Underground mining: Caving Methods

3. CAVING METHODS
Caving mining methods that are based on a planned caving of rock above and/or at times surrounding the
material being mined (rock is induced to cascade down under gravity) can be classified in two broad
categories:

3A. Sublevel Caving

3B. Block-caving
3C. Top Slicing

Each requires a relatively large, regular, and predictable ore body. As a rule, the effect of mining results
in some form of impact or change on the surface.

Advantages:
1. High productivity and high percentage of extraction of the mineral being mined.
2. Ability to standardize the various elements of work taking place underground.
3. The nature of mining methods lends them to a high-level of mechanization.

The caving method is unique in that the exploitation openings are deliberately destroyed by the process
of mining.

(3A) Sublevel Caving

Mass mining method based upon the utilization of the gravity floor of the blasted ore and the caved
waste rock. Sublevel caving extracts the ore via sublevels, which are developed in the ore body at
regular vertical spacing. Each sublevel features systematic layout with parallel drifts, along or across
the ore body. In the wide ore body, sublevel drifts start from the foot wall drive to continue across
to the hanging wall.

Long-Hole rigs drills drill the ore section above the drift, in a fan spread pattern. Drilling, charging
and blasting long holes are timed to suit the mines production schedules. Blasting on each level
starts at the hanging wall and retreats towards the foot wall.

As mining removes ore without back filling, the hanging wall shall keep caving into the voids.
Continued mining results in the subsidence of the surface.

Application:
1. Adapts to large ore bodies with steep dip and continuation at depth. A vertical dip is best, while
more than 60° dip is fine.
2. Possibility of loss of ore in non-vertical steep dips and considerable loss in flat dips.
3. Low-grade, low-value ore bodies.
4. Preferably the ore and the rock should be easily separable,
5. Surface should be amenable to caving.

Development:
Development is mainly drifting to prepare sublevels. Drifting is a simple and routine job for the
mechanized mine. A ramp connection is needed to connect different sublevels and communicate
within transport routes. Ore passes are also required at strategic locations along sublevels, for LHDs
to dump from sublevels to be collected and transported along the haulage level.

Ore handling:
Ore handling involves mucking out at the cave, transport on sub levels and dumping into the ore
passes.
Fig. 1: Sublevel caving in a large, steeply dipping ore body. Different unit operations are conducted
on adjacent sublevels.

Fig. 2: Schematic Layout of Stopes at Oscar Project, LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden

Ore drawing/ Gravity Flow:
Because of the heterogeneity of coarse materials and a great number other factors and conditions,
the gravity flow of these materials is a very complex process (Fig. 3). The basic laws and principles
of gravity flow are independent of fragment size; they are the same for course material as for small
granular material (i.e. small gravel or sand).

Formation and behavior of extraction ellipsoid is of utmost importance in determining the

geometrics and the ore drawing sequence (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3: Gravity flow of Ore into sublevel drift

Fig. 4: Phases of extraction ellipsoid; A: model prepared for extraction; B, C and D: Successive phases
showing the flow of (black) material from the extraction ellipsoid and simultaneous development
of the ellipsoid of loosening

Design of Sublevel Caving Geometry:

The main question in the design of a sublevel caving mining method is the determination of a mining
geometry that will satisfy as much as possible the parameters of gravity flow. This means that one
needs first to determine the width and thickness of the extraction ellipsoid for a certain extraction
height. These parameters can be determined by in-situ tests.

 Vertical Spacing of Sublevel Drifts

The sublevel extraction drifts should be located in a checkered pattern conforming to the
pattern of gravity flow. Using traditional sublevel caving methods, in vertical locations (Fig. 5)
sublevel drifts should be located in the zone where the extraction ellipsoid has a maximum
width, WT. This occurs at about 2/3 hT. In principle, this location indicates approximately the
height hS of the sublevel.
 Horizontal Spacing of Sublevel Drifts
An approximate horizontal spacing (SD) of the sublevel drift axis can be determined knowing HT
and WT.
1. For hS ≤ 18m, SD < WT/0.6
2. For hS > 18m, SD < WT/0.65
In conventional sublevel caving SD ≤ hS

Fig. 5: Vertical location of sublevel drifts conforming to pattern of gravity flow

Advantages:
1. Safety:
Because all mining activities are executed from relatively small openings, sublevel caving is one
of the safest mining methods.

2. Mechanization:
Major mining activities may be broken down into four groups of unit operations.
 Drifting and reinforcing,
 Fan drilling,
 Production blasting,
 Ore drawing, loading and transportation.

Because of the repetitive nature, all activities can be standardized. This means that a high
degree of mechanization is possible. In modern sublevel caving, cross-sections of the drifts and
tunnels are sufficiently large enough to allow the introduction of trackless equipment (LHD,
rubber-tyred loaders etc.)

3. Flexibility:
Standardization and specialization of mining activities and equipment on separate levels
together with a trackless haulage system (LHD) creates a high degree of flexibility.

4. Organization:
The work can easily be organized into a system which excludes interference between mining
activities.
Disadvantages:

1. Relatively high dilution of the ore by caved waste (refer Fig. 6), especially when higher recovery
is needed.
2. All ore must be drilled and blasted in order to obtain a coarse material suitable for extraction
by gravity flow.
3. Various types of ore loss can occur. When the extraction limit (that point yielding the maximum
acceptable amount of dilution) is reached, the remaining highly diluted ore represents an ore
loss.
4. A relatively large amount of development is required (refer Fig. 1).
5. Mining generates progressive caving in overlying rock and results in subsidence and damage to
the surface (refer Fig. 7).

To maximize ore recovery, minimize dilution, and achieve a high efficiency of mining, good data
regarding the gravity flow parameters for the blasted ore and the caved waste are of utmost
importance (Read the article “Block Cave Ops Benefit from Real-time Data” for more details).

Fig. 6: Dilution of the Ore by Caved Waste during Sublevel Caving

Fig. 7: Progressive Failure Process in Sublevel Caving

(3B) Block Caving
Block Caving is a general term that refers to a mass mining system where the extraction of ore
depends largely on the action of gravity. By removing a thin horizontal layer at the mining level of
the column by drilling and blasting, the vertical support of the ore column above is removed and
the ore then caves by gravity. Generalized view of Block Caving shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8: Generalized view of Block Caving design

An under-cut with haulage access is driven under the orebody with “draw bells” (inverted cones)
excavated underneath the undercut. The draw bells serve as a place for caving rock to fall into. The
ore body is drilled and blasted at the under-cut level and the ore is removed via the haulage access.
Due to the friability of the ore body, the ore above the first blast caves and falls into the draw bells.
As ore is removed from the draw bells, the ore body caves in providing a steady stream of ore.

Application:
1. It can be applied to steeply dipping, typically low-grade massive ore bodies of large horizontal
dimensions which are structurally weak.

2. Both the ore and the rock of the deposit and overburden should cave freely. Rocks in this
category are highly jointed, fractured or thin-bedded rocks with low bond strength across joints.

3. The rock material should break but not repack – allowing some grinding action during the
caving cycle.

4. The lateral extent of the ore body must be large enough to insure that a cave can be established.

5. Generally the minimum horizontal dimension of the mining area should be about 90 m.
Cavability:
After determining that the size of the ore body is large enough to justify consideration for block
caving, then the cavability must be established. Determining the rock quality designation (RQD) of
the drill core has become rather standard practice when block caving is being considered.

At least three sets of major fractures are necessary to justify the use of block caving. Two vertical
sets at approximately 90° orientations to each other and a third set lying approximately horizontal
will form rectangular blocks when the fractures separate. Strong, less-fractured rock may cave very
slowly whereas weak highly-fractured rock may cave very rapidly.

There is no method to predetermine how rapidly a given ore body will cave. Experience at other
mines with similar type rock will be the best guideline, and after that, experience at the mine will
be the final criterion.

Systems of Block Caving

There are three systems of Block Caving, determined by the production equipment used. They are
Grizzly or gravity system, Slusher drift system and Rubber-tyred system (LHD).

1. The Grizzly or the Gravity system

It is a full gravity system wherein the ore from the draw points flows directly to the transfer
raises after sizing at the grizzly and then is gravity loaded into ore cars (Fig. 8). Sledge hammers
are used to break up oversized pieces at the grizzly. Some large pieces which may hang up in
the finger raises, usually are broken up by secondary blasting using packaged dynamite placed
strategically against the oversized rocks. The system is generally used for fine material.

Examples: San Manuel Copper Mine in Arizona, USA and the Andina Copper Mine in Chile

2. Slusher drift system

The system uses slusher scrapers for the main production unit for rock that will break into
moderate-size pieces. The system consists of the haulage level, slusher drifts immediately
above, finger raises and the undercut level. The slusher drifts are driven at right angles to the
haulage at even intervals (Fig.9).

Example: Climax molybdenum mine in Colorado, USA

3. Rubber-tyred system (LHD)

This system uses load-haul-dump units (LHD) as the main production unit in case that the ore
breaks into large pieces (Fig.10). In this system, diesel equipment require substantial room to
maneuver and therefore will require wider draw point spacing.

Rubber-tyred system consists of a haulage level, ore transfer raises, the production level, draw
point entries, draw cones to the under-cut level and undercut drifts. The haulage level should
be located well below the production level so that adequate storage is available in the
centralized ore passes. This will provide sufficient loading capacity so that loading transport are
not directly dependent on LHDs for loading.

Example: The Henderson molybdenum mine in Colorado, the Erstberg copper mine in
Indonesia and the El Teniente mine in Chile
Fig. 9: Block caving, with scraper loading in slusher drifts.
 3D view

Plan view

Fig. 10: Block caving, with machine loading in draw drifts.

General:
 Production level: The haulage level is located under the production level, the distance
depending to some extent on which system is used. In the grizzly system, the grizzly level
becomes the production level. With the slusher system, the slusher drifts may be considered
the production level. The production level for the LHD system is the LHD drifts that provide
access to the draw points.

 The undercut drifts are driven a suitable distance over the tops of the draw points. They are to
be used for the long-hole drilling that will affect the final undercut blast to produce caving.

 Long-hole drilling is the last step before undercut blasting. The height of the blasted zone can
vary from 2 m to 15 m. If the ore is very blocky and caving may be difficult to initiate, then a
higher undercut may be justified.

 Boundary weakening: It has two purposes; one is to minimize the side-flow of waste material
into the broken ore column and the second and more important is to facilitate caving.
  Ventilation: A good ventilation system and frequent monitoring of air quality is essential with
a block –caving system. The production face for all three systems will generate a substantial
amount of dust especially if the ore is dry.

 Importance of the height of Block: The greater is the height of ore column, greater is the
potential for ore dilution. The critical height of ore is such that the mineral content will pay for
the development, production, milling, and overheads and still provide profits. The grade of the
ore and selling price of the product will have a substantial effect on critical height. It is obvious
that the higher the ore column, the cheaper the development cost per tonne will be. Shorter
columns are desirable to keep dilution low.

 Dilution Control: It is not possible to predetermine the dilution factor, but some estimate can
be made based on experience in other similar mines. The dilution factor can typically vary from
10 to 25% of the total ore drawn. The amount of dilution that can be accepted often is a
function of ore grades, grade of the dilution material, costs and metal prices. The only method
to ensure good ore recovery with minimal dilution is carefully monitored ore control. The draw
must be evenly distributed over the entire area, making sure that the rate of draw from point
to point will not vary much.

 Number of Active Draw Points: The number of draw points required for a given level of
production will depend on the rate that the ore will cave, the amount of tonnage that will flow
through the draw point per day, and the productive capacity of the equipment.

Advantages:
1. Low-cost high production method

Disadvantages:
1. Potential for excessive dilution,
2. Significant loss of ore,
3. Surface subsidence as a great environmental impact and loss of productive land.

Block caving example: Chuquicamata Underground will begin block cave mining below the pit in 2018

Level 1
1,840 m

Level 2
1,625 m

Level 3
1,409 m

Level 4
1,193 m
(3C) Top Slicing
The only mining method available in the mid-1800’s and earlier for mining thick bulk ore. Top slicing is a
high-cost method and is seldom used today.

Application:
 Steeply dipping deposits, ore width greater than 3 – 4 m
 Weak ore and walls
 High ore value

Advantage:
 Low loss and dilution

Disadvantages:
 Stope production and personnel productivity are low
 Costs are high

Fig. 11: Top slicing

Ore is extracted by excavating a series of horizontal (sometimes inclined) timbered slices alongside each
other, beginning at the top of the ore body and working progressively downward; the slices are caved by
blasting out the supporting timbers or allowing them to crush, bringing the capping or overburden down
upon the bottoms of the slices, which have previously been covered with a floor or timber mat to separate
the cave from the solid ore beneath and prevent admixture of waste with the ore (Fig. 11). Successive
slices are mined in a similar manner up to the overlying gob or mat, which consists of an accumulation of
broken timbers, flooring, and lagging used in the overlying slices and of caved capping or overburden. As
the slices are mined and caved, this mat follows the mining downward, filling the space formerly occupied
by the ore. The mat also serves to control the movement of the caved overburden and to prevent dilution
of the ore with barren capping.

Top slicing is applicable to the mining of soft, weak ore that will stand unsupported for only a very short
time, even over narrow spans, and that is overlain by an unconsolidated overburden or a weak capping
that will break up and cave promptly after removal of support, tightly filling the space formerly occupied
by the slice and leaving no open holes.