Project Design and Planning

Planning
• Planning is based on ………..

– What to improve or change

&
– How to improve or change
 Planning
Planning
• Planning is a process of:
– analysing problem (s) and opportunities for solving those problems and
– setting objectives and designing strategies that can lead to the
achievement of the set objectives.

• Present Situation (Problem)

• Desired Situation (Goals/objectives)
(PRojects IN Controlled Environments)

Prince 2 Summary
 Approaches to project design and planning.
PRINCE2 Log Frames
Rigorous for large projects 🙂 🙂
Easy to use with small projects 🙁 🙁
Designed for ‘soft’ or ‘complex’ 🙁 🙂
projects
Flexible and adaptable 🙁 🙁
Focus on the needs analysis 🙂 🙂

Emphasis on monitoring and 🙂 🙁

evaluating
 What is a “Balanced” Scorecard

• A strategic and operational tool

• Owned by the Executive
• Shared by everyone
• Balances:-
– Long and short term
– Hard and soft measures
– Leading and trailing indicators
– Internal/external perspectives
 BSC as a Measurement System

Financial

Customer Vision and Internal Service

Relations Strategy Process

Learning,
Innovation and
Growth
 Cause and effect chain
Strategic Objective
May be reversed What
Financial Measure
How
Customer Value Measure
How
Process Measure
How
Employee Measure
 Where does it fit? Building
Using
Balanced
Scorecard
Vision
Mission and CSFs
Strategic Objectives
Measures

Alliances

Structure
Rewards

Systems
Projects
Targets

Culture and values (leadership/style/relationships etc.)

 Idea
Situation
Analysis of Stakeholders
Project area Analysis of
Project
idea

Project
Proposal
Objective Problem
Alternative analysis Analysis
analysis

27-Feb-20 Logframe 11
 The logical map
Goal
Assumptions
(hypotheses)
Purpose

Key Key Key

Result Result Result

Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub

Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result
 Project design methodology Using-The logical Map

• Impact 1st we identify what changes are needed in the condition of the people
and the environment
» GOAL

• Outcomes Then we identify what changes are needed in people and their
institutions
» OBJECTIVE RESULTS

Outputs Then we decide what products we need in people and their institutions
OUTPUTS

• Activities Then we decide what we need to do to deliver those products

» ACTIVITIES
 Project/Programme Make Up and Logic

The Situation to
Reasons
for Programme or Project Improve IMPACT
Problems and Visions

Plan
Programme or Project (Goal, Purpose,
Defined Results
and Described and Activities)

Implementation
Process Inputs Activities Actual Results
 The Limits of Control and Accountability
Ends … what the project is
Beyond project Goal contributing towards
control

Purpose

Key Results
(Outcomes) … what is within … what overall the
the direct project can
Sub Results reasonably be
(Outputs) management
control of a accountable for
Activities project achieving
Within
project
control Tasks
Means
Adapted from Materials Developed by ITAD
 Steps in Log Frame Planning Process

1. Target group/stakeholder analysis

• This step involves analysis of all actors, both individuals and
institutions in the project/programme environment, and
prioritising their interests in order to select the appropriate target
group.
• A detailed analysis of the target group/stakeholders should be
made, including:
• The main problems experienced by them;
 Target group/stakeholder analysis

• The main needs as seen from the stakeholders point of view;

• The potential of the stakeholders in terms of strengths and
weaknesses;
• Linkages: the main conflicts of interests, patterns of cooperation or
dependency.
• Gender diversity can also be considered in stakeholder analysis.
• The stakeholder analysis should result in a clear view on whose
interests should be given priority by the project/programme.
 2. Problem Analysis

2. Problem Analysis

• Problem analysis is necessary in order to understand the

relationship between the causes and effects of a problem.
• The causal relationships between problems, causes and
effects should be visualised in a problem tree.
 Problem analysis

• The process of problem analysis includes:

• Identify existing problems. It is important to note that a
problem is not the absence of a solution, but an existing
negative state.
• Select one main/core problem.
• Develop the problem tree, by:
– Identifying direct causes of the core problem
– Identifying direct effects of the core problem
 A Problem Hierarchy
Increased
deforestation Effects

Increased lopping of Agricultural

branches for firewood encroachment into
forests

Department of Forests
Increased demand for unable to enforce park
land boundaries
Easier access Increased price of
to forests firewood

Decreased
Population agricultural
increase production Causes
 3. Objective Analysis

• This involves identification of the future solutions for the

problems formulated during the problem analysis.
• The solutions form the objectives.
• They are summarised in an objective tree.
• It is important to note that not every cause-effect
relationship can automatically be translated into a means-
end relationship.
 Objective analysis

• The process of developing an objective tree includes:

– Reformulate all elements in the problem tree into positive,
desirable and realistically achievable conditions;
– Review the resulting means-ends relationships and assure
validity and completeness of the objective tree;
– If necessary:
• revise statements;
• delete objectives which appear unrealistic or unnecessary;
• add new objectives where necessary
– Set the targets for each objective.
 A Hierarchy of Results
Reduced
deforestation Ends

Balance between Reduced

extraction and agricultural
regeneration encroachment

Reduced demand for

Reduced price of land Improved surveillance of boundaries
fuel wood and other by Department of Forests
Widespread use
of fuel-efficient fuels
stoves
Increased

Reduced
agricultural Means
productivity
population
 Issues to consider in choosing objectives to
focus on.
• Aim at 20% objectives that will have 80% impact in relation to the
focal problem
• Cost
• Benefit to primary stakeholders
• Likelihood of achieving the objectives
• Risks involved in not handling or handling it
• Whether other organizations are already handling it
• Sustainability of the project
• Environmental impact
 Guidelines for setting objectives

• Objectives must be relevant to the problem statement.

• Objectives must be consistent with and support the
policies and overall goals.
• Objectives must be feasible and measurable.
• Objectives must be SMART:
 Guidelines for setting objectives

• S- Specific
• M- Measurable
• A- Achievable
• R- Realistic
• T- Time bound
 Development objective

• The development objective is the main overall objective

that the project/programme is meant to contribute to in
the long run.
• It is important that the development objective is :
– realistically defined, and
– the sector of intervention, the target group and the geographical
location are indicated.
 Development objective
Ensure that the development objective:
• Is consistent with the development policy of the recipient country
• Is consistent with the donor's policy priorities and guidelines
• Represents a sufficient justification for the project/programme
• Is not too ambitious
• Its target groups are explicitly defined
• Is expressed as a desired end, not as a means or process
• Is expressed in verifiable terms
• Does not contain two or more objectives which are causally linked.
 Immediate objective
• The immediate objective sets out the operational purpose, that is, the
situation that is expected to prevail as a consequence of the project.
• It is the anticipated achievement of the project/programme.
• Ensure that the immediate objective:
– Consists of single objective (s)
– Its target groups are specified
– Can be expected to contribute significantly to the fulfilment of the development objective
– It is realistic, that is, it is likely to occur once the project/programme outputs have been
produced
– Is formulated as a desired end, not as a means or process
– Is precisely and verifiably defined.
 4. Outputs/Results

• These are the results that accrue from the project/programme as a

consequence of its activities.
• It is important to ensure that:
– All essential outputs necessary for achieving the project/programme objective are
included;
– Only the outputs that can be guaranteed by the project/programme are included;
– Each output can be seen as a necessary means to achieve the immediate objective;
– All outputs are feasible within the resources available;
– The outputs are precisely and verifiably defined.
 5. Activities
• An activity is an action that is necessary to transform given inputs
into planned outputs within a specified period of time.
• The activities included in the Log Frame Matrix should be target
oriented: tasks performed in order to produce a specified
project/programme output.
• Routine administrative tasks should not be included in the Log
Frame.
• The Log Frame should provide the main project/programme
activities.
• The detailed planning of activities should normally be undertaken
as a separate exercise, possibly later during implementation.
 Activities
• It is important to ensure that:
– All essential activities necessary to produce the anticipated outputs are
included;
– All activities contribute directly to the output level above;
– Only those activities to be performed by the project/programme are
included;
– Activities are stated as actions being undertaken rather than completed
outputs;
– A time schedule is included; the time available for each activity should be
realistic;
– The activities are appropriate to the situation in the recipient country, in
terms of institutions, technology, etc.
 6. Inputs/Resources

• The inputs are 'raw materials' of a project/programme

necessary to produce the intended outputs.
• The inputs are the resources to be used in the
project/programme in terms of funds, staff, materials,
etc., as provided by the donor, the recipient country, the
private sector, the NGOs, the community, etc.
 7. Inputs/resources
• It is important to ensure that:
– The inputs can be directly related to the specified activities;
– The inputs are necessary and sufficient to undertake the
planned activities;
– The inputs are precisely and verifiably defined (quality,
quantity, cost);
– The inputs are appropriate for the situation in the recipient
country, in terms of organisation, gender, technology,
environment, etc.
 8. Indicators and Means of Verification

• Indicators are means of measuring the extent to which the objectives are
achieved at different levels.
• When indicators are formulated, the sources of information necessary to use
them (the means of verification) should also be specified:
• What information is to be made available?;
• In what form?;
• Who should provide the information?
• The work and costs involved in information to be produced by the
project/programme itself should be estimated, and resources should be
allocated for this.
• Indicators that are found to be unreliable or too expensive should be
replaced by simpler, affordable indicators.
 9. Assumptions and Risks

• Assumptions are the conditions that must exist in order for the
project/programme to succeed.
• Risks are the external factors that could prevent the project/programme from
succeeding.
• Assumptions relate to conditions in the environment which must be satisfied
before the causal links as presented in the Log Frame will operate.
• The negation of an assumption is a risk.
• The higher the probability that an assumption will not be fulfilled, the higher
the risk that is involved.
• Assumptions and risks are outside the span of control of project/programme
management, yet they need to be identified and analysed in order to plan
realistically.
 Assumptions and risks
• Assumptions and risks should be identified for each level within the Log
Frame Matrix: from inputs to development objective.
• The identification of assumptions and risks should take place as early as
possible, in order to:
• Determine the probability of success;
• Avoid serious risks by formulating the project/programme;
• Clarify the area and limits of responsibility of project/programme
management;
• Indicate areas where there is need for more information.
 10. The Logical Framework Matrix

• In a Logical Framework approach (LFA), a development

project/programme is seen as a causally linked sequence of
events.
• These events are described at several levels: Inputs (or resources),
activities, outputs (or results), immediate objective and
development objective.
Examples of Different Objective Hierarchies
Vision

Goals
Goal Goal Mission
Goal Vision
Purpose
Purpose
Purpose Strategic Goal(s)
Key Objectives
Results Outcomes
Outputs Objectives
Sub Outputs Key
Results Activities Result
Areas Activities
Activities Activities
Results

Activities
 Traditional Logical Framework (LFA) Matrix
Objective Indicators Monitoring Assumptions and
Hierarchy Mechanisms Risks

Goals

Purpose

Results
Outputs

Activities

Adapted from Materials Developed by ITAD

 Donor Terminology - Objective Hierarchy
European Union ZOPP/ Log Asian
frames World Bank Development USAID CIDA
Bank
Long-term Develop
Overall Development - mental Result
Goals Goals
Objectives Objective Strategic (Impact)
Objective,
Intermediate
Project Project Result Medium-term
Purpose Purpose Develop-mental
Purpose Development Result
Objective (outcomes)

Project-level Short-term Develop-

Results Outputs Outputs Components Intermediate result mental Results
(outcome) (outputs)

Activities Activities Activities Activities Activities Activities

 Terminology - LFA Matrix Headings
C o lu m n O n e C o lu m n T w o C o lu m n T h re e C o lu m n F o u r

O b je c ti v e s In d i c a t o r s M o n i t o r in g A s s u m p t io n s
m e c h a n is m s a n d R is k s
O b je c ti v e s O b j e c t iv e l y
H ie r a r c h y v e rifia b le M eans of
i n d i c a t o r s ( O V Is ) v e rific a tio n
N a rra tiv e
S u m m ary P e rfo rm a n c e M eans of
in d i c a t o r s m e a s u re m e n t
In t e r v e n t i o n L o g ic
T a rg e ts M & E s y s te m

S o u rc e o f d a ta
 Line of reasoning
• The line of reasoning is, that
• If the inputs are available, the activities will take place;
• If the activities take place, the outputs will be produced;
• If the outputs are produced, the immediate objective will be
achieved;
• In the long run, this will contribute to achieving the development
objective.
 STRENGHS OF LFA

• It gives a clear and consistent flow of the objectives, activities,

outputs and inputs in a hierarchical manner.
• Summarizes important components of the project.
• Assists in budgeting
• It helps in cross-checking for consistency.
• It determines whether to start the project or not (as highlighted
by assumptions).
 STRENGHS OF LFA

• It helps in undertaking a clear and specific analysis of project

components before implementation.
• It provides verifiable measures (indicators) for the objectives and
activities.
• Practical way of analyzing project feasibility.
• It can be used as a tool for m & e
• It gives a clear picture of project interventions to the funding
agency.
 WEAKENESSES OF LFA

• It is too technical, hence needs technical skills to

formulate.
• Time consumes during formulation.
• “Missed logic” at any level of LFA can adversely affect
other levels.
• Just like any other planning tool, it operates on
assumptions.
 Good practices for project design
• Involve all stakeholders in participatory processes of project
design.
• Undertake a thorough situational analysis, together with primary
stakeholders.
• Develop a logical project strategy that expresses what will be
achieved (goal and purpose) and how (outputs and activities).
• Agree and focus on cross cutting issues.
• Plan for long term sustainability.
• Build in opportunities and activities that support.
Setting Key performance indicators to monitor
progress

What are indicators

Types of indicators
Indicators at different levels
Qualities of a good indicator
Setting up indicators
 Baseline Survey and Data

• Evaluating the impact or results of a project is difficult

to prove if we do not know the situation prior to the
project implementation.
• Baseline surveys are those surveys carried out before
project implementation start to generate data about
the existing situation of a target area or group.
 Baseline Survey and Data

• Such data becomes the reference against which project/program

impact can be assessed when summative evaluations are carried
out.
• For example, if the objective of the project is to reduce school
dropout rates, we have to know those rates prior to project
implementation and compare them with rates after the
completion of the project.
 Baseline Survey and Data

• Baseline surveys are especially important when the pretest

posttest evaluation model is adopted.
• The logic behind carrying out baseline surveys is that by
comparing data that describe the situation to be addressed by a
project or a program and data generated after the completion of
the project, evaluators would be able to measure progress or
changes in the situation and link those changes to project
interventions.
 Baseline Survey and Data

• As well, baseline data might be useful to track changes that the

project would bring about over time and to refine project
indicators that are important for project monitoring or for
evaluating project impact.
• Baseline surveys are especially important for assessing project
higher-level objectives.
 Definition of an Indicator

Specific information that provides evidence about the

achievement of planned impacts, results and
activities

Ideally indicators should be reported

quantitatively but this will not always be
possible - don’t limit M&E to
only what can be measured
 Definition of an indicator
• Indicators are qualitative or quantitative criteria used to check
whether proposed changes have occurred.
• They can be used to assess if objectives have been met
• They provide a standard against which to measure or assess
success or progress of a project against set standards.
 What are indicators
• Indicators are yardsticks that can be used to demonstrate
that changes has or has not taken place.
• They provide meaningful and comparable information to
changes.
• They are measurable or tangible signs that something has
been done or that something has been achieved.
 What are indicators
Indicators help you understand where
you are, which way you are going and
how far you are from where you are
Going.
 Examples of indicators
• Indicator for improved standard of living-increased number of
television aerials
• Indicator for community empowerment-increased frequency of
community members speaking at community meetings
• Indicators are an essential part of a monitoring and evaluation
system because that is what you measure.
 Types of indicators
• Quantitative indicators
– Should be reported in terms of a specific number (number,
mean, or median) or percentage.
– Assessing the significance of an outcome requires data on both
number and percent.
• Qualitative indicators
– Qualitative statements
– Measure perceptions
– Measure attitude, behavior
 Quantitative indicators
Examples
• Number of
• Proportion of
• Percentage of
• Amount of
• The ratio of
• Length of distance
• Weight of
• Size of
• Areas of/spread of
• Value of
• etc.
 Qualitative Indicators

Examples
• Level of
• Presence of
• Evidence of
• Availability of
• Quality of
• Accessibility of
• Existence of
• Sustainability of
• Improvement of
• Ability to (e.g. skills)
• Potential of
• etc.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative indicators are useful for summarizing large amounts of data
and reaching generalizations based on statistical projections.
• Qualitative indicators can "tell the story" from the participant's viewpoint,
providing the rich descriptive detail that sets quantitative results into their
human context.
• One set of indicators is not better than the other; both are derived from
multiple disciplines and can be used to address almost any research topic.
• Many researchers today argue for an integration of quantitative and
qualitative methodologies.
 Types of indicators

• The use of proxy (indirect) indicators

– “better be approximately correct than precisely wrong”.
– Proxy indicators are needed when it is difficult to measure the
outcome indicator directly.
– Used when data on the direct indicator is not available.
– Used when data collection is expensive.
– Used when it is not feasible to collect data at regular intervals.
 Proxy or indirect indicators
• Indirect or proxy indicators can be used when other
considerations, such as cost or timeliness, make that necessary.
• When proxies are used, particularly those that are not generally
accepted or widely used, the relationship between the indicator
and the result it is intended to measure should be researched and
well understood.
Pre-designed indicators
• The pros and cons of pre-designed indicators (Indicators that are
established independently ).
• MDGs, World Bank, IMF)
– Pros
• They can be aggregated across similar projects and policies
• Reduce costs of building multiple unique measurement systems
• Make possible greater harmonization
 Pre-designed Indicators

• Cons of predetermined indicators

– They don’t address country specific or organizational goals
– They are often viewed as imposed
– They don’t promote key stakeholder participation
– They can lead to the adoption of multiple competing indicators.
 Indicators at different levels
– Indicators are needed to monitor
• Inputs,
• Activities
• Outputs
• Outcomes
• Goals
 Indicators at different levels
• Process indicators measure the extent to which planned activities
are taking place.
• Outcome indicators measure the extent to which program
objectives are being met.
• Impact indicators measure the extent to which the overall goals of
a program are achieved.
 Indicators at different levels
• Outcome indicators are the key to determining whether the
program has done what it set out to do.
• It is also important to measure process indicators, because if
outcome indicators fail to improve, process indicators can provide
clues as to why (i.e. whether planned activities were not effective
in meeting objectives, or whether they simply were not
implemented as planned).
 Example of indicators at different levels
• GOAL (with examples of impact indicators)
• improve infant health and survival
(diarrhoeal disease incidence; infant mortality rate)
 Example of outcome indicator
• Program objectives :support and promote breastfeeding
• (% of babies breastfed within 1 hour of delivery;
• % of babies exclusively breastfed at 1 month;
• % of babies exclusively breastfed at 3 months;
• average age at introduction of complementary foods;
• % of babies breastfed at 6 months; % of babies breastfed
at 12 months)
• improve artificially fed babies’ access to
adequate and safe supplies of breast milk
substitutes (BMS) (% of artificially fed infants
who regularly consume adequate quantities of
hygienically prepared BMS)
 Activities (with examples of process indicators)
• train maternity care staff and other birth attendants (%
of maternity staff/ birth attendants trained)
• deploy breastfeeding counselors in health facilities and
in community (no. of breastfeeding counselors deployed; no.
of mothers counseled)
• promote formation of mother-to-mother support
networks (no. of mothers joining mother-to-mother networks)
• provide education on breastfeeding through health
facilities and in community (% of mothers and % of general
population receiving or recalling key messages)
 Qualities of a good indicator
• The “CREAM” of good performance indicators.

– Clear- Precise and unambiguous

– Relevant- Appropriate to the subject at hand
– Economic-Available at a reasonable cost
– Adequate-Provide a sufficient basis to assess
performance
– Monitor able-Amenable to independent validation
 Qualities of a good indicator
• Assessing proposed indicators
– Is the indicator…..
• As direct as possible a reflection of the outcome itself?
• Sufficiently precise to ensure objective measurement?
• Calling for the most practical, cost-effective collection of data ?
• Sensitive to change in the outcome, but relatively unaffected by other
changes?
• Disaggregated as needed when reporting on the outcome?
 Qualities of a good indicator
In general, indicators should:
• be verifiable (where and how to we get information about the
indicator);
• measure what is important and not what is easy to measure
• measure only changes that can be linked or attributed to the
project/programme;
• be targeted in terms of quantity, quality and timing;
• be useful in that valid and reliable (see p. …) data are available;
• measure either quantitative or qualitative change.
 Good and Bad Indicators
• When assessing indicators, it is essential to consider if the
indicator gets to the heart of the issue reflected in the
project’s immediate goal.
• Is the indicator valid?
• Does it measure or assess what it is supposed to
 How SMART?
• As far as possible results should be:
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Relevant (to the project purpose and goal)
Timeframe
• But don’t get too SMART…
– What is achievable may need to be developed from experience
– Good ideas take time to develop
– Not everything that is worth doing can be easily measured
 Ideal number of indicators

• What is the ideal number of indicators?

–The minimum number that answers the question
• “Has the outcome been achieved”
• “Has the output been achieved”
 Weaknesses in Indicator design

• Indicators are usually discussed and defined late in the

planning process (especially when this is confined to
workshops).
• Indicators are designed to meet scientific research needs
and are therefore less appropriate and meaningful for the
beneficiaries.
 Weaknesses in Indicator design
• They are often not measurable in terms of cost-
effectiveness.
• There are usually too many indicators.
• Indicators which are easy to measure are preferred.
• Quantitative indicators are favoured to produce ‘hard
and reliable’ statistics.
 Weaknesses in Indicator design
• They are usually not developed by stakeholders and/or beneficiaries and
therefore do not represent their reality.

• Indicators are donor driven since they have to legitimise the support for the
respective project/programme.

• Indicators are often an outcome of a desk study to prepare a proposal, satisfy

funding requirements or to establish a baseline.
 How do I select the most useful indicators

• The final choice of indicators is determined by your

projects needs.
• When developing and selecting indicators it is important
to keep the following questions in mind.
– What information is needed to manage the project
– How will we use the information
 How do I select the most useful indicators

– What are the limits of each indicator imposed by cost and

technique of collecting and analyzing data
– Does the indicator test assumptions
– How much can the indicator be expected to change over time.