ASSIGINGMENT-3

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS - 1

1. Slew rate of an OpamP:
consider two OpAmps-AD648A, and LM675, and note their slew rate values from the data
sheet, and calculate the maximum output frequency for a fixed maximum peak output voltage
value. After this, make similar observations as done earlier in the case of IC741 Non
inverting amplifier for these two opamps , and observe if distortions occur beyond the
calculated maximum in your simulation .
a) AD648A
the slew rate from data sheet is shown as below

Then now we know

Let the Vmax = 2v
V
slew rate 1
Fmax = = µs = 318.3kHz
2 πVmax
2 π∗2
Now let us consider the frequency < fmax
Then the simulation result is :
Now let us consider the frequency >fmax
Simulation result :

b) LM675:
The slew rate from datasheet as shown below:

Let the Vmax = 2v

V
slew rate 8
Fmax = = µs = 636.623kHz
2 πVmax
2 π∗2
Now let us consider the frequency < fmax
Then the simulation result is :
Now let us consider the frequency >fmax
Simulation result :

From above both the results by increasing the frequency greater then the fmax the output
voltage is going to decrease and even the output appearing as an triangle instead of the
expected sine wave.
2. Loading effect. What it, and what is the solution ?
The below is an voltage divider circuit here by connecting output resister the output we
getting is the 0.117v instead of the 6v.

 Why has this output voltage value reduced?

Here from above circuit by connecting a load of r3 100 ohms to the circuit which is
parallel to the r2 the equivalent resistance changed which will change the output
voltage
Req = R2||R3+R1
Req = 10k||100+10k
 = 99.009+10k
= 10.09k
R 2∨¿ R 3
Vout = V2*
R 2∨¿ R3+ R1
99.009
= 12*
10099.009
= 0.1176v.

 What should be done to prevent this from happening?

To prevent this it us connect an voltage follower circuit (op amp ) at the output. With
a unity gain as shown ,then the output voltage in simulation.

Output:

Here we got the output voltage = 2.486v which is not an expected voltage of 6v.
So now let us take an variable resistor in place of the 100 ohms .
 Here by above simulation we have observed that the value of resistor or the output
should as specified in datasheet of the op amp to get required output.
3. Strain measurement using instrumentation amplifier:
A. Once the air compressor is turned on the pressure increases, thereby increasing resistance
value of the strain gauge (as shown in the table). From your simulation, Observe the input
and output voltage values for every change in the strain gauge resistance value, and
validate that the gain of the amplifier is in fact 50?

pressure(kg/cm^2) strain guage resistance in ohm Input difference voltage to InAmp(Vin) Output voltage if InAmp(Vout) Gain = Vout/Vin
0 120
1 120.1
2 120.2
3 120.3
4 120.4
5 120.5
Output:
Pressure(kg/cm^2) Strain gauge Input Output voltage Gain =
resistor in ohm difference in opAmp Vout/Vin
voltage to (Vout)
Amp(Vin)
0 120 7.17mv 356.87mv 50
1 120.1 7.18mb 356.94mv 50
2 120.2 7.18mv -359.47mv 50
3 120.3 7.194mv -356.768mv 50
4 120.4 7.201mv -360.06mv 50
5 120.5 7.206mv -360.366mv 50

2R
V out =(V 2−V 1)(1+ )
R gain

2R
A v =(1+ )
Rgain

2R
R gain=
A v −1

B. What observations do you make if you replace the resistor diagonally opposite to the
strain gauge in the Wheatstone bridge with another strain gauge?
 When we replace the resistor diagonally opposite to the strain gauge resistor in the
Wheatstone bridge with another strain gauge resistor then the output voltage of the
Wheatstone bridge is doubled, the formula for output voltage is given as
R2 R4
V 0=V ¿∗[ − ]
R 2+ R 1 R3 + R4
In the above formula when the diagonal resistance i.e,. R4 Is replaced by the gauge
resistance 120.5 ohm
120 120.5
V 0=12∗[ − ]
120+120.5 120+ 120.5

V 0=−24 mV
Initially before changing the resistance V0 = -12mV
Therefore we can conclude that when we replace the strain gauge resistance diagonally the
output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge will be doubled.
B. Take the final two rows of a table using them, find the common mode gain and
differential gain values and eventually the CMRR of instrumentation amplifier?

The following equations are used in calculating CMRR of instrumentation amplifier

V out 1= A c V c 1 + A d V d 1−−−−−(1)

V out 2= A c V c 2 + A d V d 2−−−−−(2)
V 1+ V 2
Where, V c 1= and V d 2=V 1 +V 2
2
Obtain the values of Ac and Ad from equations 1 and 2 for different values of V out 1 and V out 2
Ad
CMRR = −−−(3)
Ac
Ac
¿
CMRR (DB) = 20log (
Ad
 For the supply voltage to the Wheatstone bridge Vs = 12V, the following
measurements are obtained from the simulation results for two values of RPOT as
shown in table below

Rpot V1 V2 Vout Vd = V2-V1 Vc = (V1+V2)/2

50k 5.99999 5.992819 -0.36554 -0.007171 5.9964
25k 5.99999 5.98568 -0.71304 -0.01431 5.9928

V out 1= A c V c 1 + A d V d 1

V out 2= A c V c 2 + A d V d 2

Hence,
-0.36554 = Ac ∗5.9964+ Ad (−0.007171)

-0.71304 = Ac ( 5.9928 ) + A d (−0.01431)

 Column1 Column2 Column3 Column4
Common mode gain(Ac) Differential gain(Ad) CMMR ratio(Ad/Ac) CMMR in DB=20log(CMMR ratio)
-0.002747 48.6776 17720.27 84.96

C. OPAMP comparator in LDR based switches

Simulate this circuit with an OPAMP 741 (+12V supply), and verify the values of V OUT for
both cases of LDR resistance value?
Case 1 : LDR = 500KΩ
Circuit is as shown below:

simulation:

Here we got the Vout = 11.341v.

Case 2: LDR = 400kΩ
Circuit diagram:

Simulation:

Vout = 390.42mv.
A. The requirement has now changed to operate the LDR circuit such that
V out =+12V when RLDR = 300K ohm, while V out =0 V when RLDR = 150K ohm.
Show the manual calculations and verify the result with simulation.

Looking at the resistance network in the non-inverting terminal, by KCL

V cc −V th V th V th−V out
= +
R1 R2 R3
CASE 1: When LDR = 300Kohm, we want V out =12V , there by turning on the LED load
connected to its output.
 R LDR 300 K
In this case V th = ∗V CC = ∗12=2.769 V
RLDR +1 M 300 K + 1 M

Plugging in known values in the KCL equation

12−2.769 2.769 2.769−12
= +
10 K R2 R3
9.231 2.769 9.231
= − … … … … .(1)
10 K R2 R3
CASE 2: When LDR = 150K ohm, we want V out =0 V ,there by turning off the LED load
connected to its output.
R LDR 150 K
In this case V th = ∗V CC = ∗12=1.565 V
RLDR +1 M 150 K + 1 M

Plugging in known values in the KCL equation

12−1.565 1.565 1.565−0
= +
10 K R2 R3
10.435 1.565 1.565
= − … … … … (2)
10 K R2 R3
On solving equation (1) and (2) we obtain the values of R2 and R3 as
R2 = 1.694K ohm
R3 = 12.98K ohm.
Case 1: When RLDR = 300K ohm

Output:
Vout = 11.812v.

Case 2: When RLDR = 150K ohm.

Output;

Vout = -99.94mv.

5. Fuel level measurement using IC555 timer.

A. If the length of the sensor is H=30cm, and ‘h’ indicates the height of the fuel, plot the
graph in excel sheet between ‘h’ VS C fuel and ‘h’ VS f osc for different values of ‘h’ ranging
from 0cm(empty) to 30cm(full) in steps of 1cm. The other parameters are listed below.
Make observations from the plot.
Given Parameters:

 Outer diameter ‘b’=15mm

 Inner diameter ‘a’=12mm
 Length of sensor ‘H’=30cm
 Permittivity of space E0 =8.854*10^-12
 Relative permittivity Er =22
 B. Validate five values from this plot with the simulation result?
1. When h = 6 capacitance = 9.26nf

Output:
In theory we got f = 2.42khz , here in simulation we got f = 2.45khz
2. When h = 8 capacitance = 9.86nf

Simulation:

Output:

Here in theory we got f = 2.21khz in simulation f = 2.2045khz.

3. When h = 9 capacitance = 10.16nf.

Simulation:

Output:

Here in theory we got f = 2.14khz in simulation we got f = 2.168khz.

4. When h = 12 capacitance = 11.06nf.
Circuit :
 Simulation :

Output:

Here in theory we got f = 1.97khz in simulation we have f = 2khz.

5. When h = 25 capacitance = 14.95nf.
Circuit:

Simulation:
 Output:

Here theory we got f = 1.45khz in simulation we got f = 1.5kh

6. A RLC circuit shown below is fed to an input AC source 230v/50hz.

Calculate :
A. overall impedance of RLC circuit
Z = √ R2 +( X l−X c )2
Xl = 2π*f*L
= 2π*50*0.15
Xl = 47.123Ω.
1
Xc =
2 π∗f ∗C
1
= −6
2 π∗50∗10∗10

Xc = 318.309Ω.

Z = √ 2002−(47.123−318.309)2

Z = 336.959 Ω.
B. RMS current through the circuit
V m 230
V rms = = =162.6 V
√2 √ 2
 V rms 162.6
I rms = = =0.482 A
Z 336.9
I rms = 0.482A

C. Phase difference (in degrees and radians) between voltage input and current through
circuit
Phase angle between voltage and current
X c −X l
φ = tan−1 ( ¿)¿
R
−1 318.309−47.123
φ = tan ( ¿ )¿
200
φ = 53.59 °
In radians
°∗π
φ=φ
180
φ=0.933 radians
D. Power factor
P.F = cos φ
P.F = cos (53.5¿)¿
P.F = 0.593
E. Apparent power, Real power and Reactive power
Apparent power:
Papparant = V rms∗I rms

Papparant = 162.2*0.482

Papparant = 78.18W

Real power:
Preal =¿ V rms∗I rms∗cos φ

Preal =¿ 162.2∗0.482∗cos 53.5

Preal =¿ 46.36W

Reactive power:
Preactive =¿ V rms∗I rms∗sin φ

Preactive =¿ 162.2∗0.482∗sin 53.59

 Preactive =¿ 62.918W

F. RMS voltage across resistor. Inductor and capacitor

RMS voltage across resistor
V Rrms¿ I rms∗R
V Rrms ¿ 0.482∗200
V Rrms ¿ 96.4 V
RMS voltage across inductor
V ( Lrms ¿=I rms∗X l

V ( Lrms ¿=0.482∗47.123

V ( Lrms ¿=22.713 V
RMS voltage across capacitor
V (C rms ¿=I rms∗X c

V (C rms ¿=0.482∗318.309

V (C rms ¿=153.42V
Simulation of the above RLC circuit:

A. RMS current:

Output :
B. Phase difference:
Simulation :

Output:

Phase difference = 180 – Time difference*360*50

Phase difference = 180 – 7.05*10−3 *360*50
Phase difference = 53.1°
C. Real power
Simulation:
 Output:

The real power = 44.21w

D. RMS voltage across

 Resistor :
Simulation:

Output:

 Inductor:
Simulation:

Output:
 Capacitor:
Simulation:

Output: