- Okala learning ecological design | Introduction This course was developed to primarily serve North American product (industrial) design education. The word Okala (ogala) is Hopi, meaning “life sustaining energy” and it offers multiple meanings, First, it honors the human history of this continent by acknowledging the indigenous Americans who have been present for at least 12,000 years, if not more than 40,000 years. The Hopi are among the most ancient of Native American cultures, descending from the Anasazi (from about 8,000 B.C). Second, the literal interpretation of “life Sustaining energy” is centralto both the problems and the objectives outlined in the course, The energy that we use to create, develop, manufacture and use products can sustain life on this planet, rather than deplete it. On a more metaphorical level, “life sustaining energy” implies + a forward and optimistic view. We hope that the work done in the Okala course plants seeds in product design education, and that this learning is positive, constructive and will be carried forward in future generations. Any curriculum on ecodesign for product designers is, by definition, a work in progress. Ecological problems are exceptionally complex; communicating about them comprehensively is a challenge. The science behind understanding environmental problems and the methodologies for evaluating environmental performance evolve rapidly. Our objective is to help designers understand their application and inspire designers to propose solutions to the many ecological challenges that wwe face. The purpose of this guide is to provide the most relevant information about design and ecology for practicing designers and university level students. Okala offers methods to stimulate the generation of ecodesign ideas as well as scientifically grounded methods to evaluate the environmental performance of product concepts. We use an assessment method developed by the US EPA that we modified to fit the needs of practicing designers. The ecological crisis will become more acute and apparent with time. Simultaneously, more ecologically and sustainably designed products will enter the mainstream market, Designers who persistently seek out ecological design work will have the greatest opportunity to make a meaningful difference. There is plenty of low hanging fruit for savvy ecodesigners — and now. is the time to reach for it. THe OKALA TEAM, Philip White, Steve Belletire, Louise St. Pierre INTRODUCTION +4|Table of contents MODULE: DESIGN IN THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS. 3 Covers the role of design in creating MODULE 2 WHAT IS ECODESIGN? 5 and resolving the ecological crisis. outlines principles of ecology and MODULE 3 EVOLUTION OF OUR BIOSPHERE a ‘explores attitudes that have lead | tothe destruction of the natural world. MODULE 4" PRINCIPLES OF E6OLOGY A MODULE 5 THE NATURAL STEP 1a MODULE 6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS wo MODULE 7 CHALLENGING OUR BELIEFS Fy MODULE 8 MEETING STAKEHOLDER NEEDS 26 LIFECYCLE STRATEGIES MODULE 9 PRODUCT LIFECYCLE 28 Describes the product tfeycle and MODULE 20 ECODESIGN STRATEGIES. 33 provides practical ecadesign strategies. MODULE 11 PROCESS TREE 37 MOOULE 12 STRATEGIES IN DEPTH 38 MODULE #3. BLANCING CHOICES, MAKING TRADEOFFS a“ EDUCATIONAL COURSE OVERVIEW 6 2 + OKALA ecologies desler > course sideMopULE 2 overview This module provides a concise introduction to the ole of desir the global ecological criss The goals of Okela a i ‘+ To make ecological design easy to teach and understand ‘Te increase understanding of the significance of design inthe global ecological crisis ‘+ ToImpart a thorough understanding of ecological impacts and methods to evaluate the ecological performance of any product + To prepare designers with an abilty to integrate ecological design strategies with strategic business and market planning ‘To inspite design professionals to use this inclusive design process Okala is an introductory course on ecological product design for practicing product (industrial) designers and students of product design. It was developed from a North American perspective, yet it may be useful in many regions of our planet. FOUNDATION: modsieone + 3Some sobering statistics about the state of the global ecology: 4 © OKALA eeslogeal design» cours guide ‘The global temperature averages 57.4 degrees Fin 1965 and 58.6 degrees Fin 2006. A alse oF 8 degrees F would turn al ofthe Earth's land surface Into desert scrub except for the most Northern and most Southern latitudes Global warming u L ears before present lee on the North and South poles and Greenland is melting at an alarming rate; Ihalf of Greenland’ ice malts, the ocearss worldwide could raise 20 fee. Neatly half of the word's old growth forests are gone. Hurran population wil grow fom 6.:billonto 9 billion by 2050. ‘The 1950-1997 oceanic fish harvest grew from 39 milion to 9§ milion tons, resulting In major decines of many species, 1296 ofall birds, 25% of all mammals and 349 of all fish species are on ‘endangered species ists. 5% of all ‘tropical plant species are at risk of ‘extinction. The cause is destruction of habitats from human interference, pallation ‘and climate change. ‘Arable cropland demand is converting forests to land used for non-blologically diverse crop speciesMODULE 2 What is ecodesign? overview This module provides an introduction to ecodesign history its pioneers, current practitioners and its relevance tothe design profession and aur envionment. art ofthis historical context is provided ‘through the video “Ecological Design: Inventing the Futur.” This module also helps establish that, designers have a diect roe in determining the environmental fnpacts of a product and goes on to frame how ecodesign is being used to suppart businesses and improve environmental performance of products in local and international markets. SUGGESTED ‘The Green Imperative, Vitor Papanek, Thames and Hudson, 1996. ISBN; 0-500-27846-6 READING Chapters sand 2, ‘+ You'can consider how the environmental impacts discussed in chapter sare created by the practice of product design. ‘+ Chapter 2 reviews several environmental impact reducing design strategies. You should think about these with particular attention tothe discussion of plastics. ‘+ Papanek ends the chapter with an optimistic outline of an envisioned future. This optimism is linked to resolving Issues of social equality. How realistic I this optimism given the current state ofthe world? Victor Papanek Papanek recelved many awards and published eight books including The 5926-1999 ‘Green Imperative. This was his final “Design, in persuading eifrt to awaken the design profession people to buy things they ta the realization thet it can create new ‘don't need, with money they ‘methodologies that balance the needs of ‘don’t have, fa order to Impress people withthe needs of our Earth, ‘others who dont care, is probably the phoniest field in existence today” “Design, ifit isto become ecologically responsible and socially responsive, must be revolutionary and radical in the truest sense, That means consuming less, using things longer, tnd being frugal about recycling materials.” Designer and educator Victor Papanek clearly saw the potential damage our profession could render. ie acquired ‘ow fiends by calling our pression “lethal” and those practicing it “murderers.” But he also practiced what he preached. His many books reflect his approach to design a serving the needs of all people while at the same time preserving the natural world snd its resources for future ‘enerations. Victor Papanek was known internationally as a renovmed designe, professor, and mentor. FOUNDATION: maduietwo = 5Buckminster Fuller 3895-1983 “To make the world work Inthe shortest possible time through spontaneous ‘cooperation without ‘ecological offense or the disadvantage of enyone.” ‘The enviconmental movement has strong connections to Industral design through the late R. Buckminster Fuller and Victor Papanek. Fuller believed that technology could be applied in ways that would provide fo ll the basic necessities of humanity, while at the same time maintaining the health of our natural environment. Fuller predicted the coming of digital mass communication ephemeralization) {ang believed this would unite the wor. Buckminster Fuller was called bby many “the 2oth century | Leosarde da Vine," and was | best known for his invention of the geodesic dome. His vision of creating efficient world housing ane transportation systems Was | based on what he termed "a I revolution indesign science.” If Results of these efforts included radically new approaches to automobile and house design, anc a new world map that enabled everyone a see how connected and interdependent Fuller was awarded 25 U.S. patents, authored 28 books and received 47 honorary doctorates inthe ats of scence, ‘engineering and humanities. He also recelved many architectural and design awards, if Fuller were stil alive he would observe that we have a tong ‘way to goin meeting our responsraltes to humanity and our Earth, despite our technological advancements. 16 + OKALA ecological design» course gust Jay Baldwin 1933- Jayealévinisa designer, vets essen or focescataepenit | todinulgedsracure Hestdesacsgnantee | Buckminster Fuller at the University of Michigan in 1952. | He also worked'with Bucky for more than 30 years and ws mip eer are bit seemperarntat doen He served as editor for the Whole Earth Catalog and the Whole Earth Review Tor 2s years. His astute systems | research has Inspired the work of many designers | His 1996 book, Bucky Works: Buckminster Fuller's ideas or Today, re-ntvoduces 2 new generation tothe life ‘works of Fle Here he acknowledges the great Influence Fuller has had on his View of how to live one's life. | “Bucky inspred me olive my life as a grand experiment with myself as the guinea pig—just os he did, but following my own interests, So for, things hhave gone well” Architect and writer William MeDonough helps corporations reshape thei environmental practices. He emphasizes the need to separate biological nutrients (that are compostable and recycled in te food network) from technical nutrients What are toxic and can contaminate biological nutrients) Physicist and inventor Amory Lovins has articulated the need for environmentally friendly renewable energy systems since the 70s, including designing the 280 miles per gellon hyperear in the “gos, and along with Paul Hawken, outined critical relationships amon the four types of capital (natural, human, physical and flranlad In Natural Capitalism. ‘esi our tlorapi ne oly See elt SamoraGlobal business, industrial design and the environment Many international companies are embracing more ‘environmentally sound business practices. Those who conform to Intemational 'SO 1400: protocols, for instance, have made a commitment to improve the ‘overall environmental performance oftheir operations that affects how they conduct business. Companies with foresight realize they must use resources responsibly to help maintain the health ofall environments over the longterm. nthe other hand, companies with short-term views are more concerned about minimizing costs and maximiaing profits, while lacking concern for envizonmental ‘damage that they cause Designers have a dtect role In creating environmental Impacts, Ecodesign requires thinking about the entire life ‘yele ofa product. This includes an understanding of overall process steps and their potential impacts. These impacts ‘are autined in the PowerPoint presentation. This chart strates that Impacts are establisned early inthe product development cycle, Product Development Cycle ‘Most “lock-in” of environmental impacts occurs within the product development cycle concept and etall design steps Industral design provides value to business in @ welldesigned, cost effective, usertlendly package. Businesses look to thelr design teams to help structure profitable, and environmentally sound business plans. The following companies (anc many more} have taken actions to improving environmental performance theough some oral of thelr operations. rte Xerox + JBM # Nokia © Motorola ® Canon + HP occ) Bosch * Whirlpaol« Philips « Toshiba « Hitachi « Sony « Nike aes Steelcase « Knolt ® Haworth « Herman Miller © IKEA. eres BMW + Daimler-Chrysler # FIAT « Ford ® GM + Volvo « Toyata Ecodesign opportunities Designers have the abilty to synthesize and resolve ften-contradictory needs. Designers can create solutions ‘thet meet the needs of users and society and that achieve business goals and help improve environmental performance. Ecadesign solutions can be functional, beautiful, appropriate, durable and renewable, FOUNDATION: moduletwo * 7MODULE 3 | Evolution of our biosphere | | The biosphere consists ofthe thin outer layer ofthe Earth's crus, 2 relatively thin layeRof atmosphere, and the waters in these layers. The biosphere has evolved gradually ver roughly five billion years. The following sequence briefy summarizes this evolutionary process. 3 billion years ago Photosynthetic algae evalved in the oceans, gradually increasing atmospheric | 4.5 billion years ago The Earth consisted of ifeless rock, water anda thin ayer of toxic gas. | | nittogen and oxygen. i Plants, microorganisms and animals began to adapt to land, gradually teating soil Incremental secimentation gradually separated rast toxic metals below the Eorth’s crust. 1.5 billion years ago Processes of plant decay and sedimentation buried the carbon inthe form of fos fuel Below the Eath’s surface. In the following perio, five major episodes of specie extinction occur 0.003 billion years ago The human species (homo sapiens) arrived. 200 years ago: massive transfor of carbon from fossil fuels into the atmosphere. We extract and concentrate toxic metals amounts rarely found in nature We create and distribute toxic chemicals that do not decay in the environment. Habitat i destruction and patlution now bring @ sixth wave of extinction 8 + OKALA senogicel design > couse guideMODULE « Principles of ecology overview This module provides fundamental theories of ecology. Basic terminology is defined and discussed. Ouring the presentation, students should take notes and write éown ‘questions and comments . SuscesTED Silent Spring, Rachel Carson, 1964, Chapters 2 & 2, READING The Ecology of Commerce, Paul Hawken, 1994, Chapter 2 All posted at: wora.idsa.og, go to sections: ecosection Global ecology org Peng ECOLOGY is the branch of biology that studies the ‘elationships among organisms and their environment. GLOBAL ECOLOGY encompasses the largest scale of ecology It includes land, waters, atmosphere, organisms, habitats, material cycles andthe relationships among these parts. HUMAN ECOLOGY isa subset of ecology that studies the interaction among human populations and the Earth's ecosystems. ‘THE ECONOMY is wholly dependant on the global ecology for primary services such as lr, water, resources, food and waste processing. IMMATURE ECOSYSTEMS have a small number of competitive, quickly growing species. An exemple of an immature system Isa forest a few years after a fre with a small dlversity of quickly growing weeds and tees. Immature systems use most of thelr available energy for growth MATURE ECOSYSTEMS have a large number of species with stable populatons. A mature system is a forest or coral reef with many different kinds of plants and organisms. Mature ecosystems use most oftheir energy tocycle materials FOUNDATION: modsiofoer © 9Carrying capacity Carrying capacity| = number of species bepulaton x (waste + resource depletion) ‘This graph shows an example of a Finch species population neating extinction. Cart Caring capacity defines the numberof different organisms Goecies) and population pec organism that a habitat allows. 2 population exceeds ks carving capacity, the population will be reduced by depletion of food, disease or excessive waste, ‘Species overpopulation can cause a population ta crash far or) 978 ~~—«977-—~—«978-—_—~alow the carrying capacity, sometimes to the point of extinction. ia Expert ecologists can hold divergent opinions about what carrying capacity Is and how it can be measured. This is to be expected for such a complex subject. Capacity to sustain the human p. The capacity ofthe biosphere to sustain humans is characterized by this equatior wealth {pollution + resource depletion) jacts | = human population x SesTr petution + resource dente [All factors in the equation ae increasing: * buman population + average per person economic wealth + pollution per unit wealth i 40 © OKALA ecologic aasgn > course sigeHigh-income versus low-income populations ‘Most population grown occurs in the low income nations, as graph A Illustrates, Per person Income is greater and per person resource consumption and per person resaurce depletion are proportionately greater inthe high income nations (graph 8). ‘raph As Projected Human Population Growth raph @: Global per person GDP* In $US é, CeO ° freee ieaccan ec Sustainable development “sustainable development meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet thelr ‘own needs, Sustainable development is about making ie better for everyone. This should not involve recklessly destroying our natural resources, nor should it involve pollting the environment.” The sustainable economy A sustainable economy would use only the net avaliable solar energy. Such & system would consume fied and non-growing amount of physical resources, e biological systems. In such a steady-state system the term "sustainable ‘ecanamie growth” is a contradiction pee eres ” pe ae Peano Prot ECOLOGICAL DESIGN is enviconmentaly benign SUSTAINABLE DESIGN Is environmental benign, ‘and economically viable economically viable and socially equitable. FOUNDATION: ‘module four © 43,MODULE 5 4 b ‘The Natural Step overview ‘The Natural Step is an international organization that proposes four system conditions to help stabilize the glabal biosphere. This approach is general and the ecological and economic benefits | ofthe Natural Step (TNS) are often dificult to measure. TNS provides one typeof framework : | for making changes in business behaviors - ‘TNS advocates systems thinking, in order to allow for some progress and commitments to be made on Issues without getting bogged dovm in detail. The cornerstones of systems thinking are: + Looking towards the future ‘+ Sharing a framework and @ common language + Focusing on larger non-negotiable system conditions rather than details The System Conditions: System Condition #s ‘Substances from the Earth's crust must not systematically Incr i Fossil fuels, metals and other minerals must rot be extracted at a faster rate than thelr redeposit and regeneration in the Earth's crust. ‘System Condition #2 ‘Substances produced by soclety must not systematically increase in nature ‘Substances must not be produced faster than they can be broken down and be reintegrated into the cycles of nature or be deposited in the Earth's crust, ‘System Condition #3, ‘The physical basis for the productivity and diversity of nature must not be systematically deteriorated Productive surfaces of nature must nat be diminished in quality or quantity, ‘and we must not harvest more from nature than can be recreated or renewed. ‘system Condition #4 ‘There needs to be fair and efficient use of resources with respect to meoting human needs Basic human needs must be met with the most resource efficient methods possible, Including equitable resource distribution. 12.© OKALA ecological design» couse guideThe Natural Step — The TNS Funnel The funnel presents the Inmediacy ofthe global ecological crisis in a funnel shaped diagram, and shows how important itis for us to attend ta it.The Funnel visualizes how the dectne in ving systems Is In conflict withthe Increasing demand for products. As the funnel narrows, there is les and less margin for action. It also shows how environmental deterioration is beginning tobe Fel: by businesses. Businesses can undefstand hat itis economically advantageous to make change now, before future pressures make It necessary. This is because a forward planning company (moving through the centr of the tunnel is more profitable than g reactive, defensive campany, Restoration of living systems isthe ultimate goal of gaining the understanding and cooperation of businesses, 7 Decline in Living Systems Ecological ~ species, atmosphere, aceans, land, water from increasing consumption Health of workers, society, self Competition, prices, shortages, insurance Customer pressure, boycotts, bad publicity Governments regulations, standards > Restoration Increasing Demand for Products (Population x affluence x Technology) Useful perspective on this module ‘Many businesses have adopted TW TINS doesn't provide methods to measure or monitor the s0 tis a language ana set of terms | behavior of companies, Some people charge thet businesses Useful forthe ecological designer to | canuse TNS as public relations patorm, claiming tohave understand. | adopted the principles of TNS, while deliberately acting in | ways tat ae inconsistent with hese principles. FOUNDATION: mmocuc fre * 43[woowes | i Environmental impacts SUGGESTED | Werhighly recommend that you buy 8 copy af the flowing tex. READING | Greenleaf Pubtshing generously offer 920% dlscount when ordering it through the Students, instructors and university bookstores can contact: ‘wow greenleat-publishing.com/catalogue/denvoft.htm Design + Environment, Lewis and Gertsakis, The ecology of products, Chapter 5, Greenleaf Publishing, Shefleld, UK, 2001, . ‘The texts also available at: winwidsa.org, goto section, eco-design section. World Resources Insitute: wwwinri.org Explore global maps of international environmental impacts ‘Okala text Understanding Toxicity (following pages) hen reading these sources, consider both the local and the international implications ofeach type af impact. Which impact categories apply directly to you and your environment, and which ‘of them occur in other parts ofthe wort, yet are the result of your consumption and behavior? RESEARCH activin Preparatory to this Module You wil select (r ifn a class, be assigned by the instructor) an environmental impact category (rom the following ls) te research prior to this class session, Students find recent news (within the last year) about this impact category in newspapers, magazines and on the Web. You can search fora feast ‘ne local example in your sfea and another international example—in another part of the world. This ‘exercise works best with a large group of colleagues ar students when you post and compare your research findings. 14 # OKALA celopcel sign» couse gleeEcological Damage Global wa Acid ain Water eutrophication Habitat aeration Ecotoxicity | Human Health Photochemical smog & alr pollutants Health damaging substances Carcinogens _ Resource Depletion Fossil fuels Frosh water Minerals Topsoil Damage | Environmental impact categories These impact categorles encompass a broad range of real and potential damage, and Include mast ofthe impacts that are monitored and modeled by curent sclentfc methods. Ecological Damage Global warming, {Global warming (or climate change) results rom the addition of gases tothe atmosphere through burning {ossil fuels, agricultural practices and industrial practices that ralse the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere. Rising temperature accelerates: Inldence of storms, desertifiation, range of tropical diseases, melting glaciers and polar ice,changes in marine ecologies and possible changes to ocean currents. Climate change could cause the extinction of quarter the species of plants and animals on Earth in the next 5o years. The cost to humanity, in wealth, environmental security, and quality of life wil be extreme. ozone depletion Stratospheric ozone depletion Is caused by emissions of Chlorinated fluococarbons (CFCs) such as Freon and related compounds. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is destroyed, leading to “ozone holes” above the Worth and South poles. Ozone los increases the ulravilet (UV) ight falling on the Earth, leading to cancers and cataracts in animals and humans. The UV light also reduces the productivity of plants, affects marine algae and affects the life forms in high latitudes. The 1992 Montreal Protocol banned use of 4z ozone-depleting chemicals internationally, Acid rain Acid cain (acid precipitation) is caused by the release of acide gases, primarily from burning fossil fuels. The acids Aissolve aluminum and other metas rom soils tothe level at which they become toxic to plants and to aquatic organisms. Acidic rain dissolves cement and minerals In the but environment. Water eutrophication Eutrophication is caused by the addition of excess nutrients ‘ta water leading to reduction of available oxygen. Nitrogen and phosphorous compounds from municipal wastewater and agriculture pollute surface waters. This results in algal blooms that lower the quantity of eissolved onygen that Kills fish end other aquatic organisms, Habitat alteration Habitat alteration (also referred to as land-use) Is the physical modification or destruction of natural habitats, Ecosystems are destroyed to provide for agriculture, roads ‘and utban grow, Habitat alteration isthe primary eause of the oss of biocversity on te pla Ecotoxicity- Ecotoncty is the effect of toxic substances on plants, animals and other biota inthe natural environment. The range of possible elects i large and methads of assessing ‘these impacts ae sil developing, FOUNDATION: module six © 45Human Health Damage mane Photochemical simog & air potlutants Photochemical smog is caused by the emissions of ritrogen oxides and volatile organic substances that senerategrounc level ozone in the presence of suaight. Other sr pollutants (fered to as “criteria air pollutants” by the US EPA include small dust particles. Smog anc al poligtans increase the incidence af asthma in humans and reduce the ailty of plants to photosynthesize. Health damaging substances Nomcancer causing substances can include skin lntants, growth inhibitors, end hormone disrupting chemicals. Potential toxic effects ean include transient initation, physical of meotalaisability, Inkbition of ‘physical or mestal development, temporary or permanent disability andor death Carcinogens carcinogens ae cancer-causing substances that can cause permanent disability and/or death. Mutagens are substances that can cause genetic mutation. Mast carcinogenic ‘substances are also mutagenic. Teratogens are substances that can cause cefects in developing bables in the womb. Fossil fuels “catent consumption rates for fossil fuels Goctueng a natural gas and various types of ‘oat convert the fuels inte carbon diode (0.} ‘ata rate rons of tes faster shan nature can replenish the ue reser. Fresh water Consumption of fesh surface water or Fresh grounchvater eanverts them ito forms tha are typlealy nat recoverable, Access to clean potable wate is 2 growing internatonsl problem. iinerats ‘Metal ores ate convert into metal alloys that are eventually oxidized or dispersed as waste that Is often rot recycled Topsoil Agriealture can erode topsol ata rate faster than natural processes replenish 16 + OXALA scolgiest desan > course gutePlate ates his tos esplars toe imps ategores burn taxiity sana ectosicty. Thee impact abegores ave no more import than the otber impact category, but they are offen misurdestood. Designers need 2 realistic understanding of the complexities of| tonicity: People often asm that « given materi is either roe or non-toxic, but the majority of substances ean be tie i person (or athe organi) is exposed to suficent quantities of thar substance. For instance, complete absence of ati lethal to animals and an excess amount of salts alo lethal. This Introduction gives a foundation for thinking about material toxicity and avoiding common misconceptions ‘Toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation “Toxicity refers to the poratial ofa substance to damage the ‘alt of or to kil an organism. Persistence refers to the potential ‘of substance to remain ina stable form over a period of time (ypically many years) under normal enndtiors.Bioaccmaation refers co the potential ofa cubstance to concentrate in che tisues ‘of organisms snd move up the food network to carnivores aid Jhumans. Some substances are only fetal, but not persistent, and some substances are tose, persistent and bionccurnulatve, US EPA clasication of substances according to these characteristic is esr Inter in thie text ‘Toxie substance exposure “Toxicologists measure the toxicity ofa substance in a multi-phase process Fist che substance must be distributed in a medium where an omganism can be exposed to it, sch as ae, wates, food of 09 the surface of an objet. The substance mut chen fe physically twans(ered on a into the organism. The subetance can then be Alisributed within the organism where it contacts various tswee in the organism. Tascty metrics tle maa forms snd can measure ‘growth inhibition, cancer, endocrine disruption (which disrupts hormonal balances) and «large range of possible non-cancer effete that may be debilitating or eves let'al. Damage is dependent on Doth the poteney ofthe substance and the dase that the organism is exposed to, Table A outlines the tone exposure proces, Sources of toxicity data ‘Human toxicity data originate from medial research, Henan epidemiology data aee the most desis sources of dat, but adequately controled human tonicity tests are race. Animal bioassay data are the primary daa used in woxkity risk assessments [Effects on laboratory animals are orally similar to those observed jn humane at comparable dose levels. Data from tests on primates are sometimes used, yt they are burdened by ethical confit over the humane tcatmcat of oe primate consis, Date from teste on other mammals hike mice, rabbits and rts are common, Table A: Toxie Substance Exposure Process hic i ate or bree mil) Expose meio Seaport ce ten Paws “Hou fl eo psn pene Bem ee e oe oo ane Dipost ine ear ed Mik” Hoefer ea die tect ant, Reduced groweh capac SRNR T ote ae Dm i amis Cane a anes relate SS tae tee with redced ethical conficts, These of laboratory snimals co Aetereaine potential toxic effets in humans i wally necepted asa necessary procedure, (Cultured animal tissues are ofien used to study phenomena such a8 mntations and DNA damage. Cell eoies can identify the relationships between substances and effect, They ca aso account for differences smong spaces. Ethics urge that tse ‘ule research methods be developed to reduce reliance on ‘animal tests, Eeotoxicity dara ‘Beotesicity data ae less plentiful than human toxicity data, although environmental chemists are increasingly collecting ‘cotnscity data, This an inchade impacts om ompanisms ch a6 5h, plankton, algae, aquatic insets, terrestrial plant and tres A ubstance thats not barmfl fo one onganism may be very roxie to another organism. Chemistry and atomic structure ‘Concepts ftom chemistry provide geounding for understanding ticity: Chemistry it a complex discipline, and a thorog Jntwoduction is beyond the scope ofthis course eo we review 2 few basic hut relevant precepts Atoms ate the miniscule building Blocks ofthe physical world Each atom is made from subatomic particles, including: protons, ‘neutrons and electrons. The central nucleus i composed of ‘seutons and protons, Electrons spin around the nucleus, Chemists characterize elements according tothe forces holding the subatomic particles together and che ways that multiple toms combine ro create chemical compounds FOUNDATION: modutesie © 47Organic and inorganic compounds, valences A compound is a combinetion of two of more elements. For instance, oe atoun of carbon (C) plus tm atoms of oxygen (02) combine in one molecule of CO2, carbon dioxide. Similarly, evo roms of hydrogen (F2) plus one atom of axygen (O) combine in fone molecie of the compound H120, wer. Organic compounds (ke COD eantais carbon and inorganic compounds (like H20) {a not contain carbon "The tm “organic compound” means something entsely diferent than the term “ongane” that refers w foods grown without synthetic pesticides and frien. Tens of vhowsands of organic ‘compounds exist, and thousands of new onganic compounds te Snvented each your Likewise tens of thousand of inowganic ‘compounds exist, and thousands of new inorganic compounds ae invented each year Oxganisms cones both organi and inorganic compounds Electrons on the outer shell ofthe atom prove the primary ‘method fo individual atoms to join into compounds eis possible fr the electrons in an elerent to have different levels af enengy, for valence. For instance, Cris vale chromium (which is somewhat toxic and CrV is hexavalent chromium (whieh is cextemely taxi) Elements in the Periodic Table Blements are mapped put in the Pesiodic Table. The number ‘of protons that an clement contsins defines ity atomic numbee "The atomic mumnber i listed in the Peiodic Table along with the clements symbol and name. Noble gases & hydrogen ‘The column of elements a he right edge of the Periodic Table contains the “noble gases” that ely combine sith themselves or bother elements into soaspounds, Mast other elements ean ako exist ina pisos Form at element specific temperanures and pressures "Thess showld nthe confused with the noble gates. Another gu, hayes ste sisnplest clement. I differs fom the noble gases in that it combines with other eleznents into compounds (ike H20 and cacbohycrates) shat are essential to organism he ‘Metals, metalloids & non-metals [Metals comprise the largest group of elements. Metals are characterized by hig ductility and ability to cary cletrical ‘eurent. Many metals including ion, eacivmn, potassium, sodium, tne, chromium, magaesiur) are essential fr organi lie, Some setae (ike lad, merenry and cadesinn) are toxic; ny amount of them i detrimental to living organisms because they interface with cxitial hiochemieal processes. Periodic Table of elements excusing tose not ecuring in nature ie 10 ® Ne fis [ue a7 18 hi 6 pF ps ps fo at 5 36 Fe foo fw fou fen S KE laa as be fer las 49 52 ru fee feo fee oa, in ite e 76 [rv |e fo feo es ir Pt pu fae ft ji Ro fea es [66 er 0 i sm feu fod [to [oy Ho im [Yoko OKALA ecoonicaldesin> course guide aMetalloids have come metal qualities they are used for making semiconductor suchas silicon chips Non-metas include earbox, nitrogen, axygen, phosphorus and suf clements that ae all ‘essential for onganiem life ‘etal a dae in ami Conte wil oe wea) [pone eng maton dese Halogens Compe den Yny [ens snul xpors hc Fnnelighon “Hilogens ae aligned inthe colin of elements othe left ofthe Tp saat USbckgioard eon a noble gases. They include Quorne, chlorine, bromine snd iodine. [Anal exon er eine pac) ph Sale (NaC) isa compound of chlorine Satis abundant inthe | Sing upack fgets er dey Sr ye oceans and i necessary for animal lif, Many halogenated | caeeaery compounds are toxic and many halogenated organic compound are Ayn got Rm 1950 nck et at bioaccumultive. Doin ae excerely toxic and biotccumulatve [Annual epee foe cg rd ind dad halogenated onganic compounds that are produced by nature (Giogenic) or by humans (anthropogenic. DDT is another tase and 2 bio-accummlative halogenated organic compound. This Insecticide was bamned from use in most nations more than 25 Natur radioactive sorops are rare in nature, Radionuclides yeas ago, yeti remains present in trace amount (parts per bilion) are isotopes char emit charged particles and gamma rays. The charged in the mi of mammal all over the Earth paticlessrip elecwons From (Le onize") the materi that they ‘passthrough, Gamma waves penetrate moce deeply into materials Isotopes & radionuclides ‘than alpha or beta wave, Sifcently high intensities of ening radiation can destoy DNA in living cell Tale B (above eight) Tsotopes of an element have the same number of protons ia presents typical fonieing radiation exposure from natutl and their melt but diferent numbers of neutrons. Carbon-I4 has _anthropogene sources, the sime numberof protons a earbon-12 but two mare neutrons Some isotopes are unstable and decay to form more stable isotopes. Half-ife i the period required for half of the atoms of & (One ofthe stages in the decay chain of uranivm-238 is the particular radionuclide ro decay. Hulf-lives ean range from radioactive gas radon-222, breathed into the lang its emited _Billnths ofa second fora few isotopes t 4.5 bilion years for alpha particles can penetrate the lang ining and sufficiently high _uraniven-238, Luckily product designers rarely deal with or ‘exposure may emise ing cance. specify radioactive mabstances, ‘Table C: Selected toxic substances in electronic products Seteance ese for etenton ‘PCBs plc biped in tna, PCBs are enrol pen and Nossa ees of L ‘omc ond Hoesen! ging wel 980) i Cadmium Cis iene) | Eapnu thn ne an powder alc eal | ‘ip gu Sal seo sede re | | tga ad vere ecpien. | | ‘Lead (arcu bond des baer cathode beg Lend ate he etal ners tem and Kage amass. Erion | ‘ey fe porte In eel egelin Metin an form sna eae a yc ht eee ‘heen of ec pour Acie al ca dn th Ie { i Mery (nice sda Saree lps fn at pane il, | eal eesery ny nltio cr apeton Mery ae the erie fro ole lect pean plan) Arbon snl ees ete dee Ie a is {wot ula sey eu eat cin he utc Paver flrs tpn) Horaonedivaptng chemi roid me eran once ark at FG, | Sore bomianed Uae stdin af crcogms bm ae sin pie in cto pest) | ected cmt mprodace oes aed wne may cute 79m ‘dees re ent in oe, Sr epee soy a, ‘Mire locum an an pr "it when inetd, FOUNDATION: moduiests * 19Potentially toxic substances "The large lst of potentially cic substances is heyond the capaciny of most practicing designers to monitor and update Table C (below) notes afew problematic substances commonly found in elecuonie products, Subsinstes for these substances mast also be tested for potential human an ecotoxcty aswell as be ‘economically feastle for thir particular application, Compound toxicity isk example: PVC (Chemical compounds can have comple toxcty potentials at various points n their fe. The polymer polyvinyl chloride (PVC) provides an example ofthe complexities of compound toxicity, PVC poses three primary potential torcity risks. The fist is from the highly carcinogenic vinyl monomer required inthe production stage, when ga may come into contac with people. Release of vinyl monomer gas i a serious logal violation whechee inside 2 factory or 0 oxtdoor air "The second PVC risk porenial i fom the production of dcxins| (and related furans) in the use phase. As mentioned before, diosins area highly tonic, bioaceurulatve family of chemicals chat are produced when chlorine-contsining compounds are bured with Inyleocatbons (ike paper or plastis) at temperatures below 700 degree centigrade. The presence of copper catalysts increases dioxin production in the burning process. Incneration-generated clcxin problem isnot Hited to PVC. To halt diczin production from incineration, we would need ta eliminate not only PCV from. ‘the t-be- incinerated ware steam, but alo all other chlorine containing subrtances including salt and blood. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers state that chlorine content in incineration materials fs not as immportant ae "temperature, ah chemistry, comburtion conditions, and localized flow seraication” for dioxin production in wast incinerators. Designers who low that a prodac wil be incinerated, ore going tos part ofthe world ‘where open air burning is common, you should avoid PVC: ‘The third rs is from additives to PVC, which can include ‘phthalates and lend. The potensal risks to human and ‘eviconmetal health from lec are well known. Phthalates Plasciers are carcinogens at some level of exposure, and were recently identified as endocrine disruptors (intefering with hormonal proctse); they should be avoided i all plastics. Tas PVC exaraple demonstrates the complex issues involved when considering the toxicity of the many thousands of organic and Inorganic compounds that exist US EPA substance classifications The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has classified many, although not all, chemicals in lists according to diferent regulatory rimens. Chemical regulation lets are characterized in three nonexclusive categories: 20 + OKALA celal desin > course sige “Table D: Sampling of OkalsO3 Hi _Beouxiity Potential ‘whence (sina Geyntareer megery ey Sey 5 ‘ota 8 ‘orci |e Amtnony je Popatacanel pie! ries [5 Phen db-dinei [= Bewiiduoaniion [Poet fe Benzene hewclery ‘Table D tists selected substances that are ether tos to humans, cancer causing to humans or es0-toxic. The prefix (a) refers othe substance disaibuced in the air and (wy) refers oie being distributed ‘in water.The values have been normalized and weighted to describe ‘impact potentials per gram of ech substance. A higher ccore means a greater ssk of damage + Chemicals with regulatory limits imposed on released emissions, + Chemicals with egulatory reporting requirements (bur doatt necessary have a limitation); + Chemicals undergoing investigation or monitoring“Table E shows which list ll into these dice categories. Bach of these ists had years of ckground research (and often tigation) that was associated with their development. Many chemicals ae on multiple lists, Tnelusion of chemical ofa lit docs not ttornatialy imply thatthe asocated regulations (or lack of) are the only conceans foe that chemical. Three iets are highlighted: Hazardous Air Pollutants include st emission limitations for 189 chemicals. Many ofthese chemical are emitted ## particulate matter during common mancficturing operations. Any new proces involving theve chemicals is required to comply ‘with the regulation. Inclusion on thi et dots nat suggest chat ‘their use be restricted or discontinued, however, the releases mast be monitored, PBTs (Waete Minimization Netional Plan) include 32 chemicals that are of primary conecrn for solid waste releases based on thei persistence, biosccurmlatve and toxicity characteristics. EPA and industry established a voluntary program to reduce the amount ‘of these chemicals in hazardous wast by 50% by 2005. Many of the PBTs are regulated already while all are under « high level of scrutiny The European Union (BU) restricts materials that are ‘nly bioaccumulative and porsstent, but in the US, the materials mut also be determined to be tani before most resvictions apply, ‘Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) is a highly developed database regarding the releases of tose chemical. Industry is required annually to file pablc reports chat quantify the releases of | every chemical on che ist. These reports are serutnizd by public sand government ongarizations so that they serve as a signicant public relatons incande fr companies to reduce eleass Designers are cautioned that using these les is either exsy nor slmaple, Designers should ony use these ists with eat care and a thorough understanding of chemistry and regulatory processes In che US, Occupational Saley and Health Adminiswation (OSHA) standards and National institute for Occupational Softy sand Health (NIOSH) and American Conference of Industrial Hygienists (ACGILD regulations and guidelines also exis for many substances, A good source of information pertaining to (OSHA regulatory limite and NIOSH and ACGIH guidelines for cxposures is the NIOSH Packet Guide, which is updated snnzaly. Exch nation has its own regulations om subetances 20 @ thorough grasp of these egulatons requires arduous and specialized work. The pigment industry his debated restrictions ‘om toxic substances for several decades. In 1989, che US Coalition ‘af Northeastem Governors (CONEG) legislated limits on the ‘content of ead, mercury, cidimium and hexavalent chromium in prckaging and packaging nks.'The sum of the concentration levels mast nat exceed 100 pats per milion by weight (0.01%) of the fal package. This is alos universally accepted a8 standard for packaging toxicity. Limits of other tic substance in packaging will probably eventually be extended to inlude zine, arsenic, selenium, antimony, and barium. These metals are regulated in the US by the Resource Conservation and Reconecy Act (RCRA), Coalition of Northeastern Governors Model Taxine Legislation (CONEG, 1954). and toy safety repulsion ASTM F963. . Santa fee Rag ade | i et CERCA Ty al Tey Manatees | | Conant Cun Lia OTR | =| ‘coup | iar Pe [Hie Foie | Rabie Boson enc PBT) per EPA Wave Micinietion Nain! Pan [sper EPA's Nasa Acion Pas ‘enicty Chance [Rotonsy Evin Posen (VCCHE) ‘Table E: US BPA Cherea lst overview, Source: Kurt Rindfosz, ERG (Bastern Reseach Group) and Bill Fosket, EPA Design for Eavironment, December 2002 tc nese Tg. Lateran Sage, nad Meindl, A Eye PA Die Sp rcp prep piece, Chpes, 2p ‘Tae del an po Si oH OOH pl wT etn fe OP Nn en FOUNDATION: modulesic © 24| Mooute 7 Challenging our beliefs | ED | Ishmael: An Adventure ofthe Mind and Spit, by Daniel Quinn, pub. Bantam books, 1995 | Readings #:~3 on following pages Many of the questions we face about on « plane equal to mankind. This theervironmenttodayare challenging. belief limited what culeures felt able One of the most difficult and to “take” from nature, as described perhaps most salient is the question in Daniel Quinn's fable Ishmael? Of why: Why are humans, with our Several late stone-age cultures cestrzrdinary capacity for refletion (ncluding Egyptian, Judie and crete new beliefs that invite different behavior toward the its exploitation}. "The subsequent tenvironment. This esay provides an overview of several areas of changes that took place through || esearch that may challenge some of our belief syetes. Much Roman times, (ature pillaged) and ofthis research and discussion is located under the umbrella of Medieval times (nature ignored) take us to the industrial Environmental Ethics, a brazch of philoeophy that examines revolution and the modern age, where a commom belief i that the relationship berween nature and humanity. science and technology prevail over everything® religion and nature included. Many people hope blindly chat technology will oer us easy solutions to the ecological crisis. Hughes overview offers an opportunity to question our assumptions: Is humanity separate from, and mote important than natare? Does nature exist only t0 be of service to humankind? Ts Capitalism yet another implicit belief system, one thet is particularly relevant to industrial designers who measure success according tothe numberof units sole? fad intelligence, soiling our nest? Ini descendent Christian) replaced | {nswering. this question we might animiim with a monotheistic belief | cometo grip wih she undeyngele tems that datermine chat placed humane in a superior | how we treat the natural world, and-more importantly position co nature, and encouraged | Environmental ethicists ask whether the environment might have moral sights that contravene the notion that human beings can use nature | for our own benedt, IF this | sounds absurd, consider that ‘roughout the 20th cencary, ‘our cultures perception of moral right: has changed again In recent history, « handful of radical thinkers called for tnd again, At one time, it was considered acceptable to cwn a new view of nature. Rachel Carson sounded the slarm slaves it was taken for granted that Aftican Americans should about the dangers of DDT and other bioaccumulatve toxins jin 1962, and Arne Naess challenged cenvironmentaits as being: motivated by a shallow desire to maintain, the wealth of developed countries’ By. the end of the 19705, many people began to study the ethical questions wound our use of natural resources, and to discuss the abuse of narure that stemmed from our cultures prevaling sense of entitlement at higher being (also known as Anthropocentrism). By! be segregited, and ic was presumed chat women did not have sulin inclligence to vote. These modes of thought were considered normal in their day, and yet with the passing of time they now appeit ridiculous. Might ic some day be that way with respec to the right of nacue? How different would our banding ofthe natural wood be as a result | 4 isan Donald Hughes ves shat the mode ecg (Sie was mae pose by our vw ofthe maturl woel Something tobe ely esl Hughes cms that by contest, he ' Aniston of ancient clues held nar oe acted, - 22 © OKRLA ecloicl sie > couse usethe sar of the century the umber of scholarly atiles on the mje numbered fn che thousands®, What ‘was once considered finge thinking has gained mounting credibility, fo the point where some politial Teaders now use ethical language when speaking shout envi-ronmental fagues, Witness Al Gore in 2006: " our ability to live on planet Earth have «future as» lization. [believe this is moral isnue? Environmental ethicists would probably agree with Gores statement, but itis likely to be one ofthe fow ares of agreement Environmental ethicists rarely set out prescriptive approaches, choosing rather to encourage debate about core ethies—what fs right and what is weong with respect ro how we treat the environment, This openness allows for 3 wide range of views and opinions. For example, which plants and animals have mora rights to life? If reflective awareness «criterion, does this mean that the dolphio, wth its high intelligence should not be killed for ts ssources hile earthworms, with hile awareness, can be harvested at wil? Te sentence, the ability to fel pleasure or pin, isacrterion, oes this mean that an ove has « higher mon importance than tree? If service ig a criterion, is a cow that sustains buran life of lesser value than & - Fnurnan hie> Oristhecructalquestion: owe recopnize that all species, having evolved cover millions of years, have inevedible valoe and contsibure to the overall health of the Sonne nya th wr ot yt apebl of pprecacng? Are se willing to da whatever we can to protect the millions of species thar sil likely ga extinct in the nest 50 years? These questions become all the more gripping when we realize how ile time we Ihave left to answer them. Aocording to Harvard biologist P.O. Wilson, “The ongoing extinction rate is calculated in the mast conservative estimates 10 be about a hundred times shove that prevailing before humans appeared on Earth, and i is expected to rise at Teast a thounand times greater of more in the next few ecades. If thie rite continues unabated, the cost to hummanins inn wealth, environmental security, and quality of hfe, will be catastrophic." “The open fel of environmental ethics encompasses a broad range of concepts from the conservative to the provocative. Some of these, such as anthropocentrism, deep ecology, and Gaia theory, are briefly described helow, although an overview of this brevity loversimpliies concepts thst require sme and attention to fully ‘understand, Tri highly recommended that you pursue further readings to gain adequate understanding ofthe depth and range of these perspectives Animism: che dosrinantasiewe in carly antiquity, which sane a world fll of go” ‘Transcendent monatheisms the rigioss them het replaced animism, ntagotacem envisions mare asa Jer ford of eration thar hasan Inscrumental vals che usefil value of something, when tied 362 tool to mece a need "Non-instenmiental valve (alsa known as intrinsic va) ‘he vale something has forts wn self aside omy any Functionality or usefulness Sentient heings being with the ability to fel pain oF leone Anhropocentrinn: a belie hat husan beings ate the rior significant exit in the aniverse Deep Eeology! a branch of philosophy that proposes that al life forms on Earth, both harman and non-haman, have the same inherent worth and rights to the resres on the planet Cosumerian: The theory that an facreasing consumption af good is exanomieally desirable alo, a preoccupation ‘sith an inclination rowad the buying of consumer goods, "Consumerism was coined as ater fn $944, ‘Materialism: The dostrine that physical well-being and ‘material posensons cansitute the highest goo; als, txsessive rege forthe materi rather than the spite 0 Snteliactalaspests of ie [Anthtopocentrism isa term used to refer tool deeply embedded \ways of thinking chat humans are separate feom and superior to nature. Hughes says tha during exly Roman times, calles in Evrasa shifted fram an appreciation of the spsitual value of ncrare ‘oman span apc ode natu wor of hae we an ithe tohumans?, This instrumental view of nature measures value in terme ofits usefulness t0 us, Deep Ecology is a term coined by Arne Naces in 197310. Deep ecology fips anthropocestism on its ead by asserting that the rights of the naeural world supercede harman sights. Por example, [Naess asserts that non-human life has inherent value that is independent ofits sense for human purposes. In tandem with tise coined the phrase, "simple in means rich in ends"to infer how aa zespectfaleelatonship with the natural word enhances the quality of life With George Sessions, he devised an eight-poinepltforen of Deep Reology (se sidebar). Some of their statements stir ‘controversy, such athe claim thatthe increase in human population fs cheatening the nacwal world and should thesefore be limited FOUNDATION: roduc seven * 23By Avo Noes, ec-actot and George Sesion profesor of posh. 1. The well-being and floutshing of human and nonlin Tieon Earth have value in themselves (ynwinyiscinerent ‘yorth; intsinsie valoe; inher value). These valuce are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman werld for hhusnan puepores 2. Richness and diversity of THe fonms comtehuce to the realization of these values and ste alse valuce in homselves, ‘Tlumans have n right toeduce this richness ad eivenity except to sata vital needs, 4, Present human interference with the nonhuman world i excessive, and the sutton is rapidly worsening, 5. The flossing of bmn fe and cultures is compatible swith a substantial decrease of the human population. The Aoorishing of noua Ife squizes sich 1 dessa 6, Policies suet therefore he changed, The changes ia policies aflee basic economic, tochnological strichres ‘The wsuling state of affine wil be despy diferent From the present 7. The ideological change is mainly that of spprociting life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent worth) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standatd of living ‘There will be a profonnel awureness of the difference bbetveen big and great Those who subscribe co"the foregoing points have an obligation diectly ov indccty to participate in the termpe to implemen: the necessary changes. James Lovelock formulated the Gaia theory when he worked for NASA researching methods for detecting life on Mars, Lovelock proposed that the Earth follows procestes that are like thove of an ongunism chat responds to flux and change. This perspective was inially received in moch the same manner as ‘when Copernicus claimed that she Earth was round. Howeves, rowing evidence of global climate change clealy shows that we ‘we do on one side of the globe can greatly impact the other side and vice-versa. Further we are becoming awage that climate change las implications that ae comple in ways that we could noe have anticipated. One simple truth is that we do. not keov enough. ‘This Earth is operating under set ofrles and conditions that ae highly complex and unpredictable a4 © OKALA ecological design > course guide Mach of what we have aleeady done to diminish the living world is imeversible, «ict that many of us do not like to recognize “Accepting the problem is she fe step towards a solution — just like in design, Transformational thinking comes about when we «question assumptions and value chat we had not even thought to. lock a before and thisis the key apportunicyoffved by the field of which hidden beies brought Us to this point of crisis, we can gain the understanding needed ro frame new beliefs, tones that can help us to create new ways of living in relationship to the natural world. Environmental ethicists ako observe that in addition to destroying out biosphere, the val-ues oered bya life of matriliam and consumerism do not Jead to happiness of any depth. Many spiritual traditions support this realization. Anew environmental ethic could help us to redefine a meaningfal human existence, while honoring and saving the living world for its owen merit, 3, Whe Ly in 8 ar natant pg etc 8 Gant Bie Arong Seat Baar, Wee Pan Gn pi fe nh 9 a 9, Mages | Pol Th Ati ato Babel ESE RSCTRriecnc ee Sos ora mon AE Lae re tna ity te Comat Ht og et Anis hon ae On she Ra sing Hp) Da tn Raf OE Cis Et Feet eet Ea ima Gnd Rona ‘emo wt aa wit Len Pee