AN ANALYZATION ON THE COGNITIVE FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTS

AMONGS DYSLEXIC CHILDREN 1

An Analyzation on the Cognitive Factors Affecting Language

Developments Amongst Dyslexic Children

Angela Mitchiko L. Dumayas

Faculty of Arts and Letters, University of Santo Tomas
ENG 3252: Theories of Language and Language Acquisition

Prof. Rachelle B. Lintao Ph.D

September 24, 2022

Authors Note:
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Angela Mitchiko L. Dumayas,
University of Santo Tomas, Espana Blvd, Sampaloc, Manila 1008, Philippines. Email –
[email protected].
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AMONGS DYSLEXIC CHILDREN 2

KEYWORDS

Acquisition, Cognitivism, Decoding, Disability, Language, Learning, Neuropsychology

ABSTRACT

This literature review focuses on assessing speech impediments’ effects on linguistic

developments (particularly FLA) amongst elementary schooled children - that are dealing

with dyslexic complications and developmental language disorders. Furthermore, the

research study will analyze its results, based from the findings of previous studies - that

investigated the phenomena and the underlying factors that contributed to their struggles

in language acquisition and vocabulary development (Learning). The paper will also

focus on providing possible solutions to help these targeted communities identify their

preferable method to make their language studies less complicated from their

neurological and behavioral struggles.

INTRODUCTION

Since the early 19th century, the isolated concept of “Word-blindness” has been a

phenomenon assessed by physicians, psychologists, linguists, and researchers alike, for

its neurological tendencies affecting a learner’s general adaptation to learning different

skills. This disability had been coined with the term dyslexia by German Ophthalmologist

Rudolf Berlin in 1887, a cognitive disability that had been identified 6 years prior by

Oswald Berkhan (1881) - that affects one’s ability to understand numbers, spell words,

and comprehensively read texts.

According to a study conducted by Knight (2018), there is an estimated 5-10% of

the worldwide population that had been diagnosed with the dyslexic disorder; In
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AMONGS DYSLEXIC CHILDREN 3

elementary schools alone, that breaks down to one in five students. Yet, the probability of

its statistical numbers increasing by more than 20% is highly possible - as there are 70-

80% of children with inadequate reading skills that have not been diagnosed with the

disorder, but could have possibly been challenged with its neurological effects.

As its population increases, numerous linguistic studies have also been highly

invested to uncover more information about the developmental impairment and the

cognitive factors that hinders a child from being fully capable to stay focused in their

studies. Thus, the literature review will primarily focus on compiling and synthesizing

articles that digests on the causes of dyslexia amongst 3 rd and 4th grade elementary school

students within the language of education caused by behavioral and environmental

influences.

However, the review will not analyze its factors amongst adults, compare it with other

neurological disorders, nor enable the reader to self-diagnose his or herself with Dyslexia

– regardless of the factors that will be discussed from the justified results of each study.

BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

This chapter includes the ideas, finished thesis, generalization, conclusions, or

methodologies provided by previous researchers. Those that were included in this

chapter, helps in familiarizing information that are relevant and similar to the current

researcher’s objectives.
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DEFINING DYSLEXIA

In a general perception, Dyslexia is a cognitive disability that contains a cluster of

symptoms that may or may not be diagnosed for an individual experiencing its

difficulties. Often, it affects a learner’s adaptation in processing vital information within

the fields of numeracy, comprehension, spelling, and language learning.

In other words, it is a disorder that inhibits a learner from fully expressing his or her

thoughts, as well – due to cognitively neurological complications that affect their

understanding and developments in skills necessary for future opportunities.

In an interview led by Rosero (2020), the topic on dyslexia was further defined by

Neuropsychologist Rhea Lopa-Ramos – who is currently a consultant based in the

Neurodevelopmental Center of St. Luke’s Medical Center in Quezon City, Philippines.

Considering her expertise in cognitive developments, she professionally defined

Dyslexia as a brain-based learning disorder – that affects an individual’s process of

information. It was also stated that “Dyslexia involves difficulties in reading and spelling

primarily due to problems in the language areas of the brain, responsible for recognizing

and manipulating speech and phonological processing.

The aforementioned definition is also applicable to the international-based

analyzations of the cognitive enigma, with the United-Kingdom based – National Health

Service, describing Dyslexia as a disorder that wires the brain differently – as dyslexic
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people tend to specialize in exploration and curiosity rather than skills essential in their

academic curricula. (Materson, 2022)

In other words, Dyslexia can also be described as a dimensional condition that can

display degrees of literacy problems; however, it will not ultimately result to an

individual automatically having the disorder. As medical type of examinations led by

licensed neuropsychologists (within the medical field), need to occur before one can

confirm having Dyslexia. Since, reading mishaps can commonly occur within a learner –

that is currently learning a language and its possibilities will still be subject to the results

identified.

CAUSES OF DYSLEXIA

The researcher’s gathered articles, were all able to share a common ground in

analyzing the notable causes of Dyslexia, namely identifying “Genetics” and

“Environmental influences.” As the top contributing causes of the cognitive disorder.

Although the exact causes of Dyslexia, have not been disclosed by researchers – (as it

mainly involves multi-factorial analyzations). Studies have shown the possibility of

genetics basing the cause of the condition. As, problems with language and reading

adaptation, take time to the process in the brain when linked to a wide variety of genes

that run in a family; According to data, 40% of siblings and 50% of a dyslexic child’s

parents also suffer from the disorder.

There is also evidence that children with dyslexia have different brain structures and

functions than children without the disorder, due to many dyslexic individuals being
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capable of reading accurately (at a slow pace) as they get older – but this has yet to be

assessed by current studies; a lack of schooling, and unemployment can also apply as

contributing causes to the disorder.

FACTORS AFFECTED BY DYSLEXIA

A significant factor that is affected by Dyslexia is the constant change in

environments. For the general public, people perceive the struggle as a weakness that can

inhibit one’s potential, yet, it is argued by researchers alike that, people with dyslexia

have “enhanced abilities” that strengthen their intuitive skills in describing a big-picture

and thinking in the long-term.

Firstly, the complications of dyslexia, can affect a child’s mental and social aspects

on life, as they are challenged with humiliation, guilt, rage, despair, anxiety, and

academic failure, that can result in low self-esteem, a negative self-image, and delinquent

behavior.

Furthermore, The University of Cambridge’s journal, Frontiers in Psychology

concluded that these individuals have an ‘explorative bias’ that helps them adapt to the

constant change in environments – another factor that they have identified as an indefinite

contribution to the disability’s rise in numbers for over more than a decade.

It is also argued that comprehension can be affected by dyslexia, due to the fact that

learners are not able to read the text accurately, quickly and fluently; but when a non-

dyslexic individual reads the same text for them, they usually show adequate

understanding.” Said Dr. Lopa-Ramos.

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This was also indicated by Chua (2021), and the International Dyslexia Association, in

which it was explained that individuals with dyslexia are capable of learning how to read

– if they are given a proper medium of instruction, under a suitable environment.

DYSLEXIC DISCRIMINATION

Additionally, the neurological condition can be undiagnosed, especially within

communities that are not fully aware about its effects. An example in today’s society,

would be the discrimination faced by the learners – residing in third-world-countries,

where disabilities are often overlooked and unprioritized by government officials – that

manage to only provide limited resources for language acquisition to the challenged

learner. (Bianan, et.al. 2020)

For instance, in the Philippines, many people are unaware about its existence,

resulting to many, assuming that a dyslexic individual (particularly a learner) – is simply

“lazy to learn” how to do literate skills; As a result of such ideal, an individual dealing

with the disability, can have low self-esteem and confidence, that may worsen as they get

older.

The Dyslexic community of Ghana are also faced with the same issue, as one out of

every five Ghanian children (more or less 20%) are likely to suffer from the disability.

This is also disclosed by the founder of the Africa Dyslexia Organization (ADO) Rosalin

Abigail Kyere-Nartey, in which, she described dyslexic students to being prone in

dealing with mentally and emotionally stressed situations – due to faculties, and students,
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commonly labelling them as “dumb and lazy learners” [as a result of their cognitive

condition].

The previous terms are considered insults in a dyslexic person’s book, as persons with

Dyslexia are not synonymous to being unintelligent, however, the disorder predisposes

them to perceiving things differently; therefore, contrasting the general methods utilized

by instructors in a common educational ground.

Furthermore, in a country such as Ghana and the Philippines – the concerns on the

learning condition are often unheard and made unaware by parents and teachers, thus,

resulting to misunderstandings and minimal offerings to provide an alternative learning

method to the “word-blinded” students.

Yet, in a study published by Materson (2022), several communities of the United

States advocate for the disability and had trained teachers to provide alternative methods

appropriate for dyslexic learners, by evaluating the cognitive phenomenon. As elaborated

by Borst (2021), American public schools are legally mandated to identify children with

the disorder, through a conduction of reading tests – along with observations from

parents and teachers.

In contrast to the situations of the Philippines and Ghana, students [based in the United

States] are provided with targeted instructions based on assessments related to reading;

Normally, these would occur through one-on-one remediations outside a regular

classroom with special-education teachers, speech pathologists, and or school

psychologists, assisting the learner in acquiring new words and sounds.

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The United Kingdom had also exclusively imposed institutions that cater to the

learners, and expose them to dyslexic teaching methods, taught by trained lecturers. A

notable example, would be the Millfield School in Somerset that describes itself as a

‘school for all’ – with most of its learners, excelling in non-academic related activities

such as sport pitching, swimming, and equestrian horse-riding; Moreover, its boardroom-

style classrooms are often formidable for the challenged learners, and they are also able

to showcase different skills outside the disadvantages given by their disorder.

The main difference centered on the worldwide sensation of dyslexic discrimination, is

primarily based on how governmental and or educational facilities, cater to the needs of

students with learning disabilities. As observed, first-world-countries have the funds to

advocate for the cognitive disorder – as they emphasized the importance of utilizing

professionals within a cognitively-specialized medical field, to help a learner get by with

the general lessons on reading and spelling with a different approach (ex: Letter bingo,

audio visual games). Learners in the United Kingdom, can also follow this method – but

unlike the American educational curriculum, they heavily prioritize the concept of

extracurricular activities than with academics.

Meanwhile, several areas of the world – still ignore the issue on “word-blindness” –

With minimal interventions situated in favor of the struggling learners, with many

teachers and parents exclaiming that one’s struggle with Dyslexia is a “mere excuse for a

student to avoid recitations.” And although there have been non-funded organizations

that help the communities and study the phenomena, misconceptions on the disorder can

cause them to have low self-esteem, and confidence.

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INSTRUMENTS USED TO CONDUCT DYSLEXIA-RELATED STUDIES

As each phenomenological study requires a basis to justify the ends of each

conclusion. The 4 gathered research journals – carefully observed and evaluated their

respondents’ cognitive attributes in how they process information, learn with their style

of processing, and develop their phonological and semantic understanding.

All studies have contrasting methods to justify the research’s results, this could be

possibly due to the different approaches in research conducting – as 2 studies applied the

qualitative method, while 2 applied quantitative analyzations; To add, the research files

gathered are applicable to local (Philippine) readers and international discourses.

The first local study, focused on analyzing dyslexia amongst Filipino elementary

school learners. According to Anulao et.al (2022) signs of this cognitive learning disorder

are often visible by their grade level, if the student fails to comprehend to say and spell

words like “Car”, “Wings”, or “Star” by the 4 th grade – there is a probability that they

have the learning disability.

In this case, elementary school students – particularly 3rd and 4th graders that have been

diagnosed with Dyslexia, are unable to comprehend reading as many words in a text –

compared to the average reader that commonly acquires 150 words in a sentence; most of
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these dyslexic children will also stumble or attempt to “sound out” these words, as they

would usually struggle with “fluent word recognition” involving letter-sound

relationships and decoding the sounds of the unknown words that they have encountered.

The researcher justified that these problems occur, due to an underlying deficit in the

sound component of language, that makes it complicated for the readers to connect letters

and sounds to decode; Furthermore, the access of their education was also questioned by

– due to the executive department’s lack of prioritization amongst students with

disabilities (Dyslexia emphasized) that could have helped them catch up with their

educational curriculum.

To find the results of their study, the researchers applied the qualitative research

method – through one-on-one interviews and weekly observations with 3 selected

intermediate learners – that have been diagnosed with the cognitive disorder; the

conduction of the study was made possible, with the approval of the parents.

The instruments used for the observation included the the Marungko approach and E.S

Claveria’s technique of flashcards, letter bingo, and audio-visual games as alternatives

for the targeted learner to improve their reading skills; as well as their phonemic

awareness, decoding, spelling, fluency, and comprehension.

End results revealed that all 3 respondents gained the disability from genetics –

particularly from their parents, and it was also observed that the children were not only

struggling to acquire words and read its sounds, but were also having trouble socializing

with others.
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The techniques used for the research (Marungko and Claveria), were also suggested to

the teachers of these students as reading intervention materials, in order for the student to

keep up with their developments in overcoming the neurological disorder, and adapt

easier learning and organizational skills.

While Anulao’s study focused more on the generalized meaning of dyslexia and

elaborated methods that could be suitable to a learner’s skills. Bianan et.al (2020) argued

that dyslexia is one of the most misunderstood learning styles in today’s educational

landscape – as people would summarize it, as the inability of reading texts properly and

the misuse and mispronunciation of letters (letter reversals).

Moreover, unlike the previous study - statistical reports were provided to prove the

severity of learning difficulties (particularly reading) experienced in the Philippines.

According to a 2018 report by the Philippines ‘Department of Education (DEPED) there

are 48.81% struggling with learning disabilities – classified into several areas of

functioning caused by an unidentified factor – that varies amongst different dyslexic

learners.

For the study, the researchers hypothesized that learning styles and personality types

are major concerns of the students for their academic performance. Evidently, a student’s

way of acquiring new skills can vary within a group, however it is undeniable that its

impact might have posed a difficulty in the individuals expressing themselves clearly.

For the conduction of the study to be made possible, the researchers targeted 10

dyslexic children enrolled in schools within the San Carlos Division from the S.Y of
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2018-2019. They utilized the quantitative method, through the utilization of standardized

survey questionnaires to justify their results; on whether majority of the students are

accommodating, assimilating, converging, or diverging.

Statistics presented that 60% of the students were males aged 14-17 – with an

introverted personality. To add, most of the respondent’s parents attained educational

diplomas - with 60% of the fathers being high school graduates, and 50% of the mothers

finishing college; 30% of the fathers are working as farmers, and 40% of the mothers are

self-employed. Majority of the children were also identified as accommodating learners

with a frequency of 50% followed by assimilating with 30% and converging, and

diverging with 10%.

Similarly, the international study on investigating word-learning also focused on a

learner’s strengths and weaknesses – in terms of their style of acquiring meanings. As

Hypothesized by Adlof et.al (2021), children that are either suffering from dyslexia or

developmental language disorders, are unable to acquire words and sounds from

language learning – due to having certain methodological differences based on their core

language’s strengths and weaknesses.

In order for the researchers to conduct the qualitative study, they decided to gather 244

second-grade students as their respondents. Here, they taught the secondary-leveled

students eight novel pseudowords paired with unfamiliar objects; As well as multiple

exposures to the phonological forms, its verbal semantic descriptions, and spaced

retrieval practice opportunities, to assess how one would learn and utilize such words.
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Following the Assessment on how academically challenged individuals can grasp

existing vocabulary measures, the article’s results present that children with dyslexic

circumstances can perform significantly better than their peers with DLD conditions. In

contrast to studies they had previously learned, they performed poorly when tested using

the experimental word learning measures (provided by the researchers).

After gathering the results, they concluded that dyslexic children display broad word

learning difficulties that extend beyond their phonological domain. Additionally, the

researchers recommended that additional analysis of this topic is highly advised,

particularly regarding the relationships between word acquisitions and overall vocabulary

knowledge, as well as its gaps for children with both disorders.

Although the research given includes a comparison on DLD-only and dyslexia-only

individuals, it should be acknowledged that Dyslexia is a sub-topic of the overall

definition of developmental language disorder. This study is significant with the

determined topic of the student, because the phenomenon of this recognized learning

problem is becoming more prevalent in academic settings.

Furthermore, it would be essential for the reader of the overall topic to be familiarized

with the in-depth relation of dyslexia and learning disorders, as well as how it can differ

in some methods; as learning disorders are diverse and have different ways of

overcoming it.
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This is further justified with the study by conducted by Krishnan et al. (2016), who

highlighted specific reasons as to why it is necessary to examine the subcortical learning

systems amongst children with language impairments – particularly dyslexia, rather than

cortical areas relevant for language.

Some of these reasons contribute to a dyslexic learner’s failure in adapting words that

are on syntactic constructions caused by poor procedural impairments – that affect their

understanding of grammatical rules such as the past tense inflection of regular verbs.

To add, the researchers classified that specific language impairment (SLI) and

developmental dyslexia are varieties of specific learning disabilities that affect behavioral

and neurolinguistic aspects of language development and their decision-making process.

This is due to the majority of the research studies (that were conducted years ago),

neglecting the impairments and challenges with certain linguistic components- including

phonology and grammar.

Thus, the researchers investigated this article in a different approach; With the

assumption that challenged children have difficulties in the fundamental process of

learning language.

Results showed that the performance of sequential procedural tasks and learning from

feedback are challenging for people with SLI and dyslexia, but not for basic mapping

tasks or non-sequential implicit learning. It was also added that Corticostriatal systems

have been demonstrated to play a role in learning speech categories from feedback and

establishing sophisticated motor routines pertinent to speech in language learning tasks.

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Although, the researchers did not justify the age of the respondents used in the study-

they had identified the objectives of their study with prior discoveries for first and second

grade learners with dyslexic problems; Furthermore, the research study focuses on the

cognitive and psychological roots of dyslexia and its underlying factors amongst a child’s

acquisition of words and meanings.

RECOMMENDATIONS TO OVERCOME DYSLEXIA

It is noteworthy to consider, that from the discoveries unfolding, Local government

units (LGUs) need to further advocate on the issues regarding dyslexia. Though all the

studies have reached various conclusion, the researchers shared a common idea that

suggest the collaboration of a Special education teacher – to conduct workshops that can

cater the needs of children challenged by the cognitive disorder.

Kyere-Nartey also stated that “When dyslexics are taught by teachers using

appropriate methods, they will enjoy and experience learning successfully” – and this can

happen, if there is a mandatory requirement for teacher-training-colleges to incorporate

dyslexia training in their curriculum; to gain basic knowledge on how to handle children

with various forms of learning disabilities that had affected their social and emotional

developments.

If an individual or a friend/family member would notice signs of Dyslexia, a thorough

evaluation is needed for diagnosis by qualified professionals in the psychology field. As

They examine a thorough background history, progress reports, work samples, and school

observations in addition to conducting testing utilizing standardized instruments

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including IQ tests and academic success exams. They also review findings from other

experts, including as speech-language pathologists, neurodevelopmental pediatricians,

and developmental pediatricians. In some cases, they also advise getting further tests

done by other specialists, such as eye and ear exams and consultations with neurologists,

to see if there is any illness that may be contributing to or causing the difficulties.

The symptoms would have to considerably interfere with your regular functioning,

such as at work or in carrying out daily tasks. There is a pattern of issues that needs to be

seen. Because, even if dyslexia goes undiagnosed, an adult may still see a specialist, but

the evaluation will be conducted differently.

To add, the United States’ Harvard-Smithsonian center for Astrophysics further

justified the claim, through a research conduction that analyzed dyslexic scientists’

ability to spot a particular characteristic in a black hole. Once the results were compiled,

Dyslexic Astrophysicist Matthew H. Schneps revealed that, they [The dyslexic

respondents] were more capable in identifying the black holes based on its noise; this was

described as an advantage on their end, as dyslexic people are shown to be capable of

showcasing ‘strong to exceptional’ performances across a range of “cognitive abilities,

system skills, complex problem-solving skills, technical skills, and process skills.” Thus,

claiming that Dyslexia shouldn’t be viewed as a weakness but as a strength.

CONCLUSION
Throughout the synthetization and analyzation of the gathered articles and studies –

that relate to the topic of study, the researcher concludes that Dyslexia is a dimensionally

complex condition that effects an individual’s neurological functions and skills in

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adapting lessons that revolve on language, reading, spelling, and numbers. It is a

disability that can occur undiagnosed – especially in areas, that are not fully-exposed to

the general understanding and advocacy of dyslexia, to add – the struggles on the disorder

can increase signs of social anxiety, due to the learners’ low-self-esteem, negative self-

image, and lack of self-confidence.

As the brain is responsible in developing an individual’s understanding, the

symptoms that could explain the cause of such cognitive disability, primarily stems on

genetics and environmental influences. As gathered from the results of each study, 50-

60% of the dyslexic children’s parents and a mere 40% of the siblings, are also dealing

with the same learning disability. The studies outcomes also indicated that “word-

blinded” individuals are unable to easily adapt to constant changes in environments; as

they are described as “slow-learners that often take lots of time in acquiring and adjusting

changes and developments.”

However, studies elaborated that, regardless of a child’s ordeal with Dyslexic

complications, they can be capable of adapting new pieces of information – with the

condition that they would be taught alternately with a medium that adjusts to their

neurological disadvantages – since it can change one’s learning style and personality

type.

The synthesized studies were able to fulfill the researcher’s ideas on Dyslexia, its

definition, possible factors, and the effects - that it can inadequately give to a challenged

learner. Yet, it is indicated that the research study did not intend to evaluate, the
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diagnosis of dyslexia on an adult and did not differentiate dyslexia with other learning

disabilities.

One must acknowledge, that (throughout the analyzation) certain articles did not

specify the age demographic of the people that they have assessed, due to the objective

scope’s focus on generalizing the meanings on dyslexia; thus, it is likely, that a

comparison between an adult and child’s encounters with dyslexia and language-

learning-disabilities can be a possible study for future references. To add, in the context

of language learning – it would also be engaging if future researchers can conduct a study

on dyslexia’s effects on SLA learners; since the current analysis, mainly focused on

discussing the condition’s effects on cognitive language learning in first-language-

acquisition. It is also advised that in the future, newer researchers should conduct

additional analysis and make improvements on what utilized in this study; as there are

Numerous assessments with different statistical analyses that can produce different

findings to either strengthen or weaken the research.

Research questions that can be asked in a future research project could focus on the

following:

1. What are the significant challenges that can possibly be encountered for a

dyslexic learner and their second-language-acquisition?

2. How can a learner’s SLA differ from their previous language learning?

3. What are the significant differences on an adult and child’s SLA learning?
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Overall, the topics on dyslexia and language learning heavily correlate to one another,

as the disability was coined with being “blinded from words and unable to accurately

utter its sounds.” It is a complex field of discussion with the context of linguistics’

cognitive theory, as the condition comes innately and progresses to weakens one’s

neurological intellect, the disadvantages that take over the process of language

development is unavoidable for these challenged individuals – yet, they can overcome it,

if they are given the proper care and exposure necessary to enrich their development.
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AMONGS DYSLEXIC CHILDREN 22

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