sLOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING – PRE FINAL MODULE

PROPERTIES OF TERMS

1. COMPREHENSION – it is the sum total of all notes (the elements that comprise the significance of an
idea) which constitute the meaning of the concept

Ex. Man is an animal, a rational being, living body, an organism, a sentient, material substance, a being
All these notes constitutes the comprehension of man
The comprehension should include not only the necessary elements or notes that make up its essence
but also all elements deducible to its essential notes such as man’s ability to talk, walk, and live with
others.
2. EXTENSION – IT IS THE SUM TOTAL OF PARTICULARS TO WHICH THE COMPREHENSION OF A CONCEPT
BE APPLIED
EX. MAN is a rational animal. “RATIONAL ANIMAL” is the comprehension of “man”, while the particular
or individual men in whom the elements of rationality and animality are found and therefore, can
applied to are the extensions of man.

KINDS OF EXTENSION
1. Absolute extension
2.Functional extension

ABSOLUTE EXTENSION – IS ANY DIFINITE OR thinkable subject predicated by the term. This means all
actual and possible individual subjects to which the comprehension of a term can be applied
FUNCTIONAL EXTENSION – is the quantifiable subject present in the mind at the moment of discourse
- It is only applied in quantifying the subject term. The quantity of the
subject term is the quantity of the proposition. While in quantifying the
predicate term, different rules are applied.
KINDS OF FUNCTIONAL EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR TERM
2. PARTICULARTERM
3. UNIVERSAL TERM
SINGULAR TERM – a term that stands for a single definite individual or group
A TERM IS SINGULAR IF IT IS,
A. proper noun (e.g.. Raul, Manila, Bataan Polytechnic College)
b. noun modified by a superlative pronoun ( e.g.. highest honor, biggest city)
c. noun modified by demonstrative pronoun ( e.g.. this book, those girls)
d. collective noun – not just a word but also an expression implying a single whole (e.g.. flock, orchestra,
audience, a thousand kisses, a bunch of roses)
e. noun preceded by the article “the” (e.g.. the man in black shirt, the red car)
f. personal pronoun (e.g.. I, you, it, he, she, we, they, they, and others)
PARTICULAR TERM – a term that stands for an indefinite individual
A term is particular if it is a
a. noun modified by an indefinite pronoun (e.g.. many roses, some men, not all heroes)
b. noun modified by the use of numbers (e.g.. eight sacks of rice, twelve angry men)
c. subject of a general propositions – a statement commonly accepted most of the time but not all the
time (e.g.. Filipinos are hospitable, Apples are expensive)
d. noun preceded by the articles “a”, or “an” (e.g.. A yellow mango is sweet)
UNIVERSAL TERM – a term that stands for subject signified
A term is universal if it is a
a. noun modified by universal expressions such as every, each, whatever, anybody, all and others. (e.g..
all students , every citizen)
b. universal idea – statement of reality based on factual notion (e.g.. Man is a rational animal)
c. noun preceded by the articles “the”, “a”, and “an, ”if it is conveys a universal idea (e.g.. A snake is
dangerous. An alligator is an amphibian)
General propositions and universal ideas are two examples of implicit quantifiers. These quantifiers are
not obvious signs and are not explicitly expressed in a term but are only implied in a given propositions.
Example
Girls are talkative. –( Some )girls are talkative
Dog is an animal – (Every ) dog is an animal
The rest of the above signs are explicit or obviously written signs in the proposition
Example
Some students are perfect in the examination

WHAT DOES SUPPOSITION MEAN?

It is a property of a term acquired from its use in the proposition. That is why it is functional (the way it
is meant in the sentence)
KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
1. NORMAL SUPPOSITION – uses a word for its real meaning
Example
Pandaka Pigmea is the smallest fish
A triangle has three sides
2. MATERIAL SUPPOSITION – uses a word for itself alone and for its spoken or written sign, not for its
real meaning.
Example
Love has four letters
BPSC stands for Bataan Polytechnic State College

WHAT DOES DEFINITION MEAN - DEFINITE MEANS TO ENCLOSE WITHIN THE LIMITS
- MEANING OF A TERM IS GIVEN
- ACT OF DEFINING
KINDS OF DEFINITION
1. NOMINAL DEFINITION - MEANING A DEFINITION OF NAME
KINDS OF NOMINAL DEFINITION
1. ETYMOLOGICAL -
2. DEFIITION BY SYNONYMS
3. DEFINITION BY DESCRIPTION
4. DEFINITION BY EXAMPLE
2. REAL DEFINITION

TYPES OF DEFINITION
1. STIPULATIVE
2. LEXICAL
3. PRECISING
4. THEORETCAL
5. PERSUASIVE

JUDGEMENT AND PROPOSITION

GUILTY? OR NOT GUILTY?

WHAT IS A JUDGEMENT?
WHAT IS A PROPOSITION

JUDGEMENT
– is a mental act which affirms denies something. It produces mental proposition or, if expressed ,
becomes an oral or a written proposition.
PROPOSITION – is a sentence which affirms or denies something
Example
This is a dog – an affirmation (true)
This is not a dog – a denial (but false)

When you say “this is a dog” you affirm the existence of a dog. And this is a true statement because
indeed, there is a dog. But if you say that this is not a dog, you deny his being a dog and you are making
a false proposition.
A statement of fact is embodied in a declarative sentence.
There are three types of sentence

Interrogative sentence – ask a questions

Imperative sentence – makes a request
Exclamatory sentence – expresses a strong feeling
For BACHHUBER (1987) A proposition is expressed by a declarative sentence for it denies or asserts
something
Examples
Mam Beth is our department head in BSBA
(We are asserting that…)
Mang Boy is not our college registrar
(we are dnying that….)
IRVING COPI (1978) – he insist that there must be a clear distinction between form and function of a
proposition.
FORM – (declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory)
Functions – (informative, expressive, and directive)
LOGICAL FORM
All propositions are not in logical form . most of the statements that affirm or deny do not use copula ( a
quantifier of a proposition) to link the subject and predicate.
Example
Jose Rizal, wrote the poem “ Sa aking mga Kababata” when he was eight years old.
This statement is not in logical form for it is not in standard form logical statement. It only has a subject
and a predicate without copula.
A proposition is in logical form if it follows a consistent pattern, S is P ( SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE)
To reduce does not mean to lessen or shorten the proposition, to reduce means to simplify and to
simplify is to follow the standard form categorical
REASONING – THE NOBLEST ACT OF THE MIND proposition (subject copula predicate) S is P. Thus to
reduce the above proposition in logical form, it should be treated as follows

“MAN IS A REASONING RATHER THAN A REASONABLE ANIMAL”

REASONING – is the third act of mind and the highest level in the mental operation.
INFERENCE – which is defined as the mental operation through which the mind arrives at a new
judgment by means of previously known judgments
We can already draw the two basic parts of inference
1. PREMISE/S - which is/are the previously known judgments
2. CONCLUSIONS - which is the new judgment coming from other judgment

Example
Abortion is morally wrong because it is wrong to take a life of an innocent human being, and fetus is an
innocent human being
We could capture the structure of that argument
It is morally wrong to take the life of an innocent human being
A fetus is an innocent human being
Therefore. Abortion is morally wrong

Premise indicators Conclusion indicators

Conclusion indicators
since therefore
so
because hence
thus
for implies that
consequently
as WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT
given that it follows that

seeing that consequently

for the reason that

is shown by the fact that

WHAT IS PROPOSITION
- is a sentence or statement which expresses truth or false hood. It is a verbal expression of a fact
which is generally accepted
TYPES OF PROPOSITION BASED ON STRUCTURE
There are two types of proposition based on structure
A. Categorical proposition
B. Hypothetical proposition
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
- is an attributed proposition that has a subject and predicate relationship; its subject is either
affirmed or denied by the predicate
Basic Elements of the Categorical Proposition
1. SUBJECT - that which is talked about in the sentence
A. a simple subject stands for a single idea
Example; toy, baby, Bataan Colleges, SKEI
B. A complex subject stands for more than a single idea
Example; tiny boy, beautiful baby, high standard school
2. PREDICATE - that which tells something about the subject either an affirmation or denial
Example The boy is tall
3. COPULA - the qualifier of a proposition. It links the subject and the predicate
Example ; is, are
For purposes of logic, tenses are irrelevant. The copula is should be taken in a tenseless sense; its
past and future forms are usually considered part of the predicate. Thus, Magellan was the
discoverer of the Philippines, may be read as Magellan is the Spaniard who discovered the
Philippines. Again Red China will be the country to watch maybe read as Red China is the
country we shall have to watch.
It is important to note that number in the grammatical sense is irrelevant also to logic; A horse is
an animal is equivalent to All horses are animals. No distinction is made between horse and
horses and between animal and animals

2 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
- is a proposition which affirms or denies the relationship of two proposition by means of a non
verbal element (connectives)
QUANTITY OF THE PROPOSITION
- is the quantity of the subject. It is singular if the subject stands for a single definite individual or
group; it is particular if the subject designates an indefinite part of its total extension and it is
universal if the subject can apply to every portion signified by a term.
Examples. Corazon Aquino is our former president (singular)
Some teachers use English as a medium of instruction (particular)
Love is living a worthy life (universal)
The subject term is the quantifier of a proposition. The subject determines the quantity of the
proposition. If the subject is singular, the proposition is also singular. If it is particular, the
proposition is also particular. If the subject is universal the proposition is also universal.
Example
Fr. Herman is the rector of Maryhurst seminary (singular)
Kitty is the name of my dog (singular)
Some teachers are friendly (particular)
Some fruits are sweet (universal)
Every man is free (universal)
No man is an island (universal)
SUBJECT terms that are preceded by universal expressions such as every, each, all and the like
become particular terms if they are negated or denied in the proposition, they remain universal if
they ar affirmed or asserted.
Subject terms of a negative proposition conveying a universal idea remain universal
Examples
No animal is a plan (universal)
Not every animal is a flyer (particular)
Every animal is not two legged (particular)
All animals are not vegetables (universal)
All animals are not birds (particular)
QUALITY OF PROPOSITION
The copula is the qualifier of a proposition. Through a copula we can identify if the proposition
is negative or affirmative. Proposition having is, are, were and was as their copula are
affirmative/positive while proposition having is not, are not, were not and was not as their copula
are neagtive /null. Therefore because of the copula, the proposition is either affirmative or
negative