and various types of amalgamators. Because of the speed variations
The mercury/alloy ratio is the weight of mercury divided by the in amalgamators, the schedule should serve only as a rough guide.
weight of alloy needed for trituration. Sufficient mercury must Dentists and assistants may want to adjust the time required to
be present in the original mix to provide a coherent and plas- attain a mix of the correct consistency. For a given alloy and mer-
tic mass after trituration, but the amount must be low enough cury/alloy ratio, increased trituration time and/or speed shorten
that the mercury content of the restoration is at an acceptable the working and setting times.
level without the need to remove an appreciable amount dur- A reusable capsule should be clean and free of previously
ing condensation. The mercury content of the lathe-cut alloy mixed, hardened alloy. At the end of each trituration procedure,
is about 50% by weight, and that for spherical alloys is 42% by one should quickly remove the pestle from the capsule, replace the
weight. When a mortar and pestle were used for mixing amal- lid, reinsert the capsule in the amalgamator, turn it on for a second
gam, an excess amount of mercury would be needed to achieve a or two, and then remove the amalgam. This mulling process gen-
smooth and plastic amalgam. Removal of excess mercury would erally causes the mix to cohere so that the amalgam can be readily
be accomplished by squeezing or wringing the mixed amalgam removed from the capsule with minimal residue in the capsule.
in a squeeze cloth prior to insertion of the increments into the Mulling minimizes the need for scraping out partially hardened
prepared cavity. alloy, which usually produces scratches in the capsule.
The most common dispenser is based on volumetric propor-
tioning. Preweighed pellets or tablets are first placed in a capsule Consistency of the Mix
(Figure 8-2). In mechanical mixing, the capsule serves as a mortar. The proper time of mixing can be determined by observing the
The mercury dispenser should be held vertically to ensure consis- consistency of the mix. For example, the mix with a somewhat
tent dispensing of mercury. The dispenser should always be at least grainy and dull appearance (Figure 8-10, A) indicates undertritu-
half full when used to ensure that the proper weight of mercury ration. Not only will the amalgam restoration made from this
is dispensed. mix be weak, but also the rough surface left after carving of the
Disposable capsules containing preproportioned mercury granular amalgam will increase the susceptibility to tarnish. If the
and alloy are now widely used. Both components are physically trituration has produced an amalgam of the general appearance
separated in the capsule. Some capsule designs require activa- shown in Figure 8-10, B, the strength will be optimal, and the
tion before trituration to bring the components together. Other smooth carved surface will retain surface luster longer after polish-
designs, called self-activating capsules, bring the alloy and mer- ing. Because of the friction between particles during trituration,
cury together automatically during the first few oscillations of such an amalgam mix should be warm (not hot) when the mix is
the amalgamator. removed from the capsule. This will have no effect on the physical
Regardless of the method used, the proper amount of properties of the amalgam other than to shorten the working time
mercury and alloy must always be proportioned, or the somewhat. Overtrituration through a higher speed or a longer
preproportioned capsule must be activated just before the start mixing time results in a softer (mushy) mixture that often sticks
of trituration. to the wall of the capsule. Compared with the properly mixed
 CHAPTER 8  Dental Amalgams 159

A B C
• Figure 8-10  Appearance of freshly triturated amalgam mixture. A, A grainy, undertriturated mixture; a
restoration made of such a mixture has low strength and poor resistance to corrosion. The mixture may
appear as a solid mass, but the surface remains without luster, as shown. B, A properly triturated amal-
gam that appears rounded, with a smooth, shiny surface. C, An overtriturated amalgam mixture, which is
shinier than that of the properly triturated one, and because of more fluid consistency, the mass appears
flattened by the force of trituration.

amalgam, the surface of overtriturated amalgam is shinier, the be made just before the original one is used up or when plas-
shape of the mass is flatter (Figure 8-10, C), and the working time ticity is lost. Condensation of partially set material fractures
is shorter and has a slightly higher setting contraction. and breaks up the matrix that has already formed. In addi-
tion, when the alloy has lost a certain amount of plasticity,
CRITICAL QUESTION condensation without producing internal voids and layering
is difficult. The procedure of condensation is continued until
During the condensation of an amalgam, at what point in time should the
triturated mixture be discarded and replaced by a new mixture?
the cavity is overfilled.

Condensation Pressure
The condensation pressure is governed by the area of the con-
Condensation denser face and the force exerted by the operator on the mixture.
The goal of condensation is to compact the alloy into the pre- When a given force is applied, the smaller the condenser, the
pared cavity so that the greatest possible density is attained, greater is the pressure exerted on the amalgam. If the condenser
with sufficient mercury present to ensure continuity of the point is too large, the operator cannot generate sufficient pres-
matrix phase between the remaining alloy particles. This results sure to condense the amalgam adequately and force the mix into
from a reduction of excess mercury and porosity within the set retentive areas. A study of 30 practitioners showed that the forces
amalgam. applied are in the range of 13.3 to 17.8 N (3 to 4 lb). To ensure
After the mix is made, the increments of alloy should be car- maximum density and adaptation to the cavity walls, the con-
ried to, and inserted in, the prepared cavity by means of instru- densation force should be as great as the alloy will allow, con-
ments such as small forceps or an amalgam carrier designed for sistent with patient comfort. Many of the spherical alloys offer
this purpose. Condensation of the amalgam should then be only minimal resistance to the condensation force. Therefore the
promptly initiated. The field of operation must be kept absolutely strength properties of spherical amalgam alloys tend to be less
dry during condensation. Because of the nature of the operation, sensitive to condensation pressure.
condensation is usually accomplished within four walls and a In many instances, condensation becomes a matter of attain-
floor. One or more walls may be a thin sheet of stainless steel, ing good adaptation. The potential disadvantages of a spherical
called a matrix band. alloy compared with an admixed alloy (lathe-cut and spherical
particles) are the tendency for overhangs in proximal areas and
Condensation Procedure weak proximal contacts. The shape of the condenser points should
Condensation is pressing a condenser point on the amalgam mass conform to the area under condensation. For example, a round
under hand pressure. This procedure is usually started at the cen- condenser point is ineffective adjacent to a corner or angle of a
ter, and then the condenser point is stepped incrementally toward prepared cavity; a triangular or square point is indicated in such
the cavity walls. The force requirements depend on the shape of an area. Points of various shapes are available to provide effective
the alloy particle. condensation.
After condensation of an increment, the surface should appear
shiny. This indicates that there is sufficient mercury present at the Carving and Finishing
surface to diffuse into the next increment so that the subsequent
increment added will bond to the preceding one. Removing some After the amalgam has been condensed into the prepared cavity,
of the soft or mushy material before adding the next increment is it is carved to reproduce the proper tooth anatomy. The objective
desirable. This step is less critical with modern-day amalgams that of carving is to simulate the anatomy rather than trying to repro-
require less mercury for mixing. duce extremely fine details. The carving should start only when
If the cavity is a large one or if for some reason undue the amalgam is hard enough to resist the carving instrument. A
time is taken to complete condensation, another mix should scraping or “ringing” sound should be heard when the amalgam