150

Communication Systeme
3.13.2. Switchlng Modulator
1. Basie Conceptn
n Witching modulator uaing a diodo haa been ahown in figure 3.16(n). This diode 18 aBBumed to he ,
nAwiteh. The modulatin nignal x(t) and the sinusoidal carrior wignal c(t) are Connectea in series opere a
ries withating with each
Therefore, the input voltage to the diode in given by, other
The amplitude of
v,(0) e(t)+ x(t) =
E, cos(2 n f, 1)+x ()
rier is much larger thun that of x(t) and e(t) decides the status of the diode (ONe 4 . 0
OFF).
x() Vat) v,(t)
for ct) positive
O-H
Carrior
c() E,cos2n 1,0 v,() R 0 V()-0 Slope 1
for c(t) < 0

V
mmwwwwud

(a) Switching modulator (b) Idealized input-output relation

Fig. 3.15.

2. Working Operation and Analysis

We assume that the diode acts as an ideal switch. It acts as a closed switch when it is forward biased in the positin
half
cycle of the carrier and offers zero impedance. Whereas D' acts as an open
negative half eycle ofthe carrier and offers an infinite impedance. The equivalent circuits in the positive and negative
switch when it is reverse biasedinthe
half eycles of the carrier have been shown in figures 3.16 (a) and (b)
respectively
x(t) x(t)
-o *****w**********
-
c V2()
V,() v2()
V, () c v,(0) 0

(a) In positive half cycle of carrier (b) In negative half cycle of carrier

Fig. 3.16. Equivalent circuits

Therefore, the output voltage v,) = v,() in the positive half cycle of c(t) and v,) = 0 in the negative half cydle d
c(t),
Therefore, v,0)=v,() for c(t) >0
forc(t) <0 ..(3.61)
In other words, the load voltage v,(t) varies periodically between the values v, (t) and zero at the rate equal
carrier frequency fe The approximate transfer characteristics of the diode-load resistor combination has been shown
figure 3.16 (b). We can express v,(t) mathematically as under:
v(0)=v(t).g,(0) = [x (t)+ E, cos (2n f, )) E, ) ..(3.62)
where, g (t) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one half cycle period i.e., T2 (where
To=1/1)
9,0

-To4 0 +T4 To
Fig. 3.17. A Periodic pulse train
Let us express g,(t) with the help of Fourier series as under
5.63

E,)222-cOs2Tft (2n -1)]

 Anpitude Mo0Duiaton: DSE-FC, DSB-5C, SSB-SC, VSB 151

E(t)= on (2 it) +
odd harmonic omppnents 3.54
Substituting e, () into equation (3.62), wre

v=xt)-E,oa(2m,- 2mfs-]
Therefore, V2t)= [x (t) +E,cos (27i ]+coss (2zit)odd hamonics 3.65)
The odd harmonics in this expression are urnwanted, and therefore, are assumed to be e~ ate

Hence, v (t)=t)E,
2 cos (2=tp-xt)cos(21,)5s
Mouleting AMaTe
signal

fourth terms are unwanted terms whereas the second and third terms together
In this expression, the first and the
the second and third terms together, we obtain
represent the AM wave. Clubing
3.66
V2t)= )cos (2 zf, t) +unwanted terms
be eliminated using a
m=14/zEJ. The unwanted
wave with
terms can

This is the reauired expression for the

AM
band-pass filter (BPF).
onULATIQN
 158 Communication Systems
3.15. DETECTION (DEMODULATION) OF AM WAVED
1. Basic Concept

As matter of fact, AM demodulation is the reverse process ot

A modulation. A conventional double-sideband AM receiver
y converts a received amplitude-modulated wave back to the
ornginal source information. To do this, a receiver must be capa0 hMMMAAAA
o receiving, amplifying, and demodulating an AM wave. It must Demodulator
also be
capable of bandlimiting the total radio-frequency spectrum AM wavee or
to
a specific desired band of frequencies. The selections process 1s Detector Original
called tunning the
receiver. message
signal
The process of detection or demodulation is the process of Fig. 3.31. Process of demodulation or detection
recovering the message signal from the received modulated signa.
n e a n s that the
process of detection is exactly opposite to that of modulation.
2. Types of AM
detectors
Two types of AM
detectors are as under:
) Square law detector
i) Envelope detector
Square law
3.15.1. Square Law Detector device
1. Basic Concept
Figure 3:32 shows the block diagram of a AM wave, v,(t) Vlt)
square law detector.
V)= Message
signal
2. Working
Operation and Analysis
Theinput output characteristics i.e., the
transfer characteristics of a
square law device is Low pass filter
non-linear and it is expressed mathematically as Fig. 3.32. A square law detector
under:

Va ()= av +bv (t)

where, V(t) input voltage to the detector AM wave
=
=
.3.68)
Therefore, v,)= E.[1+ mx (0) cos(2 nf)
Substituting v,(t) in equation (3.68), we get,
for

v,(t) aE,[1 +m x(t)] cos (21 f.t)+ bE [1+ mx(t)* cos (2 Tf,t)
=

3.69)
But, cos61+cos20]
Therefore, cos (2n ft) =
l+cos(4nf.t]
Substituting this, we get,

V,(t) bl
=
aE.[1 + mx ()] cos (2tf, t) + 1+2mx (t) + m2 x ()] [1 +
2 (4 t
cos
f, t)] .3.70)
Out of these terms, the only desired term 18
bB mx(¢) which is due to the bv? term.
detector is square law detector. This
desired term is extracted Hence, the name ot tis s
in figure 3.32. Thus, after the low pass by using a low pass
filter, we get, filter (LPE) after the diode as
show
v0)= (b E m)x (t)
This means that we have recovered 3.71)
the message Signal x(t) at the
3. Distortion in the Detector
output of the detector.
Output
An other term which passes through the low pass filter (LPF) to
the load resista
R is as under:b Em*(t).
 is is an unwanted Signal and gives rise to a signal distortion. The ratio of desired sigmal to the undesired one is
This
e nb y

Ratio Desired output b E mx

(t) 2 (3.72)
Undesiredoutput mx (t)

We sshould maximize this ratio in order to minimize the distortion. To achieve this, we should choose mx (t)i smal
Compared
ared to unit
unity (1) for all values of t. If m is small, then, the AM wave is weak.

ortant Point: This means that the distortion in the detector output is low if and only if the applied AM 13
k
weak and if the percentage modulation is very small.
s15.2. Envelope Detector
1. Basic Concept
The envelope detector is a simple and
efficient device which is suitable for St)
rery
ihe detection of a narrowband AM signal. Detector diode

Aparrowband AM wave is the one in which o AKK

the carrier frequency f, is much higher as
rompared to the bandwidth of the
Detected output
modulating signal. An envelope detector
(message signal)
produces an output signal that follows the AM wave
s(t)
epvelope of the input AM signal exactly. The
envelope detector is used in all the
commercial AM radio receivers.
RC flter
2.Circuit Diagram
Fig. 3.33. Envelope detector for detection of AM wave
The circuit diagram of the envelope detector
is shown in figure 3.33. It consists of a diode
and RC filter.

3. Working Operation
the detector. In every positive half cycle of the input, the detector
The standard AM wave is applied at the input of almost the peak
filter capacitor C connected across the load resistance R to
diode is forward biased. It will charge the
to the peak value, the diode stops conducting. The capacitor
ralue of the input voltage. As soon as the capacitor charges continues until
as shown in figure 3.34. The discharging process
will discharge through R between the positive peaks diode conducts again
becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the
the next positive half cycle. When the input signal
and the process repeats itself.

4.Waveforms
Diode OFF so C discharges
through R
Diode ON
Actual voltage
across C

time

AM wave at the input

Approximated output
of the
envelope detector

time

detector
waveforms for an envelope
3.34. Input-output
Fig.
 Communcaion Syster
160 stems
3.34. lt shows the
charoin
are
ne input-output waveforms for the envelope detector It may be observed
shown in
figure
from t h e s e waveforms
thatSchargi
discharging
he envelope
filter capacitorand the approximate output It navthe diode is ideal which applied
plied toathe:
zero resistane
of the voltage.
output voltage. ro
the resistance
Pproximate

of the AM wave is being recovered successfully. We ass AM w a v e

We also
assume
that the input of the
when it is ON and infinite resistance when it is OFF.
detector is supplied by a source having internal resistance
5. Selection of the RC time constants througn r when the diode is e
discharges
D and R, when the diode
is on and it The
rin tor charges through to the carrier periou
e 1/f
c g n g time constant R,C should be short compared

Thus, R,C
3.73)
otner hand, the discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor discharges obltage
whieh w l l n o t ailow the capacitor volto
slowly
be too long
the load resistance R. But, this time constant should not
n
to discharge at the maximum rate of change of the envelope.

3.74)
Therefore, «RC w
where, W= maximum modulatingfrequency.
3.15.3. Distortions in the Envelope Detector Output
are as under:
n e r e are two types of distortions which can occur in the detector output. They
) Diagonal clipping, and
i) Negative peak clipping
3.15.3.1. Diagonal clipping
This type of distortion occurs when the RC time constant of the load circuit is too long. Due to this, the RC circuit
cannot follow the fast changes in the modulating envelope. The diagonal clipping has been shown in figure 3.35.
Detector output

Actual output showing the diagonal clipping

.. -Output without diagonal clipping

time

Fig. 3.35. Diagonal clipping

3.15.3.2. Negative peak clipping

This distortion occurs due to a fact that the
moaulavlon index On at
output side of the detector is higher than that on its input side. Hence,tne t AM signal at the input of the detector
higher depths of modulation of the transmitted signal, the overmodulation
(more than 100% modulation) may take place at the output of the detector. Carrier inside
The negative peak clipping will take place as a result of this
overmodulation as shown in figure 3,36. time

Remedy: The only way to reduce or eliminate the distortions is to choose

the RC time constants properly as discussed earlier.

EXAMPLE 3.22. Prove that the modulation index at the output of a diode
detector is higher than that at its input and derive the maximum AM signal at the output of the detector
value
of the transmitted
modulation index to avoid the
dis-tortions in the
output.
Solution: We know that the modulation index of an AM wave is given bv.
m=n
time

In a similar way, the modulation index in the demodulated wave is Negative peak
oiuon 1 clipping

mT ..i) Fig. 3.36. Negative peak clipping

 3.21.2. Suppression of the Carrier (Balanced Modulator) AF Balanced DSB-SC
1. Basic Concept
Modulating Modulator Signal
The balanced modulators are used to suppress the unwanted carrier Singal
in an AM wave. The carrier and modulating signals are applied to the
inputs of the balanced modulator and we
get the DSB signal with RF Carrier Signal
suppressed carrier at the output of the balanced modulator. Thus, the
output consists of the upper and lower sidebands only. Fig. 3.51. Block diagram of balanced modulator
2. Principle of Operation
The principle of operation of a balanced modulator states that
if two signals at different
through a non-linear resistance then at the output, we get an AM signal with frequencies are passed
non-linear resistance can be a diode or a JFET or even a suppressed carrier. The device having a
bipolar transistor.
3. Types of Balanced Modulator
The suppression of carrier can be done
using the following two balanced modulators:
) Using the diode ring modulator or lattice modulator.
(i) Using the FET balanced modulator.
3.21.3. Balanced Modulator using AM Modulator
G) The block diagram of a balanced modulator
(BM) has been shown in figure
i) It consists of two standard amplitude modulators 3.52.
carrier completely. arranged in the balanced
configuration so as to suppress the
3.21.4. Balanced Modulator using AM
Modulators
1. Block Diagram
The block
diagram of a balanced modulator
amplitude modulators arranged in the balancea (BM) has been shown in figure 3.52.
conigurati0n, so as to It consists of two standaras
suppress the carrier
completely.
 169
mplitude Modulation: DSB-FC, DSB-SC, sSB-SC, vSB
Amp

Message Signal x() AM

s,(t)
Modulator
M,

Ecos(2t)
180 Phase Carrier DSB-SC
Shifter Oscillator Output s(t)

E cos(2f )
AM
-x(t) Modulator
Ma S()

Fig. 3.52. Balanced modulator for DSB-SC generation

2. Working Operation and Analysis
The carrier signal c(t) is connected to both the AM modulators M, and M2. The message signal x(t) is applied as it
is to M, and its inverted version - x (t) is applied to Ma. At the outputs of modulators M, and M2, we get the standard

AM signals s, (t) and s (t) as under:

Output of M: s, (t) = E, [1+ mx (t)] cos (2 Tf t)
..(3.82)
Output of M,: s2 (t) = E, [1- mx (t)] cos (2 Tf,t) ..(3.83)
These are then applied to a subtractor and the subtractor produces the desired DSB-SC signal as under:
Subtractor output = s (t)- s, (t) = E, [1+ mx (t)] cos (2 Tf.t) - E. [1 - mx (t)] cos (2 mf,t)

= E. cos (2 t f t ) [1 + mx (t) - 1+ mx (t)]

2m E, x (t) cos (2 tf,t) (3.84)

The R.H.S. of this expression consists of product of x () and c(t) =
E, cos (2 nf t).
Hence, it represents a DSB-SC signal.
Therefore, subtractor output DSB-SC signal
=
=
2m E, x(t) cos (2 tf t)