Volume 46 Number 2

ISSN 0258 - 7122 (Print)

2408 - 8293 (Online)

Volume 46 Number 2
June 2021
BANGLADESH JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
June 2021

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Bangladesh
Journal of
AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH
Volume 46 Number 2
June 2021
BANGLADESH JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Editorial Board

Editor-in Chief Md. Nazirul Islam, Ph. D.

Md. Kamrul Hasan, Ph. D.

Md. Tariqul Islam, Ph. D.
Muhammad Shamsul Alom, Ph. D.
Rina Rani Saha, Ph. D
Jahangir Alam Khan, Ph. D.
Associate Editors M. Matiur Rahman, Ph. D.
M. A. Quayyum, Ph. D.
A. J. M. Sirajul Karim, Ph. D.
Md. Saleh Ahmed, Ph. D.
Md. Lutfur Rahman, Ph. D.
Syed Nurul Alam, Ph. D.

Md. Hasan Hafizur Rahman

Editor (Technical)
B. S. S. (Hons.), M. S. S. (Mass Com.)

Editor (Technical)
Editorial and Publication Section
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
Address for Correspondence
Gazipur 1701, Bangladesh
Phone : 88-02-49270038
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 BANGLADESH JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Vol. 46 June 2021 No. 2

CONTENTS
Production potential of sweet potato based intercropping system in Sylhet 123
region  M. I. Nazrul
Gge biplot and ammi analysis of yield of proso millet (Panicum 133
miliaceum L.)  H. U. Z. Raihan, M. M. Billah, M. I. Riad, M. B. Sarker,
and M. M. Rohman
Efficacy of different approaches to control litchi fruit borer  M. A. Taher, 143
M. M. Uddin, K. S. Islam and M. A. Rahman
Effect of soil and foliar application of plant nutrients on purple blotch 153
and tip-burn of onion  M. I. Faruk
Purity level of different brands of marketed pesticides  M. Afroze, M. 167
D. H. Prodhan, A. Begum, M. S. Ahmed and D. Sarker
Farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation  175
P. D. Purkaysto, M. R. Amin, M. A. Islam, M. Rahman and F. A. Nasim
Genetic variability in yield contributing characters of tossa jute (Corchorus 195
capsularis L.)  A. Ghosh, B. K. Biswas and M. Arifuzzaman
Suitability of medium density fiber board made from rubber wood for 203
household and industrial use  M. M. Rahaman, S. Hossain, M. R. Islam
and M. M. Uddin
Impact of brown plant hopper (BPH) management training on boro rice 211
cultivation in Serajganj district  M. A. Quayum, M. M. Hossain and
T. Sharmin
Study on livelihood of Haor community in Bangladesh  M. Khatun and 227
M. S. Rahman
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 123-131, June 2021
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF SWEET POTATO BASED
INTERCROPPING SYSTEM IN SYLHET REGION

M. I. NAZRUL1

Abstract
A field experiment was conducted during two consecutive years 2017-18 and
2018-19 at farming system research and development (FSRD) site, under South
Surma Upazilla of Sylhet in Bangladesh to find out the suitable crop combination
for increasing total productivity, return and maximizing land utilization through
intercropping. Five treatments viz. T 1: Sweet potato + red amaranth, T 2: Sweet
potato + leaf amaranth, T 3: Sweet potato + mustard green, T 4: Sweet potato +
mustard and T5: Sweet potato sole (100% sweet potato) were considered in the
experiment. Results showed none of the intercrop-combination influenced the
root yield of sweet potato. Tuberous root yield of sweet potato in 100% sweet
potato + 100% mustard green combination was at per sweet potato sole
cultivation. Sweet potato yield did not reduce significantly due to intercropping.
The highest sweet potato equivalent yield (41.75 t ha-1), land equivalent ratio
(1.37), gross return (Tk. 625950 ha-1), gross margin (Tk. 495500 ha-1) and benefit
cost ratio (4.80) were recorded from sweet potato 100% + mustard green 100%
combination. On the contrary, sweet potato sole gave the lowest sweet potato
equivalent yield (30.60 t ha-1), gross margin (Tk.330300 ha-1) and benefit cost
ratio (3.57). The results revealed that sweet potato 100% + mustard green 100%
intercropped combination might be suitable for higher productivity and economic
return.
Keywords: Land use efficiency, production potential, sweet potato based
intercropping, economic benefit.

Introduction
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatasL.) is one of the most important tuber crops in
Bangladesh which can be used as substitute of cereal crops to meet up the food
shortage. The foliage of sweet potato has the potential for use as vegetable and
animal feed (Otoo et al., 2001). It is the fourth important crop in Bangladesh after
rice, wheat and potato (Hossain and Hakim, 2014). The orange fleshed sweet
potato has significant antioxidant activity, and can potentially improve vitamin-A
status in children under malnutrition (Away et al. 2013; Li and Mu, 2012; Burri,
2011). At present sweet potato becoming promising root crops successfully
growing and disseminating in Sylhet region due to its market demand and
nutritional benefits (Nazrul, 2019). Vegetables playa significant role in human
nutrition, especially as sources of phytonutriceuticals: vitamins (C, A, B1, B6, B9,
E), minerals and dietary fiber (Craig and Beck, 1999; Wargovich, 2000). So,

1
Principal Scientific Officer, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur-
1701, Bangladesh.
124 NAZRUL

growing a high calorie food sweet potato with vegetables viz. red amaranth, leaf
amaranth, mustard green, mustard and radish etc. would ensure the supply of more
dietary carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals of the rural populace.
In Sylhet region, the farmers are generally growing sweet potato as a sole crop; as
it is a long durated crop (150-180 days) and cultivating with maintaining the
spacing of 60 cm × 30 cm. So, there is a great scope to cultivate short durated (35-
40 days) leafy vegetable in the inter row space of sweet potato. Besides, multiple
cropping systems ensure proper utilization of resources towards increased
production per unit area and time (Ahmad et al., 2007). Vegetable crop failures are
common under unfavorable climate, increases of pest and disease problems are
common, which are affecting the market volatility.Intercropping is one of the
viable technologies to reduce the risk of biotic and abiotic stress. Considering the
above facts, this trial was undertaken tofind out the suitable crop combination for
intercropping with sweet potato increasing productivity, economic returnand
maximize land utilization.

Materials and Methods

The field trial was carried out during two consecutive years 2017-18 and 2018-19
at farming system research and development (FSRD) site, under South Surmal
Upazilla of Sylhet in Bangladesh. The soil of experimental plot was clay loam in
texture and pH ranges 5.5-6.10, organic matter 1.05%, total nitrogen 0.059%,
available phosphorus 10 μg/ml, available potassium 0.12 meq/100 g soils,
sulphur14 μg/ml, boron 0.30 μg/ml and zinc 1.7 μg/ml.
The monthly mean maximum and minimum air temperature and rainfall during the
study period (November-March) are presented in Figure 1. The highest amount of
average monthly rainfall occurred in March (286.45 mm) followed by February
(87.4 mm), December (60.95 mm) and November (21.5 mm). The crops received
total rainfall of 456.30 mm during crop growing period. The mean monthly
maximum air temperature of 33.30C and minimum temperature of 9.15 0C were
recorded during crop season.The climatic data of Sylhet shows that the monthly
average minimum temperature is 9.15 °C and the mean maximum temperature is
33.3 °C.
Five treatments combinations viz. T1: Sweet potato + red amaranth, T2: Sweet
potato + leaf amaranth, T3: Sweet potato + mustard green, T4: Sweet potato +
mustard and T5: Sweet potato sole (100% sweet potato) were considered in the
experiment. The experiment was setup in a randomized complete block design
with three replications. The unit plot size was 8 m × 5 m.
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF SWEET POTATO BASED INTERCROPPING 125

Total rainfal (mm.) Max temp (0C.) Min tem (0C.)

350 35

300 30

250 25

Temperature (0C)
200 20

150 15

100 10

50 5

0 0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Nov. Dec.
Fig. 1. Monthly total rainfall (mm), monthly meanmaximum and minimum
temperature (0C) during crop growing period (Source: Metrological
Department, Sylhet)
Sweet potato (var. BARI Mishti Alu-12) as base crop, while BARI Red
Amaranth-1, BARI Leaf Amaranth-1, mustard green (local cultivar) and local
mustard cultivar were used as intercrops in this trial. The vine of sweet potato
was planted at a spacing of 60 cm × 30 cm. The crops were fertilized with cow
dung 5 t ha-1 and 129-34-130-12.8-4.3-1.4 kg ha-1 N-P-K-S-Zn-B in the form of
urea, triple super phosphate (TSP), muriate of potash (MoP), gypsum, zinc
sulphate and boric acid, respectively (Mondal et al., 2014). Half of urea and all
other fertilizers were used as basal during final land preparation. The vines of
sweet potato and seeds of companion crops were planted or sown during 14-16
November in each year. Remaining N fertilizer was applied in side of the rows
in two equal splits at 30 and 60 days after transplanting. Intercultural operations
were done as and when required. There was no remarkable disease and pest
attack. The companion crop was harvested on 15-20, December and sweet potato
was harvested during 25-30 March in both the years. Mustard green and mustard
were harvested as green vegetable. Data were taken from randomly selected 10
plants of sweet potato and yield data of all the crops were taken from whole plot.
Collected data were pooled and means were adjusted by Least Significant
Different (LSD) test at 5% level of significance. Agronomic performances,
relative yield, sweet potato equivalent yield, land equivalent ratio of
intercropping were calculated.
126 NAZRUL

Relative yield (RY) of species was calculated (Harper, 1977) from the following
formula:
Yield of a species of intercrop
RY =
Yield of the same species in pure stand
Yield of individual crop was converted into sweet potato equivalent yield (SPEY)
considering prevailing market price of the crops according to Islam et al., (2014).
Yi  Pi
SPEY = Yield of sweet potato in intercrop +
Price of sweet potato
Where, Yi = yield of intercrops (vegetables) and Pi = Price of intercrop
(vegetables).
Land equivalent ratio (LER) was calculated following the formula Mian (2008).
SPIY SPEYCC
LER = RYSP + RYi = +
SPSY SPSY
Where, RYsp= Relative yield of sweet potato (main crop), RYi= Relative yield of
intercrops (vegetables), SPIY = Yield of sweet potato in intercrop, SPSY = Yield of
sweet potato as sole crop, SPEYCC = Sweet potato equivalent yield of component
crops{(component crop yield in intercrop × price of component crop)/price of
sweet potato}. Benefit cost analyses were also done.

Results and Discussion

Yield and yield contributing characters of sweet potato
Maximum vine length (80.70 cm) was recorded in T5 (sole sweet potato). This
longest vine length in T5 than other treatment combinations might be due to no
intercrop competition for light, nutrients, moisture and space. The results are in
conformity with the findings of Islam (2014) and Das et al., (2012). Among the
intercropped, sweet potato + mustard combination (T4) produced the highest vine
length (74.90 cm) but this was not similar to that of T1 and T3. T2 (sweet potato +
leaf amaranth) produced the lowest vine length (Table 1). Broad leaves of mustard
and mustard green might help to keep soil moisture for better soil microclimate
and growth of plants. The result was consistent with the findings of Kumar et al.,
(2010) intercrops should have either synergistic or complementary effect relative
to the base crops. Maximum number of roots plant-1(3.93) was obtained from T5
(sweet potato sole) which was identical to that of T 4 (sweet potato + mustard). It
was observed that number roots plant-1 was not influenced by any combination of
intercrop (Table 1). The average weight of single root tubers was also varied with
the variation of intercrop combinations. The highest weight (168.53 g) of single
root tuber was found in sole sweet potato followed by sweet potato + mustard
(161.57 g).
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF SWEET POTATO BASED INTERCROPPING 127

The lowest weight of single root was recorded from sweet potato + leaf amaranth
combination and it was not different from sweet potato + red amaranth and sweet
potato + mustard green combination (Table 1). The effect of intercropping of sweet
potato with red amaranth, leaf amaranth, mustard green and mustard provided
yields of tuberous root were non-significant (Table 1). Among the intercropped
combinations numerically the maximum tuberous root yield (30.53 t ha-1) was
recorded when 100% sweet potato intercropped with 100% mustard greenthat was
very close to that of sweet potato intercropped with mustard. This higher tuberous
root yield of sweet potato might be due to synergetic complementary effect of
broad leaves green mustard to the base crop. Generally, the tuberous root yields of
sweet potato under intercropping treatments were lower than that of sweet potato
sole. The reduction of sweet potato yield was possibly due to intercrop completion
between two crops. However, additional yield from mustard/leafy vegetable gave
extra income.

Relative yield of sweet potato

Relative yield determines competitive ability of component crops in intercropping
system. Greater value of relative yield showed more competitive ability in
intercrop situation compared to its monoculture (Juskiw et al., 2000). The relative
yields of sweet potato were 0.95, 0.96, 0.99 and 0.97 when sweet potato was
intercropped with red amaranth, leaf amaranth, mustard green and mustard,
respectively (Table 1). This indicates that sweet potato yield was reduced by 5, 4,
1and 3% of sole crop when it was intercropped with red amaranth, leaf amaranth,
mustard green and mustard, respectively. The lower relative yield of sweet potato
in intercropping indicated that the crop faced competition for space, nutrients,
light, and water with component crops. The results are in agreement with the
findings of Baghdadi et al., (2016) and Rahman (1999).
Table 1. Length of vine, roots plant-1, weight of single root and yield of root tuber
of sweet potato base intercropping system (pooled data of two years).
Length Tuberous Weight of Root Relative
Treatments of vine roots single root yield yield of
(cm) plant-1 tuber (g) (t ha-1) sweet potato
T1:Sweet Potato+ red amaranth 70.83 3.13 149.30 29.17 0.95
T2:Sweet Potato+ leaf amaranth 62.97 3.10 145.83 29.50 0.96
T3:Sweet Potato+ mustard green 74.27 3.30 154.77 30.53 0.99
T4:Sweet Potato+ mustard 74.90 3.47 161.57 29.77 0.97
T5:Sweet potato as sole crop 80.70 3.93 168.53 30.60 1.00
CV (%) 5.98 8.13 4.59 4.60 -
LSD (0.05) 8.19 0.52 13.47 NS -
NS= Not significant.
128 NAZRUL

Companion crops yield

On an average, the yields of red amaranth, leaf amaranth, mustard green and
mustard as vegetable under intercrops were 4.40, 5.43, 5.60 and 4.50 t ha -1,
respectively. Among them mustard green produced higher yield (5.60 t ha-1) by T3
and lower yield (4.40t ha-1) was produced by T1 (Table 2).

Sweet potato equivalent yield (SPEY)

The equivalent yield is expressed in total productivity of a system. Sweet potato
equivalent yields were higher in all the intercrop combination (31.52 - 41.75 t ha-
1
) than the sweet potato sole (30.60 t ha-1). The maximum sweet potato equivalent
yield (41.75 t ha-1) was recorded in T3 (sweet potato + mustard green) which was
followed by T4 (sweet potato + mustard), T2 (sweet potato+ leaf amaranth) and T1
(sweet potato+ red amaranth) combinations. On the contrary, minimum SPEY was
obtained from T5 (sweet potato as sole). The results indicate the SPEY vary mainly
due to variation in yields of component crops i. e. combined yield of sweet potato
and component crops. Contrastingly, the total productivity also increases of 14.36,
36.37, 10.59 and 3.00 % in sweet potato + mustard, sweet potato + mustard green,
sweet potato + leaf amaranth and sweet potato + red amaranth combinations over
sole sweet potato (Table 2) cultivation practice. This result showed that T 3 (sweet
potato+ mustard green) lead to higher total productivity than sole sweet potato.
The results are agreement with the findings of Ahmed et al., (2013) and Khan et
al., (2017).

Land equivalent ratio (LER)

Land equivalent ratio was calculated to determine land use efficiency in the
intercrop systems. Highest land equivalent ratio (1.37) was recorded in T 3 (sweet
potato+ mustard green) intercropping system followed by T 4 (sweet potato +
mustard). The lowest LER (1.03) was in T1 (sweet potato + red amaranth)
combination. LER of different crop combinations ranged from 1.03 to 1.37
indicating 103-137 % land utilize by intercropping. Total LER of all intercropping
treatments was more than one, which shows an advantage over pure stands in terms
of the use of environmental resources for plant growth as reported by Beyenesh et
al., (2017). The mean values of LER (more than one) in all intercropping
treatments revealed that land was more efficiently utilized under intercropping
than sole cropping of sweet potato. It also expresses that by intercropping of sweet
potato with mustard green, a farmer can produce 30.53 t ha -1 tuberous roots of
sweet potato and 5.60 t ha-1 yield of mustard green from one hectare of land instead
of growing sweet potato sole cultivation.
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF SWEET POTATO BASED INTERCROPPING 129

Table 2. Yield of companion crops, sweet potato equivalent yield (SPEY) and land
equivalent ratio (LER) under sweet potato base intercropping system
(pooled data of two years).
Yield of SPEY % increase of
Treatments companion SPEY over sole LER
crops (t ha-1) (t ha-1) sweet potato
T1:Sweet Potato+ red amaranth 4.40 31.52 3.00 1.03
T2:Sweet Potato+ leaf amaranth 5.43 33.84 10.59 1.10
T3:Sweet Potato+ mustard green 5.60 41.75 36.37 1.37
T4:Sweet Potato+ mustard 4.50 35.17 14.93 1.15
T5:Sweet potato as sole crop - 30.60 - 1.00

Cost benefit analysis

Intercrop combination of sweet potato with short durated leafy vegetables showed
higher monetary return over sole crop (Table 3). The highest gross return (Tk.
625950 ha-1) was recorded from T3 (sweet potato + mustard green) intercrop
combination which was 36.37 % higher than sole cultivation of sweet potato. This
intercropping combination also gave the higher gross margin (Tk. 495500 ha-1) and
benefit cost ratio (4.80) followed by T4 (sweet potato + mustard) combination. The
lowest gross return (Tk. 459000 ha-1), gross margin (Tk. 330300 ha-1) and BCR
(3.57) were obtained from sole cultivation of sweet potato.
Table 3. Cost benefits analysis of sweet potato base vegetables intercropping
system (average data of two years).
Cost of Benefit
Treatments Gross return production Gross margin
cost ratio
(Tk. ha-1) (TK. ha-1)
(TK. ha-1) (BCR)
T1:Sweet Potato+ red amaranth 472800 131500 341300 3.60
T2:Sweet Potato+ leaf amaranth 507600 131200 376400 3.87
T3:Sweet Potato+ mustard green 625950 130450 495500 4.80
T4:Sweet Potato+ mustard 527550 129580 397970 4.07
T5:Sweet potato as sole crop 459000 128700 330300 3.57
-1
Price (Tk. Kg ): Sweet potato: 15.00, Red amaranth: 8.00, Leaf amaranth: 12, Mustard
green: 30.00, Mustard: 18.00

Conclusion
It appears from the results that total productivity along with crop diversification
can be possible through intercropping system. However, sweet potato 100% +
mustard green (Lai shak) 100% combination could be suggested to grow in Sylhet
region under AEZ 20 for higher productivity and economic return.
130 NAZRUL

Acknowledgement
Authors sincerely acknowledge to the farmers’ of FSRD site and MLT sites under
OFRD Sylhet for their co-operation regarding setup of experiment and data
collection during whole experimental period. Also grateful to the Bangladesh
Metrological Department, Sylhet and Soil Resource Development Institute, Sylhet
for the cooperation accorded.

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Khan, A. H., N. Sultana, S. Akhtar, N. Akter and M. S. Zaman. 2017. Performance of

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132 NAZRUL
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 133-142, June 2021
GGE BIPLOT AND AMMI ANALYSIS OF YIELD OF PROSO MILLET
(Panicum miliaceum L.)

H. U. Z. RAIHAN1, M. M. BILLAH2, M. I. RIAD3, M. B. SARKER4

AND M. M. ROHMAN5

Abstract
The experiment was conducted using seven proso millet advanced lines
including one check variety, BARI Cheena-1 (BC-1) across 3 locations
(Gazipur, Jamalpur and Rangpur) of Bangladesh during 2019-20. The objective
of this study was to find out stable proso millet lines, and to verify the influence
of the environments on the yield at different locations of Bangladesh. The mean
sum of squares for the genotypes were significant for grain yield which revealed
the presence of genetic variability in the material under studied. The results of
the AMMI analysis indicated that the main effects due to genotype (G),
environment (E) and GE interaction were significant, representing differential
responses of the lines to the varied environments. Based on the AMMI stability
parameter BD-1447, BD-1411 and BD-777 were the most stable lines across the
environments, of which BD-777 was most stable. Biplot showed that the
environment of Rangpur was poor; but that of Gazipur and Jamalpur were better
for proso millet cultivation. Results also suggested that BD-1447, BD-1411 and
BD-777 could be included in breeding programs due to their higher grain yield.
Keywords: GGE biplot, Yield, Stability, Proso millet, Panicum miliaceum.

Introduction
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is an annual grass, growing from seed each
year. Its origin goes back to history as far as 2000 B.C. It was first introduced to
Canada in the 17th century, and was used in a limited way as a forage crop in the
early 1900's. It apparently did not produce sufficiently high yield of either forage
or grain to compete with the established cereals and forages of that time.
Therefore, it is considered as a minor cereal of Bangladesh. Proso millet can be
grown on sandy loam, slightly acidic, saline, and low-fertility soils (Riley et al.,
1989; Changmei and Dorothy, 2014). However, this crop grows poorly on
waterlogged soils (Seghatoleslami et al., 2008; Hunt et al., 2011) and on coarse
sandy soils (Williams et al., 2007). Proso millet thrives in low pH soils and most
of its seeds germinate well on soils with pH of 5.5 to 6.5 (Lyon et al., 2008).
However, plants grown on soils with pH above 7.8 show symptoms of iron
chlorosis. It is versatile in that it can be successfully grown on many soil types
and is probably better adapted than most cultivated crops to poor land, such as
land with soils having low water holding capacity and low fertility. For this

1, 2 & 5
Plant Breeding Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI),
Gazipur, 3Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Jamalpur, 4Regional
Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Rangpur, Bangladesh.
134 RAIHAN et al.

reason, it can be easily cultivated with low input in the char areas of Bangladesh.
It is mainly grown for birdseed. It is also desirable for human food because it is
easily digestible and gluten-free. It can be ground into flour, used to bake
flatbreads, make tabbouleh or for brewing beer. Among the most commonly
consumed products are ready-to-eat breakfast cereals made purely from millet
flour as well as a variety of noodles and bakery products. In addition, health-
promoting phenolic compounds contained in the grains are readily bio-accessible
and their high calcium content favor bone strengthening and dental health. In
spite of dry land and no-till farming, germination and emergence of proso millet
continue throughout the season. So, it is essential for its varietal improvement to
meet the challenge that will be occurred due to global warming. This is why this
program is undertaken with a view to develop high yielding proso millet variety.
In the recent times, we have developed some high yielding proso millet advanced
lines, and their yield performances need to check over locations.
To select highly adaptive high yielding genotypes, it needs to find out the
interaction between genotypes and environments. The relative performances of
the genotypes can be altered with changes in the environments and these different
responses are due to the genotype environment interactions (GEI), because there
are environments that are either more or less favorable to certain genotypes.
Numerous methods for analyzing multi environment trial data have been
developed to expose the pattern of G×E interaction, joint regression (Finlay and
Wilkinson, 1963, Eberhart and Russel, 1966) and currently AMMI (Gauch, 1992)
and GGE biplot (Genotype main effect plus genotype by environment
interaction). AMMI (additive main effects and multiplicative interactions) model
combines the analysis of variance of genotypes and the environment main effect
with principal component analysis of the GEI into a unified approach (Gauch and
Zobel, 1996). Analysis of variance as an additive model shows only main effects
and informs whether or not the GE interaction is an important source of variation.
It does not, however, provide the understanding into the individual genotypes and
location which are the components of the interaction (Samonte et al., 2005).
AMMI analysis is the combination of ANOVA and principal component analysis
(PCA). PCA is used to partition AMMI analysis where the sources of variability
in the genotype by environment interaction. The genotype by environment
interaction results obtained from AMMI analysis is represented in a biplot which
relates genotypic means to the first or some of the principal interaction
components. GGE biplot analysis enables visual (graphical) presentation of
interaction estimate. The biplot technique is used for the exhibition and
estimation of genotypes in different environments (Gabriel, 1971). GGE biplot
present the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) which are found by
decomposition of singular values of multi-location trial yield data. GGE analysis
assists the identification of the genotypes with the highest yields in across
environment, comparison of their performances in different environments. The
objective of this study was to assess the stability of some recently developed
GGE BIPLOT AND AMMI ANALYSIS OF YIELD OF PROSO MILLET 135

advanced proso millet lines to verify the influence of a sample environments at

different locations of Bangladesh (Gazipur, Jamalpur and Rangpur) on the
productive performance of the genotypes.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted at three locations namely Gazipur (Latitude- 23°
99' N and Longitude- 90° 42' E), Jamalpur (Latitude- 24° 55' N and Longitude-
89° 57' E) and Rangpur (Latitude- 25° 74' N and Longitude- 89° 27' E) districts
of Bangladesh during rabi 2019-20. Six selected proso millet germplasm ( BD-
768, BD-772, BD- 777, BD-780, BD-1411,BD-1447 along with one check
variety BARI Cheena-1 were evaluated in this study. The trials were laid out in
RCB design with three replications. Seeds of each entry were sown in 4m×3m
plot at 25 cm row spacing and continuous sowing. Seeds were sown at Gazipur
on 14 December, Jamalpur on 12 December and Rangpur on 10 December, 2019.
Thinning was done three weeks after date of sowing. Fertilizers were applied @
100, 60 and 40 kg/ha of N, P, and K, respectively. Irrigations were applied (2-3
times) as and when necessary. All intercultural operations were done in time to
raise the crop uniformly. All the plants were considered for plot yield which later
converted into t/ha.

Statistical Analysis
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used, and the GE interaction was
estimated by the AMMI model (Zobel et at.,1988) to determine the genotype (G),
environment (E) and genotype by environment interaction (GE) effects. The
AMMI model for the yield of the ith genotype in the jth environment is (Zobel et
al. 1988):
Yij = μ + gi +aj +∑λkγikαjk +ρij + eij;
where μ is the grand mean; gi is the main effect of the ith genotype (G); aj is the
main effect of the jth environment (E).
GE= ∑λkγikαjk +ρij + eij
where λk is the eigen value of the nth interaction principal component analysis
(IPCA) retained in the AMMI model; γik is the eigen vector for the ith genotype
from kth IPCA, αjk is the eigen vector for the jth environment from the kth
IPCA, ρij is the GE interaction residual, and eij is the random error term.
In this procedure, the contribution of each genotype and each environment to the
GE interaction was assessed by use of the biplot graph display in which yield
means were plotted against the scores of the first principal component of the
interaction (IPCA1). The computational program for AMMI analysis was done
by Duarte and Vencovsky (1999). The stability parameters, regression coefficient
(bi) and deviation from regression (S2di) were estimated according to Eberhart
136 RAIHAN et al.

and Russel (1966). All data were processed and analyzed using statistical
analyzing software Crop stat 7.2 program and PB tools.

Results and Discussion

Results of combined analysis of variance for yield of 7 (seven) proso millet lines
across 3 (three) environments are presented in Table 1. The mean sum of squares
for the genotypes were significant for grain yield which revealed the presence of
genetic variability in the material under studied. Environment mean sum of
squares were also highly significant which indicated high differential genotypic
response across different environments. Analysis of variance for yield at three
environments indicated that the effects of genotype, environment and their
interactions were significant. Environment relative magnitude was much higher
than the genotypic effect, suggesting that the performances of the genotypes was
influenced more by environmental factors.
Table 1. Full joint analysis of variance including the partitioning of the G × E
interaction of prosomillet advanced lines for yield
Mean sum of square
Source of variation DF
Yield
Genotypes(G) 6 0.23**
Environments (E) 2 0.80**
Interactions (G x E) 12 0.098*
AMMI component 1 7 0.076**
AMMI component 2 5 0.0059
G x E (Linear) 6 0.052
Pool deviation 6 0.041
Pooled error 52 0.053
*, ** indicated at 5% and 1% level of significance;
Stability parameter i.e., regression coefficient (bi) and deviation from the
regression (S2di) for yield of the proso millet lines are presented in Table 2. In
Eberhart and Russel (1966) model, regression coefficient (bi) is considered as an
indication of the response of the genotype to varying environments while
deviation from regression (S2di) is used as the criterion of stability. In the present
study, these two criteria were considered simultaneously to identify stable
genotypes. A genotype with unit regression coefficient (bi=1) is said to be
average responsive to environment and suitable for all environment therefore,
more adaptive.
If bi >1 it is said to be highly responsive and suitable for favorable environment.
If bi<1 it is said to be less responsive and the genotype is suitable for unfavorable
environment (Nadarajan and Gunasekaran, 2005).
GGE BIPLOT AND AMMI ANALYSIS OF YIELD OF PROSO MILLET 137

Yield along with the value of phenotypic index (Pi,) regression coefficient (bi),
deviation from the regression (S2di) are presented in table 2. The genotypic
means ranged from 1.50 t/ha (BD-768) to 2.15 t/ha (BD 777). In case of
environment index, Rangpur location gave the lowest yield (1.51 t/ha) while
Gazipur location gave the highest yield (2.19 (t/ha).
Three genotypes showed negative phenotypic index represent the low yield and
the rest four showed positive Pi values representing the high yield among the
genotypes. Again, positive and negative environmental index (Ij) reflects the rich
or favorable and poor or unfavorable environments for this character,
respectively. Thus, the environment of Rangpur and Jamalpur were poor,
whereas Gazipur has positive environments for proso millet production. So
Gazipur is the most favorable for proso millet cultivation followed by Jamalpur.
Results also showed proso millet can be grown with minimum input in Rangpur.
The regression coefficient (bi) values of these genotypes ranged from 0.51 to
1.65. These differences in bi values indicated that all the genotypes responded
differently to different environments (Table-2). Considering all the three stability
parameters i.e mean, bi and S2di, it was evident that all the genotypes were
different in response of adaptability under different environmental conditions.
The regression coefficient should be better considered as an indicator for
genotypic responses to varying environments (Alberts, 2004) and Solomon et al.,
2008). Among the genotypes BD-1447, BD-777 and BD-1411exhibited higher
grain yield with bi~1 and S2di~0, which indicated that these genotypes were
stable across the environment.
Table 2. Stability analysis for yield (t/ha) of proso millet over 3 environments during
2019-20
Yield (t/ha) Stability parameter
SI
Entry Overall
No. Gazipur Jamalpur Rangpur Pi bi S2di
mean
1 BD-768 2.13 1.36 1.00 1.50 -0.36** 1.65 0.05
2 BD-772 2.17 1.40 1.11 1.56 -0.30* 1.54 0.06
3 BD-777 2.24 2.28 1.91 2.15 0.28* 0.51 0.02
4 BD-780 2.09 1.74 1.28 1.70 -0.16 1.19* 0
5 BD-1411 2.22 2.33 1.84 2.13 0.26* 0.60 0.05
6 BD-1447 2.20 2.33 1.85 2.13 0.26* 0.55 0.05
7 BC-1 2.26 1.78 1.62 1.89 0.021 0.93 0.02
Mean 2.19 1.88 1.51 1.86 - - -
Env. Index (Ij) 0.32** 0.02 -0.35 - - - -
LSD (0.05) 0.17 0.31 0.36 - - - -
CV 4.37 9.12 13.50 - - - -
*, ** indicated at 5% and 1% level of significance.
138 RAIHAN et al.

G1=BD-768, G2=BD-772, G3=BD-777, G4= BD-780, G5= BD-1411, G6=BD-1447,

G7=BC1(Check), E1= Gazipur, E2= Jamalpur, E3=Rangpur
Fig. 1. Biplot of the first AMMI interaction (IPCA1) score (Y–axis) plotted against
mean yield (X-Axis) of seven proso millet advanced lines and three
environment.
The AMMI biplot provides a visual expression of the relationship between the
first interaction principal component axis (IPCA1) and means of genotypes and
environments (Fig. 1) with the biplot accounting up to 94.7% of the treatment
sum of squares. The IPCA1 was highly significant and explained the interaction
pattern better than other interaction axes. The mean genotypes or environments in
AMMI biplot located on the same parallel line, relative to the ordinate, have
similar yield, while those located on the right side of the centre of the axis has
higher yields than those on the left hand side (Fig.1). The biplot showed four
grouping of genotypes, the 1st group was unstable and low yielding having three
genotypes i.e., G1=BD-768, G2= BD-772 and G4 = BD-780. The 2nd group was
stable and low yielding having no genotypes, While G6=BD-1447, G5= BD-1411
and G3=BD-777 are the high yielding and stable genotypes and high yielding and
unstable groups having only one genotype i.e., G7= BC-1.
GGE BIPLOT AND AMMI ANALYSIS OF YIELD OF PROSO MILLET 139

The AMMI biplot (Fig. 2) illustrates that some genotypes in one environment
have shown higher yield than in other, i.e., genotypes and environments have a
specific interaction. Genotypes using PC values near to zero exhibit broader
adaptability, and genotypes with higher PC1 values are more suitable for location
with PC1 values of the same sign. For example, the genotype G7=BC-1 was
suitable in Gazipur. Assessment of individual genotype performances can be
based on their positions relative to the X and Y axis. The suitable advanced lines
are those which have high yield with stable performances in most locations. The
three high yielding genotypes (G6=BD-1447, G5=BD1411 and G3=BD777)
proved to be the most desirable. Being high yielding, these are the suitable lines
for all the environments.

Yield (t/ha)
Fig.2. AMMI Biplot 2 interaction (IPCA1 and IPCA2) of seven proso millet
advanced lines and three environments.
IPCA2 scores also play a significant role in explaining the GEI; the IPCA1
scores were plotted against the IPCA2 scores for further exploration of
adaptation (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 shows that the genotypes, G7=BC-1, G1=BD-768 and
G2=BD 772 were unstable due to their dispersed position.
140 RAIHAN et al.

What -won- where biplot for yield

GGE biplot method can be used to identify superior genotypes for target sites.
The biplot (Fig. 3) represents a polygon, where some of the hybrids are
positioned on the vertexes, while the rest are inside the polygon. As the hybrids
positioned on the vertexes have the longest distance from the biplot origin, they
are supposed to be the most responsive. Responsive hybrids are either best or the
poorest at one or every environment (Yan and Rajcan, 2002).
According to the biplot shown in Fig 3. The corner genotypes that are the most
responsive ones can be visually determined. In this figure, Locations are divided
into three sectors. The first sector represents Jamalpur and Gazipur, with
genotype G3=BD-777 as the most favorable for Jamalpur. The second sector
represents Rangpur, with genotype G5= BD-1411 and G6=BD 1447 as the
unfavorable. The other corner genotype G1=BD-768, G2= BD-772 and G4=
BD780 were the poorest yielder. They were located far away from all of the test
locations, reflecting the fact that they yielded poorly at each location.

Fig.3. GGE biplot showing “What won where” of the 7 proso millet advanced lines
across 3 environments
GGE BIPLOT AND AMMI ANALYSIS OF YIELD OF PROSO MILLET 141

Conclusion
From the results of the study, it can be concluded that the performances of proso
millet advanced lines were strongly influenced by the environments. Among the
three environments, Gazipur was found most suitable for proso millet cultivation
followed by Jamalpur. Among the lines BD-777 produced the highest yield
followed by BD-1447 and BD-1411. Considering the yield potentiality and
stability parameter, three genotypes BD-1447, BD-777 and BD-1411 were
suitable for all the environments. So, these three genotypes could be selected for
release as variety.

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ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 143-151, June 2021
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CONTROL
LITCHI FRUIT BORER

M. A. TAHER1, M. M. UDDIN2, K. S. ISLAM3 AND M. A. RAHMAN4

Abstract
Litchi is affected by number of pests, among them litchi fruit borer (LFB),
Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) is serious one
which causes considerable yield loss. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of
different options for the management of LFB. The research work was conducted
in an orchard at Gopalpur under Tangail district of Bangladesh consecutively for
two seasons to manage LFB using mosquito net, two types of bags, three
botanicals and five synthetic insecticides as spray material to find out the most
efficient one based on the highest reduction of fruit infestation (RFI) over control
along with benefit cost ratio (BCR). White butter paper bagging showed highest
RFI (100%) with 51.66% increase of fresh fruit (FF) over control and BCR 7.47:1.
Neem oil was significantly effective in RFI over control (78.73%) with BCR
8.67:1. Novastar 56 EC (Bifenthrin+ Abamectin) was the most effective among
the chemical treatments recording 98.08 % RFI with increase of 51.18 % FF over
control and BCR 6.06:1. Based on BCR, performance of different treatments
could be ranked as Neem oil > Paper bagging > Novastar. So, Paper bagging as
safe technique, Neem oil at the rate of 6 ml/L of water as an eco-friendly tactic
and Novastar 56 EC @ 1 ml/L of water as least harmful approach could be
recommended to protect litchi from the attack of LFB and ensure higher number
of fresh fruits.
Keywords: Litchi, Conopomorpha sinensis, mechanical, botanical, insecticide.

Introduction
Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is one of the most popular fruits of Bangladesh.
It is an important sub-tropical evergreen fruit crop having juicy white aril with
high nutritive value, attractive colour and refreshing taste known as the queen of
the fruits (Purbey and Kumar; Srivastava et al., 2015). Agro-climatic condition
of Bangladesh is conducive to the successful production of litchi and this popular
fruit grows almost all over the country. During the recent years due to its ever
increasing demand both in domestic and international market, it has risen to the
status of a very important commercial fruit in Bangladesh providing livelihood
opportunities to the people (Alam, 2011). But very unfortunately, the Litchi
farmers are facing some problems during cultivation mainly insect pests, of
which litchi fruit borer is the most common and serious pest in Bangladesh
(Alam, 2004; Alam, 2011). Even in the previous century litchi fruit borer was
1
PhD Student, Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangladesh
Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, 2&3Professor, Department of Entomology,
Faculty of Agriculture, BAU, Mymensingh, 4Senior Scientific Officer, Vertebrate Pest
Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh.
144 TAHER et al.

considered to be a minor pest. But now a-days, it is regarded as a major pest of

litchi, especially in Indian sub-continent (Sharma, 1985), a region of ever-
changing climate scenario (Srivastava and Nath, 2015). If proper steps are not
taken against this pest in time, it causes mass infestation to the fruit and farmers
suffer from a huge financial loss (Alam et al., 2004). Annual yield loss in fruit
ranges from 30%-52% due to insect pest infestation and that is one of the major
causes for low production of litchi in Bangladesh (Alam, 2011). To overcome
this loss, different types of insecticides are used frequently by the farmers of
Bangladesh. It was evident that about hundred percent farmers in Bangladesh
depends on the use of toxic insecticides in controlling fruit borer and spraying
frequency of the farmers reached 20 times more during fruiting season covering
the duration of 50-70 days to protect the fruits from the pest attack (Taher, 2020).
Due to the absence of effective and economic control measures, the litchi
growers are spraying different insecticides to control the pest without any
potential benefits. The use of such type of insecticide increases the cost of
production, exposes farmers and consumers to toxic residues, pollutes the
environment and leads to insecticide resistance in insects. In June 2012, 14
children aged from 2 to 10, got affected with insecticides and died by consuming
toxic Litchis living near the litchi orchard in Dinajpur and Thakurgaon Districts
of Bangladesh (IEDCR, 2012). For avoiding these facts, management of litchi
fruit borer requires strategies which should be more effective, safer and cheaper.
Despite this situation, a few attempts have been made earlier to manage this
serious pest by adopting different tactics. Considering all the views mentioned
above, the present study was undertaken to find out the suitable management
techniques for the management of LFB.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out during 2014 and 2015, March to June at
Gopalpur, Tangail following 11 treatments to find out the effectiveness of
different management tactics (mechanical, botanical and insecticides) on litchi
fruit borer, in an orchard of approximately one acre in size. Over this period of
time, fruit infestations by C. sinensis were evaluated in this orchard (Variety:
Madrazi and Bombai). The experiment was designed in Randomized Complete
Block Design with 3 replications. The treatments viz. covering of fruit by
mosquito net, bagging of fruit with mosquito net bag and white butter paper bag,
Bishkatali leaf extract at the rate of 20 ml/L of water, Neem oil and Karanja oil
@ 6 ml/L of water, Cypermethrin (Ripcord 10 EC) 1ml/L of water,
Thiamethoxam (Actara 25 WG) 0.5g/L of water, Bifenthrin+Abamectin
(Novastar 56 EC)1ml/L of water, Deltamethrin (Decis 2.5 EC) 1ml/L of water,
Carbaryl (Sevin 85 SP) 2g/L of water and untreated control were evaluated. In
each treatment, three trees were assigned and comprising each tree for one
replication. One tree in all replication was assigned as control. All the spray
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CONTROL LITCHI FRUIT BORER 145

materials were applied 3 rounds; first spray was done 10 days after fruit
formation and it was repeated two times at 15 days interval. The mechanical
tactic was started within 10 days after fruit set. The nylon mosquito net was cut
into pieces of different sizes and was used to cover litchi fruit a part of the tree
(Fig. 1.a). The mosquito net was used after preparing a bag of the size of 18 inch
x 14 inch. The paper bag was purchased from Dhaka, size of 12 inch x 8 inch.
A few fruit bunches were tied together and then covered with Net bag and Paper
bag (Fig.1. b & c). One kg of fresh Bishkatali leaves was mixed with required
amount of water then boiled for 25-30 minutes, after cooling and filtration,
making a volume up to 5 litres. Neem oil and Karanja oil were separately diluted
into water with dish washing liquid (Trix mint) @ 0.5 ml/L of water, mixture
was shaken two minutes to prepare a uniform solution and then used as botanical
insecticides. The spraying was done on outer and inner canopy of the tree in all
the directions with the help of foot pump sprayer. The observations of fruit
infestation by Conopomorpha sinensis were recorded from harvested fruits. The
peduncle of harvested fruit was opened and presence of larva or their excreta or
entrance holes was considered as infested fruits (Fig.1. d & e). Number of fresh
and infested fruits were counted and recorded from randomly selected 50 fruits
per treatment and percentage of fruit infestation, reduction of infestation,
percent increase of fresh fruits and benefit cost ratio (BCR) were calculated. The
data of two years were used to calculate the mean and finally these were
analyzed using MSTAT-C software and the means were separated by DMRT
(Duncan’s Multiple Range Test). Percent fresh fruit increase over control and
benefit cost ratio were calculated per acre by the following formulae:
No. of fresh fruit in treated tree−No.of fresh fruit in control tree
% FF increase over control = x100
Number of fresh fruit in treated tree
Value of treated fruit−Value of untreated fruit
Benefit-cost ratio =
Cost of treatment application for each tactic

a b c d e

Fig.1 (a) Netting (b) Net bagging (c) Paper bagging (d) Entrance holes with excreta
(e) Seed tip infested mature fruit with larva

Results and Discussion

The data of all the management approaches significantly (p≤0.01) reduced the fruit
infestation in comparison to untreated control. Different management tactics
showed significant effect in controlling litchi fruit infestation are described in
following heads and data are presented in Table 1 and Table 2.
146 TAHER et al.

Efficacy of different tactics in suppressing percentages of fruit infestation

Effect of different tactics on fruit infestation was highly significant. The hundred
percent protection of infestation was recorded by Paper bagging. The least
infestation was found in Net bagging (0.66%) followed by Netting (2.96%).
Hwang and Hung (1993) reported that the litchis with bagging could completely
prevent the fruits from C. sinensis and did not affect the growth of fruits.
Significant variation was observed in percentage of borer infested litchi due to
botanical insecticides. The lowest percentage of fruit infestation was noticed from
Neem oil (10.99%) and the moderate in Bishkatali leaf extract (15.10%) followed
by Karanja oil (18.83%). These findings comparable with the work of Ranjan and
Singh (2003) who observed 38.0% fruit infestation when treated with neem oil.
The efficacy of three botanicals was as the following order to neem leaf extract>
bishkatali leaf extract>neem oil reported by Miah et al. (2017).
All the chemical treatments significantly (p≤0.01) reduced the fruit infestation.
The minimum fruit infestation was 0.99% observed in Bifenthrin+Abamectin
(Novastar 56 EC). The second lowest was registered in Thiamethoxam (Actara 25
WG) 4.03% followed by Deltamethrin (Decis 2.5 EC) 5.23%, Carbaryl (Sevin 85
SP) 6.02% and Cypermethrin (Ripcord 10 EC) 7.69%. The findings of present
study are in a good agreement with Jumroenma et al. (2000) who found that the
use of insecticides gave better performance against LFB ranging from 2.88-10.85
% at the harvesting period. Hung et al. (2008) reported that chemical sprays in
litchi can effectively reducing the fruit damages caused by C. sinensis ranging
from 8-16.5%.

Effect of different management approaches on percentage reduction of fruit

infestation
The effect of all approaches on the reduction percentage of fruit infestation varied
significantly. The hundred percent reduction of fruit infestation over control was
observed in harvested fruits treated with Paper bagging, whereas 98.72% in Net
bagging and 94.27% in Netting. Similarly the highest reduction of fruit infestation
over control was found 96% when the litchi was bagged reported by Alam et al.
(2004).
The effectiveness of botanical insecticides on the reduction of infestation over
control was 78.73 % in Neem oil followed by Bishkatali leaf extract (70.77%) and
63.55% in Karanja oil. This results was nearer with Dong et al. (2006) who
reported that sprayed with azadirachtin against fruit borer the reduction of
infestation was 89.4% and 87.5%, respectively. Sahoo et al. (2007) also reported
that the azadirachtin was significantly superior over the untreated control.
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CONTROL LITCHI FRUIT BORER 147

Due to the effect of synthetic insecticides on the reduction percentage of fruit

infestation over control was the highest (98.08%) in Novastar 56 EC followed by
Actara 25 WG (92.20%), Decis 2.5 EC (89.88%), Sevin 85 SP (88.35%) and the
lowest was 85.11% in Ripcord10 EC (Fig.2). These results were close
confirmatory with the work of Hwang and Hung (1993) who reported that
insecticides were more effective against C. sinensis as their control rate reached
above 95%. Similarly, Ping (2006) observed the efficacy of six insecticides
against LFB and reported their control effects as 73.68 % to 83.41%, respectively.

Effectiveness of different approaches and their impact on the percent increase

of fresh fruit
The number of fresh fruits varied between the level of pest infestation and the
efficacy of applied management tactics. The percentage of fresh fruit increased
over control showed significant level of success. In view of mechanical control
effect, the fresh fruit was increased over control at the rate of 50.19%% in Netting,
51.34% in Net bagging and 51.66% in Paper bagging. These findings are nearly
agreed with the results of Purbey and Kumar (2015) who reported that there was
a 33.58% - 41.38 % healthy fruit found in all bagged fruits as compared to control.
In term of botanical treated trees, the fresh fruit was increased over control at the
rate of 43.06% in Bishkatali leaf extract, Neem oil (45.69%) and Karanja oil
(40.45%). Dong et al. (2006) reported that fresh fruit increased remarkably by
spraying azadirachtin against fruit borer.
Due to the insecticidal treatments, the fresh fruit was increased over control at the
rate of 47.63%, 49.63%, 51.18%, 48.99% and 48.56% by spraying of Ripcord,
Actara, Novastar, Decis, and Sevin, respectively. These results are comparable to
the findings of Ranjan et al. (2019) who reported that spraying of insecticides,
recording lowest fruit damage due to litchi fruit borer and increased the maximum
marketable fruit.

Economic analysis of different control measures

The benefit cost ratio (BCR) varied depending on the cost of treatment
application and increasing fresh fruit with market price. In case of mechanical
treated trees, the highest benefit cost ratio was 7.47:1 in Paper bagging followed
by Net bagging (5.69:1) and Netting (3.17:1). It is to be noted that all the
mechanical treated trees provided maximum number of fresh fruit but the higher
application cost, the method brought down the profit margin and showed lower
BCR. Moreover, bagging was most effective and eco-friendly management
technique for controlling LFB. Similar to the present study reported by Waite
and Hwang (2002).
148 TAHER et al.

Due to the botanical treated trees, the highest benefit cost ratio was 8.67:1 in Neem
oil followed by Bishkatali leaf extract (8.50:1) and Karanja oil (6.45:1). Similar
findings were reported by Gupta et al. (2000) to evaluate neem plant products and
the maximum benefit cost ratio was found by neem oil followed by neem leaf
extract.
Table1. Effect of different management approaches on fruit infestation and fresh fruit
increase of litchi during 2014 and 2015 at Gopalpur, Tangail (mean)
Treatments % fruit % reduction of Number of % fresh fruit
infestation fruit infestation fresh fruit/ acre increase over
over control control

Netting 2.96 e 94.27 172051.90 c 50.19

Net bagging 0.66 e 98.72 176129.80 b 51.34
Paper bagging 0.00 e 100 177300.00 a 51.66
Bishkatali leaf ext. 15.10 b 70.77 150527.70 i 43.06
Neem oil 10.99 c 78.73 157814.70 h 45.69
Karanja oil 18.83 b 63.65 143914.40 j 40.45
Ripcord 10 EC 7.69 d 85.11 163665.60 g 47.63
Actara 25 WG 4.03 d 92.20 170154.80 d 49.63
Novastar 56 EC 0.99 e 98.08 175544.70 b 51.18
Decis 2.5 EC 5.23 d 89.88 168027.20 e 48.99
Sevin 85 SP 6.02 d 88.35 166626.50 f 48.56
Control 51.66 a 0.00 85706.82 k 0.00
Level of signific. 0.01 - 0.01 -
CV (%) 16.22 - 0.30 -
The values having different letter(s) in a column are significantly different at 5% level.
CV (%) = Co-efficient of variation
According to chemical insecticides, the highest BCR was 6.06:1 in Novastar
followed by Decis (5.66:1), Ripcord (5.15:1), Sevin (3.19:1) and Actara
(3.02:1). These findings are in agreement to the works of Ranjan et al. (2019)
who reported that spraying of insecticide, provided the maximum marketable
fruit and thus highest benefit cost ratio was 10.2:1. Bhatia et al. (2000)
conducted a study on the fruit borer control of litchi using six different
insecticides and found the highest efficacy with all of the tested insecticides
resulted in high returns.
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CONTROL LITCHI FRUIT BORER 149

Table 2. Benefit cost ratio analysis in respect of effectiveness of different tactics

during 2014 and 2015 (mean)
Value of Value of Value over Application
Total
Treatments fresh infested control cost/ acre BCR
fruit/acre (Tk.) (Tk.)
fruit/acre (Tk.)
Netting 387116.80 4198.46 391315.30 125200.40 39440 3.17:1
Net bagging 396292.10 936.14 397228.20 131113.40 23049 5.69:1
Paper bagging 398925.00 0.00 398925.00 132810.10 17784 7.47:1
Bishkat.lea. ext. 301055.40 21417.84 322473.20 56358.35 6630 8.50:1
Neem oil 315629.50 15588.20 331217.70 65102.79 7513 8.67:1
Karanja oil 287828.80 26708.47 314537.30 48422.40 7513 6.45:1
Ripcord 10 EC 286414.90 10907.50 297322.30 31207.46 6054 5.15:1
Actara 25 WG 297770.90 5716.15 303487.10 37372.18 12390 3.02:1
Novastar 56 EC 307203.30 1404.22 308607.50 42492.60 7014 6.06:1
Decis 2.5 EC 294047.60 7418.23 301465.80 35350.96 6246 5.66:1
Sevin 85 SP 291596.40 8538.77 300135.20 34020.32 10662 3.19:1
Control 192840.30 73274.54 266114.90 0.00 0.00 0.00

For calculating BCR: To use the number of fresh fruit 177300/acre obtained from
the trial trees, fresh fruit market price 2.25Tk/litchi (mechanical), 2Tk/litchi
(botanical),1.75Tk/litchi (insecticidal), 0.80Tk/litchi (infested), labour cost for
treatment application =400Tk/day (8 hours day), sprayer rent for spraying
insecticides = 50 Tk/day and treated material price.
Over all, it was found that the tested treatments in the present study showed the
high efficacy in reducing fruit infestation and producing maximum fresh fruit to
compare untreated control but application cost of some tactics was higher, resulted
in the lower BCR than that of others. Dissimilarities in results between the previous
and the present study may be due to the meteorological parameters, frequency of
spray material and mode of action, application time, variety of litchi and price. The
finding of this study based on different approaches hold a good promise in litchi
fruit borer management. It showed that Butter paper bag, Neem oil and Novastar
56 EC (Bifenthrin+Abamectin) was the cost effective and eco-friendly
technologies which may be incorporated to the farmers’ field.

Conclusion
It is apparently found that infesting litchi by fruit borer elicits the greatest
economic effects. From this study the results revealed that litchi fruit borer could
be controlled using mechanical, botanical and chemical control tactics. It can be
concluded that the use of chemical insecticides might be reduced with the increase
of some promising tactics like Paper bagging as mechanical and Neem oil as
150 TAHER et al.

botanical treatment. Besides, new generation insecticide; Novastar 56 EC

(Bifenthrin+Abamectin) may be used for the better management of LFB by
maintaining the pre-harvest intervals (PHI) following the proper doses of this
insecticide with optimum spray schedules.
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Bangladesh. Entomology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute,
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152 TAHER et al.
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 153-165, June 2021
EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT
NUTRIENTS ON PURPLE BLOTCH AND TIP-BURN OF ONION

M. I. FARUK1

Abstract
An experiment was conducted in the field of Plant Pathology Division, BARI,
Cazipur, during Robi 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18 cropping seasons to evaluate
the efficacy of available plant nutrients against purple blotch disease and tip-burn
of onion. Eight different plant nutrients viz. Potassium (ZnSO4 fertilizer),
Phosphorus (TSP fertilizer), Boron (Boron fertilizer), Zinc (ZnSO4 fertilizer),
Calcium (CaSO4 fertilizer), Copper (CuSO4), Silicon (silica gel) and Manganese
(MnSO4 fertilizer) were tested against purple blotch disease and tip-burn of onion.
Soil and foliar application of plant nutrients viz. Potassium, Phosphorus, Boron,
Zinc, Calcium, Copper, Silicon and Manganese in the formed of water solution
gave appreciable reduction of purple blotch disease and tip-burn incidence and
increased plant growth such as shoot and root growth as well as yield of onion.
Among the nutrients solution Potassium, Phosphorus, Silicon, Zinc and Calcium
were performed better for reducing purple blotch disease severity (upto 62.78%),
tip-burn incidence (upto 72.22%) and increasing plant growth as well as yield of
onion. Application of Boron and Manganese also performed better than control.
So, soil and foliar application plant nutrients viz. Potassium, Phosphorus, Silicon,
Zinc, Boron and Manganese might be recommended for tip-burn and purple
blotch disease management and also for onion production in Bangladesh.
Keywords: Onion, purple blotch, Alternaria porri, tip burn, plant nutrients.

Introduction
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important and familiar spices crop
specially bulb onion throughout the world. It is a member of the family Alliaceae.
It is also used as popular vegetable in many countries of Asia and also very
common and favorable spice in Bangladesh. It ranks first in the area (419122 ha)
and production (1704402 MT) (BBS, 2015). It covers almost 46% of the total areas
under spices (BBS, 2015). The national average yield is only 4.07 t/ha which is
quite low compared to world average of 17.27 t/ha (FAO, 1998). Onion crop is
affected by a number of soil borne and foliar diseases (Munoz et. al., 1984; Ahmed
and Hossain, 1985; Meah and Khan, 1987). Both soil borne and foliar diseases are
the major constrains for low yield of onion in the country. Among the diseases,
purple blotch caused by Alternaria porri, is noted as the major foliar disease
throughout the world including Bangladesh (Meah and Khan, 1987; Bose and Som,
1986; Castellanes-Linares et. al., 1988). Now a day’s tip-burn becomes one of the
problems for onion cultivation in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, detail and

1
Principal Scientific Officer, Plant Pathology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh.
154 FARUK

comprehensive studies were done for the management of purple blotch disease but
none of the informations are available about tip burn problem. Only fungicidal
management is the effective means to manage the purple blotch disease. But
indiscriminate use of chemicals pesticides causes environmental pollution and
health hazards (Gerhardson, 2002). So, it is important to find alternative measures
to control plant diseases which do not harm the environment and at the same time
increase yield and improve product quality (Atkinson and McKinlay, 1997; Batish
et al., 2007; Camprubí et al., 2007). Nutrients are important for growth and
development of plants and also for microorganisms. In addition, nutrients can
affect the development of a disease by affecting plant physiology or by affecting
pathogens, or both of them. They are important factors for disease suppression
(Agrios, 2005). All the essential nutrients can affect disease severity (Huber and
Graham, 1999). So, it is important to manage nutrients availability through
fertilizers or change the soil environment to influence nutrient availability, and in
that way to control plant disease (Huber and Graham, 1999; Graham and Webb,
1991). The level of nutrients can influence the plant growth, which can affect the
microclimate, therefore affecting infection and sporulation of the pathogen
(Marschner, 1995). But in Bangladesh there is no available information about the
effect of nutrients on the onion disease management. Therefore the present study
has taken to observe the effect of plant nutrients on purple blotch disease and tip-
burn of onion.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted in the field of Plant Pathology Division,
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Joydebpur, Gazipur during robi 2015-
16, 2016-17 and 2017-18 cropping seasons. There were 9 treatments viz. T1= Spray
in the furrow soil during transplanting + Foliar spray of Potassium (MOP fertilizer
@ 2% water solution), T2= Spray in the furrow soil during transplanting + Foliar
spray of Phosphorus (TSP fertilizer @ 2% water solution), T3= Spray in the furrow
soil during transplanting + Foliar spray of Zinc (ZnSO4 fertilizer @ 1% water
solution), T4= Spray in the furrow soil during transplanting + Foliar spray of
Silicon (Silica gel @ 2% water solution), T5= Spray in the furrow soil during
transplanting + Foliar spray of Boron (Boro fertilizer @ 1% water solution) T 6=
Spray in the furrow soil during transplanting + Foliar spray of Calcium (CaSO 4
fertilizer @ 1% water solution), T7= Spray in the furrow soil during transplanting
+ Foliar spray of Manganese (MnSO4 fertilizer @ 1% water solution), T8= Spray
in the furrow soil during transplanting + Foliar spray of Copper (CuSO4 @ 1%
water solution) and T9= Control (only used recommended dose of fertilizers). The
unit plot size was 2 m x 2.5m. RCB design was followed with 3 replications. The
treatments were applied four times viz. 1st application in the soil at the time of
seedling transplanting, 2nd foliar application 40-45 days after seedling
transplanting, 3rd foliar application 10-12 days after 2nd application and 4th foliar
EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT NUTRIENTS 155

application 10-12 days after 3rd application. Forty five days old onion seedlings of
cv. BARI Piaz-1 grown on sterilized soils was transplanted in the experimental
plots maintaining row to row and plant to plant distance of 15 cm and 10 cm,
respectively. Standard cultivation procedures including method of fertilizer
application recommended by BARI were followed to grow onion (Azad et al.,
2019). Recommended doses of different fertilizers viz. cowdung @ 5 t/ha, Urea @
240 kg/ha, TSP @ 260 kg/ha and MOP @ 150 kg/ha were used in all the treatment
including control treatment (Azad et al., 2019). During crop season necessary
weeding, irrigation and other intercultural operations were done as per
recommendation of the crop.
Data collection: Data were recorded on purple blotch disease severity, tip-burn
incidence, plant growth parameter such as plant height, shoot weight, root length
and root weight and yield per unit area. Data on plant growth parameters were
recorded 65 days after seedling transplanting. Data on purple blotch disease
severity and tip burn incidence were collected 10 days after 4th time treatments
application. Data were calculated in terms of disease incidence and disease severity
(PDI) by following formulae-
Number of infected plant
Disease incidence = × 100
Total number of inspected plant

Total sum of numerical ratings

PDI = X100
Number of observation X Maximum disease rating in the scale
The 0-5 disease scoring scale was used to estimate the disease severity (PDI-
Percent Disease Index) of purple blotch complex of onion for each unit plot under
each treatment. The scale was followed by Islam et al. (1999) and Rahman and
Rashid (2008) as described below:
0 = no disease symptoms in the plant
1 = a few spots towards the tip, covering less than 10% leaf area
2 = several dark purplish brown patches covering less than 20% leaf area
3 = several patches with paler outer zone, covering up to 40% leaf area
4 = long streaks covering upto 75% leaf area or breaking of leaves / stalks from
the centre
5 = complete drying of the leaves/ stalks or breaking of the leaves / stalks from
the base
The percent data were converted into arcsine transformation values before
statistical analysis. Data were analyzed statistically by using the MSTATC
program. The treatment effects were compared by applying the least significant
different (LSD) test at P=0.05 level.
156 FARUK

Results and Discussion

Plant growth: Average plant height of onion under control was 38.13 cm plant-1
in the first year, 40.73 cm plant-1 in the second year and 40.33 cm plant-1 in the
third year. The plant height was increased to 44.73-48.73 cm plant-1 in the first
year, 48.53-60.07 cm plant-1 in the second year and 46.33-64.67 cm plant-1 in the
third year due to soil and foliar application of different plant nutrients (Table 1).
In the first year, the highest plant height was obtained by the soil and foliar
application MOP fertilizer followed by TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4 fertilizer and Silica
gel (Table 1). Lower increased of plant height over control was recorded from the
treatment CuSO4 followed by CaSO4 fertilizer, MnSO4 and Boron fertilizer. In the
second year, the highest plant height was recored from Silica gel treatment
followed by TSP fertilizer, MOP fertilizer, ZnSO4 fertilizer, Boron fertilizer and
CaSO4 fertilizer (Table 1). The least effective treatment in increasing of plant
height over control was recorded from CuSO4 followed by MnSO4 treatment. In
the third year, the maximum plant height was recorded from MOP fertilizer
treatment followed by TSP fertilizer, Silica gel, ZnSO4 and Boron fertilizer
treatment. The least effective treatment to increase plant height was CuSO4
followed by CaSO4 fertilizer treatment (Table 1).
Table 1. Effect of soil treatment and foliar application different nutrients on the plant
growth of onion during three consecutive years
Soil and foliar application Plant height (cm) Plant weight (gplant-1)
of different plant nutrient
with dose 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Potassium 48.73 a 59.00 ab 64.67 a 25.67 a 68.00 a 72.67 a
(MOP fertilizer @2%)
Phosphorus 48.53 ab 57.67 ab 59.33 b 23.13 b 56.20 b 68.33 b
(TSP fertilizer @2%)
Zinc 47.80 ab 57.13 ab 56.00 bc 22.60 bc 56.60 b 61.67 c
(ZnSO4 fertilizer @1%)
Silicon 47.67 ab 60.07 a 59.00 b 22.80 bc 56.67 b 66.00 b
(Silica gel @2%)
Boron 46.13 bc 56.93 ab 55.00 bc 20.33 de 51.33 c 61.33 c
(Boro fertilizer @1%)
Calcium 45.07 c 56.73 ab 52.33 c 21.93 bc 53.40 bc 58.00 cd
(CaSO4 fertilizer @1%)
Manganese 46.13 bc 56.27 b 55.00 bc 21.53 cd 53.67 bc 59.33 c
(MnSO4 @1%)
Copper 44.73 c 48.53 c 46.33 d 19.93 e 41.33 d 54.00 d
(CuSO4 @1%)
Control 38.13 d 40.73 d 40.33 e 16.33 f 40.73 d 41.00 e
LSD (P=0.05) 2.476 3.472 4.714 1.531 4.677 4.164
Values in a column having same letter did not differ significantly (P=0.05) by LSD
EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT NUTRIENTS 157

In first year, the plant weight of onion was 16.33 g plant-1 under control. It
increased to 19.33-25.67 g plant-1 due to soil and foliar application of different
nutrients (Table 1). The highest plant weight was achieved with MOP fertilizer
treatment followed by TSP fertilizer, Silica gel, ZnSO4 and CaSO4 fertilizer. The
least effective treatment to increase plant weight was CuSO4 followed by Boron
fertilizer and MnSO4 treatments. More or less similar trend was also observed in
the second and third year trials. In second year, the lowest plant weight of onion
was 40.73 g plant-1 recorded in the control. Soil and foliar application of MOP
fertilizer gave the highest plant weight 68.00 g plant-1 followed by Silica gel,
ZnSO4 and TSP fertilizer treatments where the plant weight was 56.67, 56.60 and
56.20 g plant-1, respectively (Table 1). In the third year, the highest plant weight
was 72.67 g plant-1 recorded from MOP fertilizer treatment followed by TSP, Silica
gel, ZnSO4 and Boron fertilizer treatments where the plant weight was 68.33,
66.00, 61.67 and 61.33 g plant-1, respectively. In second year and third year the
least effective treatment was CuSO4 followed by CaSO4 and MnSO4 treatments
(Table 1).
Table 2. Effect of soil treatment and foliar application different nutrients on the root
growth of onion during three consecutive years
Soil and foliar Root length (cm) Root weight (gplant-1)
application of different
plant nutrient with dose 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Potassium 9.20 a 8.07 a 7.20 a 2.33 a 2.50 a 2.63 a
(MOP fertilizer @2%)
Phosphorus 8.67 ab 6.40 b 6.13 b 2.30 a 2.27 ab 2.33 ab
(TSP fertilizer @2%)
Zinc 8.47 b 5.93 bc 6.13 b 1.93 b 2.37 a 2.50 ab
(ZnSO4 fertilizer @1%)
Silicon 8.27 bc 6.07 b 6.07 b 1.87 bc 2.10 ab 2.67 a
(Silica gel @2%)
Boron 8.67 ab 5.80 bc 6.07 b 1.83 bcd 2.00 ab 2.17 ab
(Boro fertilizer @1%)
Calcium 7.57 cd 5.93 bc 6.00 bc 1.73 cd 2.40 a 2.33 ab
(CaSO4 fertilizer @1%)
Manganese 8.27 bc 5.80 bc 6.07 b 1.87 bc 2.00 abc 2.57 ab
(MnSO4 fertilizer @1%)
Copper 7.23 d 5.13 c 5.20 cd 1.67 d 1.80 bc 1.83 bc
(CuSO4 @1%)
Control 6.03 e 4.13 d 4.60 d 1.43 e 1.53 c 1.33 c
LSD (P=0.05) 0.709 0.830 0.821 0.189 0.504 0.76
Values in a column having same letter did not differ significantly (P=0.05) by LSD
158 FARUK

Root growth: Soil and foliar application of different plant nutrients showed
positive effects on root growth of onion as compared to control (Table 2). In first
year, the maximum root length 9.20 cm was recorded from MOP fertilizer
treatment followed by TSP, Silica gel and ZnSO4 where the root length was 8.67,
8.67 and 8.47 cm, respectively and the minimum root length 6.03 cm was recorded
from control (Table 2). More or less similar trend was observed in the second and
third years. In second year, average root length under control was 4.13 cm. It was
increased to 5.13-8.07 cm/plant due to application of different treatments. In the
third year, the lowest root length was 4.60 cmplant-1 recorded in control. In this
year MOP fertilizer treatments gave the highest root length 7.20 cm followed by
TSP, ZnSO4, Silica gel, MnSO4 and Boron fertilizer where the root length was
6.13, 6.13, 6.07, 6.07 and 6.07 cm, respectively. In all years the least effective
treatment was CuSO4 followed by CaSO4 (Table 2). Root weight under control was
1.43, 1.53 and 1.33 g/plant in the first year, second year and third year,
respectively. The root weight was increase to 1.67-2.33, 1.80-2.50 and 1.83-2.67
g/plant in the first year, second year and third year, respectively due application of
different treatments (Table 2).
Tip burn disease incidence: In all the years, the incidence of tip burn of onion
was reduced significantly over control due to soil and foliar application with
different plant nutrients (Table 3). In the first year, application of MOP fertilizer
gave the lowest tip-burn incidence 25% followed by TSP fertilizer, Silica gel,
ZnSO4 and Boron fertilizer treatments where the tip-burn incidence was 35%,
38.67%, 43.33% and 43.37%, respectively (Table 3). Application of CuSO4 gave
higher 56.67% tip burn incidence followed by CaSO4 and MnSO4 with 48.33%
and 48.33 tip burn incidence, respectively. The highest tip-burn incidence 68.33%
was recorded in control treatment. Application of MOP fertilizer reduced 63.41%
tip-burn incidence followed by the application of TSP fertilizer, Silica gel, ZnSO4
and Boron fertilizer treatments where the reduction was 48.78%, 43.41%, 36.59%
and 36.53%, respectively compared to control. In the second year, all the
treatments significantly reduced tip-burn incidence compared to control except
CuSO4 where the tip burn incidence was higher than other treatments (Table 3).
The lowest tip burn incidence 16.67% was recoded from MOP fertilizer treatment
followed by TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4, Silica gel, MnSO4, CaSO4 and Boron fertilizer
with tip burn incidence of 20%, 21.67%, 21.67% 23.33% , 23.33% and 25%,
respectively though all the treatment were statistically similar (Table 3). The
highest tip burn incidence 60% was recoded in control. Application of MOP
fertilizer reduced 72.22% tip-burn incidence followed by TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4,
Silica gel, MnSO4 and Boron fertilizer where the reduction of tip-burn incidence
of onion was 66.67%, 63.88%, 63.88%, 61.12%, 61.12% and 58.33%, respectively
compared to control. In the third year, application of MOP fertilizer, TSP fertilizer,
Silica gel and ZnSO4 gave the significantly lower 32.33%, 32.33%, 34.33% and
36.33%, respectively tip burn incidence followed by MnSO4, CaSO4 and Boron
fertilizer treatment. The least effective treatment was CuSO4 where the tip burn
 EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT NUTRIENTS 159

incidence was 55.00%. The highest tip burn incidence 74.67% was recoded in
control. Application of MOP fertilizer and TSP fertilizer reduced 56.70% tip-burn
incidence followed by Silica gel, ZnSO4, MnSO4, CaSO4 and Boron fertilizer
where the reduction of tip-burn incidence of onion was 54.02%, 51.35%, 43.75%,
43.31% and 43.31%, respectively compared to control (Table 3).
Table 3. Effect of soil treatment and foliar application of different nutrients on the
incidence of tip burn of onion during three consecutive years
Soil and foliar Reduction of tip-burn
Tip burn incidence of onion
application of different incidence (%)
plant nutrient with dose 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Potassium 25.00 f 16.67 d 32.33 d 63.41 72.22 56.70
(MOP fertilizer @2%) (29.93) (23.74) (34.64)
Phosphorus 35.00 e 20.00 cd 32.33 d 48.78 66.67 56.70
(TSP fertilizer @2%) (36.24) (26.45) (34.64)
Zinc 43.33 cd 21.67 cd 36.33 d 36.59 63.88 51.35
(ZnSO4 fertilizer @1%) (41.15) (27.71) (37.05)
Silicon 38.67 de 21.67 cd 34.33 d 43.41 63.88 54.02
(Silica gel @2%) (38.43) (27.71) (35.85)
Boron 43.37 cd 25.00 c 42.33 c 36.53 58.33 43.31
(Boro fertilizer @1%) (41.16) (29.92) (40.58)
Calcium 48.33 c 23.33 cd 42.33 c 29.27 61.12 43.31
(CaSO4 fertilizer @1%) (44.04) (26.45) (40.58)
Manganese 48.33 c 23.33 c 42.00 c 29.27 61.12 43.75
(MnSO4 fertilizer @1%) (44.04) (28.85) (40.38)
Copper 56.67 b 38.33 b 55.00 b 17.06 36.11 26.34
(CuSO4 @1%) (48.85) (38.24) (47.87)
Control 68.33 a 60.00 a 74.67 a - - -
(55.85) (46.92) (59.83)
LSD (P=0.05) 4.254 4.567 3.29 - - -
Values in a column having same letter(s) did not differ significantly (P=0.05) by LSD;
values within the parenthesis is the arcsin transformed value.
Purple blotch disease severity: All the treatments significantly reduced purple
blotch disease severity over control during three consecutive years (Table 4). In the
first year soil and foliar application of MOP fertilizer, TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4 and
Silica gel gave significantly lower 22.33%, 22.33%, 22.67% and 22.67%,
respectively purple blotch disease severity followed by Boron fertilizer, MnSO4 and
CaSO4 fertilizer treatments where purple blotch disease severity was 24.33%,
25.33% and 28.33%, respectively (Table 4). Application of MOP fertilizer and TSP
fertilizer reduced 62.78% purple blotch disease severity compared to control
followed by ZnSO4, Silica gel, Boron fertilizer, MnSO4 and CaSO4 fertilizer
treatments where the reduction of disease severity was 62.21%, 62.21%, 59.45% and
57.78%, respectively (Table 4). The highest purple blotch disease severity 60% was
 160 FARUK

observed in control treatment. More or less similer trend of reduction of purple

blotch disease severity was observed in the second and third year’s trials. In the
second year, all the treatments significantly reduced purple blotch disease severity
compared to control except CuSO4 where the disease severity was significantly
higher than other treatments. Application of MOP fertilizer reduced 60.68% purple
blotch disease severity followed by TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4, Silica gel, Boron fertilizer,
CaSO4 and MnSO4 treatments where the reduction was 58.42%, 58.42%, 56.18%,
55.05%, 52.25% and 48.31%, respectively compared to control. The highest purple
blotch disease severity 59.33% was observed in control treatment. In the third year,
application of MOP fertilizer reduced 60.11% disease severity followed by TSP
fertilizer, Silica gel, ZnSO4, CaSO4, Boron fertilizer and MnSO4 treatments where
the reduction was 57.92%, 57.38%, 56.28%, 55.20%, 54.64% and 53.00%,
respectively compared to control. The highest purple blotch disease severity 61.00%
was observed in control treatment. In all the years the least effective treatment in
reduction of purple disease severity was CuSO4 treatment (Table 4).
Table 4. Effect of soil treatment and foliar application of different nutrients on the
severity of purple blotch disease of onion during three consecutive years
Soil and foliar Severity of purple blotch Reduction of severity of purple
application of different disease of onion (PDI) blotch disease (%)
plant nutrient with dose
2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Potassium 22.33 c 23.33 d 24.33 c 62.78 60.68 60.11
(MOP fertilizer @2%) (28.19) (28.87) (29.53)
Phosphorus 22.33 c 24.67 cd 25.67 c 62.78 58.42 57.92
(TSP fertilizer @2%) (28.14) (29.75) (30.41)
Zinc 22.67 c 24.67 cd 26.67 c 62.21 58.42 56.28
(ZnSO4 fertilizer @1%) (28.42) (29.76) (31.09)
Silicon 22.67 c 26.00 cd 26.00 c 62.21 56.18 57.38
(Silica gel @2%) (28.37) (30.65) (30.65)
Boron 24.33 bc 26.67 cd 27.67 bc 59.45 55.05 54.64
(Boro fertilizer @1%) (29.54) (31.04) (31.73)
Calcium 28.33 bc 28.33 cd 27.33 bc 52.78 52.25 55.20
(CaSO4 fertilizer @1%) (32.01) (31.91) (31.37)
Manganese 25.33 bc 30.67 c 28.67 bc 57.78 48.31 53.00
(MnSO4 fertilizer @1%) (30.21) (33.55) (32.35)
Copper 29.33 b 45.33 b 30.00 b 51.12 23.60 50.82
(CuSO4 @1%) (32.75) (42.32) (35.24)
Control 60.00 a 59.33 a 61.00 a - - -
(50.78) (50.43) (51.37)
LSD (P=0.05) 3.998 4.472 4.081 - - -
Values in a column having same letter(s) did not differ significantly (P=0.05) by LSD;
values within the parenthesis is the arcsin transformed value.
EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT NUTRIENTS 161

Table 5. Effect of soil treatment and foliar application of different nutrients on the
yield of onion during three consecutive years
Soil and foliar Yield increased over control
Yield (tha-1)
application of different (%)
plant nutrient with
dose 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Potassium 16.75 a 16.25 ab 17.64 ab 36.84 28.18 27.55
(MOP fertilizer @2%)
Phosphorus 16.75 a 17.08 a 18.19 a 36.84 31.67 29.74
(TSP fertilizer @2%)
Zinc 15.42ab 16.00 ab 17.64 ab 31.39 27.06 27.55
(ZnSO4 fertilizer
@1%)
Silicon 16.33 a 16.00 ab 16.80 ab 35.21 27.06 23.93
(Silica gel @2%)
Boron 13.92bc 15.42 b 16.67 ab 23.99 24.32 23.34
(Boro fertilizer @1%)
Calcium 15.33abc 15.42 b 15.42 bc 30.98 24.32 17.12
(CaSO4 fertilizer
@1%)
Manganese 14.33bc 15.83 b 16.25 abc 26.17 26.28 21.35
(MnSO4 fertilizer
@1%)
Copper 13.58 c 12.08 c 14.17 cd 22.09 3.39 9.81
(CuSO4 @1%)
Control 10.58 d 11.67 c 12.78 d - - -
LSD (P=0.05) 1.77 1.127 2.366 - - -
Values in a column having same letter(s) did not differ significantly (P=0.05) by LSD.
Crop yield: In all the years, soil and foliar application of different plant nutrients
gave appreciable higher yield of onion treatment (Table 5). In first year, the lowest
yield of 10.58 t/ha was found under control (Table 5). The yield was increased to
13.58-16.75 t/ha due to application of different treatments. Application of MOP
and TSP fertilizer gave the higher yield 16.75 tha-1 followed by Silica gel, ZnSO4
and CaSO4 where the yield was 16.33, 15.42 and 15.33 tha-1, respectively.
Application of CuSO4 gave lower yield 13.58 tha-1 followed by Boron fertilizer
and MnSO4 where the yield was 13.92 and 14.33 tha-1, respectively compared to
other treatments. The maximum yield increase of 36.84% and 36.84% over control
was obtained by MOP and TSP fertilizer followed by Silica gel, ZnSO4 and CaSO4
where the yield was 35.21%, 31.39% and 30.98%, respectively higher (Table 5).
The lowest increase was achieved with CuSO4 followed by Boron fertilizer and
162 FARUK

MnSO4 where yield was 22.09%, 23.99% and 26.17%, respectively higher
compared to control. In the 2nd year, average yield of onion was 11.67 t/ha under
control and 12.08-17.08 t/ha under treated plots (Table 5). Application TSP
fertilizer gave the highest yield 17.08 tha-1 followed by MOP fertilizer, ZnSO4,
Silica gel, MnSO4, Boron fertilizer and CaSO4 where the yield was 16.25, 16, 16,
15.83, 15.42 and 15.42 tha-1. The lower yield of onion 11.67 and 12.08 tha-1 was
recorded in control and CuSO4 treatments. Application of TSP fertilizer gave the
31.67% higher yield compared to control which was followed by MOP fertilizer,
ZnSO4, Silica gel, MnSO4, Boron fertilizer and CaSO4 where the yield was 28.18%,
27.06%, 27.06%, 26.28%, 24.32% and 24.32%, respectively. In the 3rd year, the
highest yield was 18.19 t/ha obtained with the application of TSP fertilizer
followed by MOP fertilizer, ZnSO4, Silica gel, Boron fertilizer, MnSO4 and CaSO4
where the yield was 17.64, 17.64, 16.80, 16.67, 16.25 and 15.42 tha-1 (Table 5).
The lowest yield of onion 12.78 tha-1 was recorded in control treatment which was
followed by CuSO4 with the yield of 14.17 tha-1. Application of TSP fertilizer gave
the 29.74% higher yield compared to control which was followed by MOP, ZnSO4
, Silica gel, Boron fertilizer, MnSO4 and CaSO4where the yield was 27.55%,
27.55%, 23.93%, 23.34%, 21.35%, and 17.12%, respectively.
From this study it was observed that application different plant nutrient had a
significant effect on increase in plant growth, decrease of purple blotch diseases
severity and tip burn incidence as well as increase yield of onion. Among the
nutrients MOP fertilizer, TSP fertilizer, ZnSO4, Silica gel, Boron fertilizer and
CaSO4 performed better than other treatments for reducing purple blotch disease
severity and tip-burn as well as increasing plant growth and yield of onion.
Different workers reported that the appilication of fertilizers produced a more
direct means of using nutrients to reduce the severity of many diseases (Marschner,
1995; Atkinson and McKinlay, 1997; OBoron fertilizerrn et al., 2003; Seebold et
al., 2000; 2004). Dordas (2008) reported that potassium fertilization could reduce
the intensity of several infectious diseases of obligate and facultative parasites. A
number of studies showed that application Potassium, Phosphorus, Boron, Zinc,
Calcium, Silicon and Manganese could reduce fungal, bacterial and viral diseases
of many crops (Potash and Phosphate Institute, 1988; Huber and Graham, 1999;
Kirkegaard et al., 1999; Reuveni et al., 1998; 2000; Alvarez and Datnoff, 2001;
Heckman et al., 2003; SeeBoron fertilizerld et al., 2000; 2004; Sharma and
Duveiller, 2004; Sharma et al., 2005; Simoglou and Dordas, 2006; Zhang et al.,
2006). Agrios (2005) reported that plant nutrients were important for growth and
development of plants and also microorganisms and also important factors in
disease control.

Conclusion
The present study revealed that soil and foliar application of plant nutrients viz.
Potassium, Phosphorus, Boron, Zinc, Calcium, Copper, Silicon and Manganese
EFFECT OF SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF PLANT NUTRIENTS 163

gave appreciable reduction of purple blotch disease and tip-burn incidence and
increased plant growth parameters such as shoot and root growth as well as yield
of onion. Among the nutrients Potassium, Phosphorus, Silicon, Zinc and Calcium
performed better for reducing purple blotch disease severity, tip-burn disease
incidence and increasing plant growth as well as yield of onion. So, soil and foliar
application of plant nutrients Potassium, Phosphorus, Silicon, Zinc, Boron and
Manganese might be recommended for tip-burn and purple blotch disease
management as well as increase of onion production in Bangladesh.

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166 FARUK
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 167-174, June 2021
PURITY LEVEL OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF MARKETED
PESTICIDES

M. AFROZE1, M. D. H. PRODHAN2, A. BEGUM3

M. S. AHMED4 AND D. SARKER5
Abstract
The study was undertaken to determine the purity level of eleven selected
pesticides collected from different locations of Bangladesh. In this study, Gas
Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionization Detector (FID) and Electron
Captured Detector (ECD) was used to determine the purity of acephate,
diazinon, dimethoate, chlorpyrifos, quinalphos, malathion, fenitrothion
cypermethrin, fenvalerate. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC
20A Prominence) coupled with Photo Diode Array (PDA) detector was used to
determine the purity of carbofuran and carbosulfan. Results indicated that 40%
of the tested pesticides have lower active ingredient (ai) than stated on the label
of container. A total of 11 pesticides were tested. The purity of all tested brands
of fenvalerate and fenitrothion were 100%. The purity of cypermethrin ranged
from 72-100%. The purity of organocarbamate pesticide carbofuran and
carbosulfan ranged from 70-100% and 95-100%, respectively. The purity of
dimethoate, chlorpyrifos, malathion, quinalphos, diazinon and acephate ranged
from 63-100%, 67-100%, 79-100%, 83-100% and 68-100%, respectively.
Keywords: Pesticides, purity, active ingredient.

Introduction
Pesticides are used worldwide to manage agricultural pests. Farmers use
pesticides for the better production of crop. However, due to the lack of
knowledge and non-availability of sustainable alternatives to pesticides farmers
of Bangladesh become dependent on pesticide for crop production. The negative
impact of excessive and non-judicious use of pesticide can be reflected an
environment and social issues can disrupt our agricultural ecosystem.
(Handa and Walia, 1996). Over the year pesticide consumption in Bangladesh
increased manifold. The Pesticide consumption in 2018 was 38691.86 metric
tons (Anonymous, 2019). It is assumed that adulteration of pesticide is one of the
major causes of such extensive use of pesticides Kabir et al. (2008) & Begum et
al. (2016).
Due to absence or little amount of active material in the formulated pesticides,
they do not work properly against targeted insect pests and diseases and thus the
farmers are using more pesticides for better result. In this perspective it has
become imperative to analyze the available brands of pesticides in the market for

1-5
Entomology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur-
1701, Bangladesh.
168 AFROZE et al.

their purity determination and to assure the effective, safer and non-hazardous for
better protection of crops.

Materials and Methods

The percentage of active ingredient remain in acephate, carbofuran, diazinon,
dimethoate, chlorpyrifos, quinalphos, malathion, carbosulfan, cypermethrin,
fenvalerate and fenitrothion were tested in the Pesticide Analytical Laboratory,
Entomology Division, BARI, Gazipur, Bangladesh. Sample of pesticides were
collected from dealers of Rangpur, Jamalpur, Bogura, Cumilla, Gazipur, Jashore
and Rajshahi where extensive usage of pesticides was recorded. Each formulated
product either of granular or liquid was being dissolved in the respective solvent.
described by Lehotay and Mastovska (2004).
In case of granular pesticides, the solid inert materials were removed by
filtration. In case of liquid pesticides, the known concentration of the
solutions was prepared directly. Methods for testing different brands with
GC-FID, GC-ECD and HPLC-PDA were developed by setting the instrument
parameters suitable for analyzing concerned pesticides selected on the basis
of peak sharpness of the chromatogram and retention time for respective
compound.
The amount of the active material present in each brand was determined by
comparing with standard solution of concerned group of pesticide with the help
of built-in software of GC (GC solution) and HPLC (LC solution). Percent purity
was calculated from the actual amount of ai present in different marketed brands,
the amount of ai actually required in the concerned group of pesticide.

Results and Discussion

Purity of Synthetic Pyrethroid Pesticides
The percentage of active ingredient presents in cypermethrin 10EC and
fenvalarate 20EC are shown in Table 1. Thirteen popular marketed brands of
cypermethrin were analyzed using GC-ECD. The purity of the selected tested
brands of cypermethrin was ranged from 72% to 100%. Among thirteen tested
brands, seven were 100% pure in terms of ai, four brands contained above 90% ai
and two brands contained below 80% ai and the lowest one (RacyBk) contained
only 72% ai. Four different popular marketed brands of fenvalerate were
analyzed with GC-ECD. All the selected tested brands of fenvalerate were 100%
pure in terms of ai presence (Table 1).

Purity of Organocarbamate Pesticides

The percentage of active ingredient presents in carbufuran 5G and carbosulfan
20EC are shown in Table 1. Sixteen brands of carbofuran were tested with HPLC
PURITY LEVEL OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF MARKETED PESTICIDES 169

and the purity of the tested brands of carbofuran ranged from 70% to 100%.
Among sixteen brands, ten contained 100% AI, four contained above 90% ai
while two brands contained below 90% and the lowest AI (70%) present in
GcfBf. The purity of all the selected tested brands of carbosulfan analyzed by
HPLC was ranged from 95% to 100%. Among seven tested brands, six were
100% pure in terms of ai, while only one brand (RaCSAt) contained 95% ai of
carbosulfan.

Purity of Organophosphorus Pesticides:

Eight different popular marketed brands of chlorpyrifos were analyzed by GC-
ECD. The purity of the selected tested brands of chlorpyrifos was ranged from
67% to 100%. Among eight tested brands, five were 100% pure in terms of ai,
two brands contained above 90% ai and one brand (Bochsf) contained 67% ai.
Ten different popular marketed brands of diazinon were analyzed with GC-FID.
The purity of the tested brands of diazinon ranged from 68% to 100%. Among
ten tested brands, four contained 100% ai, another four brands contained above
90% ai while two brands contained below 90% ai. and the lowest one (GcfBf)
contained 68% ai.
Ten different popular marketed brands of malathion were analyzed with GC-FID.
The purity of the selected tested brands of malathion ranged from 79% to 100%.
Among ten tested brands, five were 100% pure in terms of ai, three brands
contained above 90% ai and two brands contained below 90% ai and one brand
(ComGt) contained 79% ai of malathion. The purity of the selected tested brands
of dimethoate analyzed with GC-FID ranged from 63% to 100%. Among thirteen
tested brands, six were 100% pure in terms of ai, four brands contained above
90% ai and three brands contained below 90% ai and only one brand (CoDtTt)
had 63% ai (Table 2.)
The percentage of active ingredient presents in the acephate 75SP, quinalphos 25
EC and fenitrothion 50EC are shown in Table 3. Five different popular marketed
brands of acephate were tested with GC-FID. The purity of the selected tested
brands of acephate was ranged from 93% to 100%. Among five tested brands,
one was 100% pure in terms of ai, and four brands contained above 90% a.i. one
brand (RaApLa) contained 93% ai. Six different popular marketed brands of
quinalphos were analyzed with GC-FID. The purity of the selected tested brands
of quinalphos was ranged from 83% to 100%. Among six tested brands, five
were 100% pure in terms of ai while only one brand (JsQGl) contained 83% ai.
Three different popular marketed brands of fenitrothion were tested with GC-
FID. The purity of all the selected tested brands of fenitrothion was 100% in
terms of ai presence.
Table 1. Percentage of active ingredient presents in synthetic pyrethroid & organocarmate pesticides

170
Cypermethrin 10EC Fenvalerate 20EC Carbofuran 5G Carbosulfan 20 EC
Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%)
JacyCt 100 ± (0.012) RjFvsd 100±(0.094) JaCSM 100±(0.235) JaCSM 100±(0.235)
RjcyRt 100 ± (0.051) RjFvRf 100±(0.014) RjCSm 100±(0.015) RjCSm 100±(0.015)
RjcyFR 92 ±(0.816) JeFvs 100±(0.015) RjCSRf 100±(0.010) RjCSRf 100±(0.010)
RjcyKt 100 ± (0.010) RaFvs 100±(0.456) RaCSAt 95±(0.0496) RaCSAt 95±(0.0496)
JecyO 100 ± (0.006) CoCSm 100±(0.834) CoCSm 100±(0.834)
JecyJt 100 ± (0.000) GCSM 100 (0.005) GCSM 100 (0.005)
RacyBk 72± (0.572) BoCSM 100±(0.161) BoCSM 100±(0.161)
RacyRt 100± (0.010) RacfBf 100±(0.001)
BocyJt 75± (0.816) Racffn 90± (1.634)
CocyCt 96± (1.632) CocfB 98± (0.311)
GcyKt 95.5± (0.849) CocFd 100± (0.012)
GcySp 98± (0.626) BocfK 97± (0.685)
GcyCnt 100± (0.073) BocfS 80± (1.06)
GcfKa 100± (0.00)
GcfBf 70± (0.188)
GcfRd 100± (0.015)
AFROZE et al.
Table 2. Percentage of active ingredient presents in organophosphate pesticides
Chloropyrifos 20EC Diazinon 60 EC/10G Malathion 57 EC Dimethoate 40 EC
Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%)
RjchD 100± (0.00) RjDiH 82 ± (0.005) RjmFf 100±(0.056) JaDtTh 95.5±(0.235)
RjchMt 100± (0.012) JeDiDg 94.6±(0.019) RjmKl 100±(0.841) JaDtSt 100± (0.006)
JechHx 100± (0.235) RaDiBg 68± (0.030) JemDt 84± (1.632) RjDtDt 100±(0.010)
Jechcb 100± (0.208) RaDiDz 100± (0.177) JemGt 98.2 (0.249) RjDtTf 100± (0.015)
RachPf 94± (0.141) CoDiDg 92.5±(0.335) RamSl 100±(0.466) RjDtSg 100± (0.008)
RachD 100± (0.094) GDiH 100± (0.062) GmDt 100±(0.231) JeDtTf 93±(0.059)
BochMt 95± (0.471) GDiBg 96± (0.816) ComGt 79± (0.864) JeDtSn 99± (0.086)
Bochsf 67± (0.15) BoDiTr 100± (0.536) ComRn 96±(0.816) RaDtSn 86± (0.417)
BoDimg 100± 0.0145) BomFf 100±(0.010) BoDtDm 100± (0.015)
CoDiDn 98.3±(0.567) BomRn 94±(0.0196) BoDtsg 100± (0.471)
CoDtTt 63± (0.817)
CoDtDk 88± (0.435)
GDTJy 97.5± (0.35)
PURITY LEVEL OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF MARKETED PESTICIDES
171
172 AFROZE et al.

The farmers of Bangladesh are using pesticides extensively to prevent the crop
loss caused by insect pests infestation, Pesticide adulteration is one of the major
reasons for the excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides. Due to the
adulteration, the effectiveness of pesticides is reduced and that is why, the
farmers are spraying pesticides too often to control the insect-pests. As a result of
frequent application of pesticides, their residues are remaining of different
agricultural commodities reported by several researchers in Bangladesh (Islam et
al., 2019; Islam et al., 2019a; Islam et al., 2019b; Rahman et al., 2019; Prodhan
et al., 2018; Prodhan et al., 2018a; Prodhan et al., 2018b; Hasan et al., 2017;
Aktar et. al., 2017; Islam et. al., 2014; Hossain et al., 2014; Prodhan et al., 2010;
Prodhan et al.2009; Kabir et. al., 2008a; Kabir et. al., 2007), the insect-pests are
developing resistance and due to the excessive use of pesticide insect pollinator
also declined day by day (Amin et al., 2014). Besides, a lot of money also spends
for buying pesticides. On the other hand, extensive use of pesticides disrupts the
agro eco-system and also creates several adverse effects on human health and the
environment.
Table 3. Percentage of active ingredient presents organophosphate pesticides
Acephate75SP Quinalphos 25 EC Fenitrothion 50EC
Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%) Brand Purity (%)
JaApLa 96±(1.685) JsQGl 83±(0.235) RjFtsm 100± (0.010)
JeApAt 100±(0.467) RjQKls 100±(0.816) JeFtSm 100± (0.358)
RaAppt 99± (0.010) RjQqu 100±(0.012) RaFtsm 100± (0.014)
RaApLa 93± (0.45) RaQKls 100±(0.006)
BoApAt 100±(0.012) CoQKls 100±(0.235)
GQKrl 100±(0.009)

Conclusion
The present result indicates that, around 40% marketed brands of tested
pesticides contained lower active ingredient than that stated on the label of
container and this results support the overusing of pesticides due to impurities.
From the present study, it is recommended that the Government of Bangladesh
should take necessary steps to prevent this adulteration of pesticides.

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ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 175-193, June 2021
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY
VEGETABLE CULTIVATION

P. D. PURKAYSTO1, M. R. AMIN2, M. A. ISLAM3

M. RAHMAN4 AND F. A. NASIM5
Abstract
The study was conducted to determine farmers’ attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation and to explore the relationship of the selected
characteristics with farmers’ attitude. The study also identified constraints faced
by farmers in relation to environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Data were
collected from 100 randomly selected respondents of three selected villages
under Sadar upazila of Moulvibazar district using a pre-tested interview
schedule during February-March 2018. Farmers’ attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation (dependent variable) and was measured by 20
statements on 5-point scale and the eleven selected characteristics of the
respondents. The highest proportion (40%) of the respondents had unfavorable
attitude, 20% respondents had highly unfavorable attitude, 1% of them had
neutral attitude, while 33% respondents had favorable attitude and 6% had
highly favorable attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation.
The correlation analysis revealed that education, training received, time spent in
vegetable cultivation, annual family income, annual income from vegetable
cultivation, knowledge on environment friendly vegetable cultivation,
organizational participation and credit received had significant positive
relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable
cultivation. The majority (70%) of the farmers faced medium constraints while
3% faced high and 27% faced low constraints during environment friendly
vegetable cultivation.
Keywords: Farmers’ attitude, vegetable cultivation, environment friendly.

Introduction
Vegetables are the cheapest source of vitamins, minerals and proteins which
majority of people can buy easily. According to BBS (2019), vegetables are
cultivated in 8.593 lakh hectares of land and annual production of vegetable is
only 172.472 lakh metric tons. According to FAO, vegetable production has
increased five times in the past 40 years. Bangladesh has scored 3rd in global
vegetable production, next to China and India. The farmers are getting a huge
profit from vegetable production which is changing their life. The farmers of
Bangladesh are mostly dependent on pesticides to control the pests. Use of
pesticides is expensive with some negative environmental consequences and

1
Assistant Teacher, Goraria Government Primary School, Sylhet, 2&3Department of
Agricultural Extension Education, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet, 4Scientific
Officer (Agronomy), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Daulatpur,
Khulna. 5Scientific Officer, BARI, Joydebpur, Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh.
176 PURKAYSTO et al.

increased health hazards to the growers and consumers of vegetables. It helps

developing pest resistance to insecticides, destroys beneficial insects. To avoid
such consequences and to increase the vegetable production at the same time,
environment friendly practices are best for pest management. Environment
friendly refers to those practices inflict minimum or no harm on the environment.
The main idea behind environment-friendly vegetable cultivation has zero impact
on environment. Environment- friendly practices can make major positive impact
on environment. Nowadays DAE (Department of Agricultural Extension) is
working with several projects all over the country. Every project has the major
attention on environmental consideration in vegetable production by removal or
reducing agro- chemicals. However, farmers of Bangladesh have poor knowledge
on environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Most of the farmers of
Bangladesh are poor. They have no enough money for buying expensive
pesticides. Environment friendly practices help them to utilize the readily
available source of biological control agents, tolerant genetic resource, modern
cultivation practices, organic green manure and bio-fertilizer. So there is an
urgent need to understand the potentiality and limits of environment friendly
practices so that appropriate development choices can be made. Extension people
can make new technology available to the vegetable growers through
environment friendly vegetable cultivation training. However, before designing
environment friendly practices training, it done for promoting sustainable
production of safe vegetables.

Objectives of the Study

1. To determine farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable
cultivation and describe the socio-economic characteristics of the
vegetable growers.
2. To find out the constraints faced by farmers in relation to environment
friendly vegetable cultivation
3. To explore the relationships between farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation and their selected
characteristics.

Materials and Methods

The locale of the study was Durlovpur, Noldaria and Damia villages of Kanakpur
union under Sadar upazila of Moulvibazar district. The selection was made on
the basis of suggestions made by Upazila Agriculture Officer (UAO), Sub
Assistant Agriculture Officer (SAAO), Union Parishad Member and officials of
Sadar Upazila. A total number of 400 vegetable growers were listed. Out of 400,
The lighted farmers 100 were was taken as randomly selected. Eleven socio-
economic characteristics of the farmers viz age, education; family size, farm size,
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 177

training received, time spent in vegetable field, annual family income, annual
income from vegetable cultivation, knowledge on environment friendly vegetable
cultivation, organizational participation and credit received were independent
variables. A interview schedule was used as data gathering instrument. Data were
collected from the sample farmers through the personal interview schedule
during February to March 2018.
If any respondent failed to understand any question, the researcher took utmost
care explain the issue as far as possible. After completion of the interview, it was
checked and editing was done in case of necessity. Data from the entire interview
schedule were compiled, tabulated and analyzed according to the objectives of
the study. If a respondent did not know how to read and write his literacy score
was taken as zero (0). A score of 0.5 was given to that respondent who could sign
his name only. Besides a respondent got actual score of one for every year of
schooling i.e. ‘1’ for class one, ‘2’ for class two and soon. Training received
score of a respondent was measured on the basis of number of days of training
received from different agricultural organization. How much time a respondent
spent in vegetable field was measured in hours/day considering average time
spent per day. Annual income of a respondent was measured in Taka on the basis
of last year total earnings from crop cultivation (without vegetables) and other
sources in which the respondent as well as his family members were involved.
Annual income of a respondent was measured in taka on the basis of last year
total earnings from vegetable cultivation and was measured in thousand Taka and
a score of 1 was assigned for each one thousand Taka. Possible scores for the
knowledge on environment friendly vegetable cultivation of the respondents
could range from 0 to 40, where 0 indicating no knowledge on environment
friendly vegetable cultivation and40 indicate the very high knowledge on
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. The organizational participation
scores of a respondent could range from 0 to 30, where ‘0’ indicated no
participation and 30 indicated very high organizational participation. Credit
received by farmers was expressed in Taka. A score of one (1) is given for each
thousand taka. Measurement of the dependent variable was measuring the
attitude of farmers a 5 point Likert scale was used. Constraints faced by the
farmers in relation to environment friendly vegetable cultivation score obtained
from all the constraints were added together to got the constraint confrontation
score for a respondent. Score of a respondent could range from 0 to 27, while '0'
indicating no constraint and 27 indicating high constraint. The procedure for
categorization of data in respect of different variables will be elaborately
discussed while describing those variables in chapter 4.
The data after collection were coded, compiled, tabulated and analyzed. Various
statistical measures such as range, mean, percentage, standard deviation were
used in categorizing and describing the dependent and the independent
variables. For clarity of understanding, tables were used for presentation of
178 PURKAYSTO et al.

data. Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) was used to

explore the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
Throughout the study 1% and 5% level of probability was used to reject any
null hypothesis.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic characteristics of the vegetable growers
Eleven socio-economic characteristics of the vegetable growers were selected to
describe and find out their relationships with attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. The characterizations are discussed in the
following sections.

Age
The age score of the respondents ranged from 18 to 62 with an average of 39.4
and standard deviation of 10.30.Based on their age score, respondents were
classified into three categories on the basis of their age following Hossain et al.
(2011) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their age
Respondents Standard
Age group
Number Percent Mean deviation

Young aged (up to 35 years) 34 34

Middle aged (36 -50 years) 53 53
39.4 10.30
Old aged (above 50 years) 13 13
Total 100 100

Table 1 indicates that the middle aged category vegetable growers comprised the
highest proportion (53%) followed by young aged category (34%) and the lowest
proportion were made by the old aged category (13%). Data also indicate that the
middle and young aged respondents constitute about 87% of the respondents.
Young and middle aged people are generally receptive to new ideas and things.
However, they might have valuable opinion in regard to use of environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. Therefore, the extension worker should give
proper attention to include the young and middle aged groups in their programs.

Education
The education score of the respondents ranged from 0-12, with an average of
4.94 and standard deviation of 3.98. Based on their education score, respondents
were classified into four categories as shown in (Table 2).
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 179

Table 2. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their education

Respondents Standard
Level of education
Number Percent Mean deviation

Illiterate (0-0.5) 28 28
Primary education (1-5) 26 26
Secondary education(6-10) 42 42
4.94 3.98
Above secondary education (>10) 4 4
Total 100 100

Table 2 shows that vegetable growers under ‘secondary education category’

constitute the highest proportion 42% compared to 28% ‘illiterate’ category, 26%
primary and 4% above secondary level category. Education broadens the horizon
of outlook of vegetable growers and expands their capability to analyze any
situation related to vegetable cultivation.

Family size
The family size score of the respondents ranged from 2 to 12 with the mean and
standard deviation of 6.77 and 2.09 respectively. Based on their family size
score, the respondents were classified into three categories as shown in (Table 3).
Table 3. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their family size
Respondents Standard
Family size
Number Percent Mean deviation
Small (up to 4) 15 15
Medium (5-8) 65 65
Large (above 8) 20 20 6.77 2.09
Total 100 100

Table 3 shows that medium family size constituted the highest proportion 65%
and the lowest 15% in small family size and 20% were large family size. The
existence of traditional joint family culture, lack of awareness about family
planning and lack of recreational facilities might be responsible for the highest
proportion medium sized family in that area. The average family size of the
vegetable growers of the study area (6.77) was higher than that of national
average of 4.06 (BBS, 2016).

Farm size
The farm size score of the respondents ranged from 0.05 to 1.85 with an average
of 0.39 and standard deviation of 0.36. Based on their farm size score, the
180 PURKAYSTO et al.

respondents were classified into three categories following (Hossain et al., 2011)
as shown in (Table 4).
Table 4. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their farm size
Respondents Standard
Family size categories
Number Percent Mean deviation
Marginal (< 0.2 ha) 39 39
Small (0.2 - <1.0 ha) 56 56
Medium (1- 3ha) 5 5 0.39 0.36
All 100 100

Table 4 indicates that the small farm holder constituted the highest proportion
56% and the lowest 5% in medium farm holder and 39% had marginal farm. This
was due to inheritance of little land from parents, selling of land for going
foreign country; etc. The average farm size of the vegetable growers of the study
area (0.39 hectares) was higher than that of national average (0.06 hectares).

Training received
The training received score of the respondents ranged from 0 to 8 with a mean
and standard deviation of 2.85 and 2.24 respectively. Based on their length of
training scores, the respondents were classified into three categories as shown in
(Table 65).
Table 5. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their training received
Respondents Standard
Duration/Length of training Mean
Number Percent deviation
No training 19 19
1 -5 days 68 68
above 5 days 13 13 2.85 2.24
All 100 100

Table 5 indicates that majority 68% of the respondents had low training, while
19% of them had no training and only 13% had medium training. Training makes
the farmers skilled and helps them to acquire knowledge about the environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. Trained farmers can face any kind of challenges
about the adverse situation in their vegetable cultivation.

Time spent in vegetable field

Time spent in vegetable field score of the respondents ranged from 2 to 10
hrs/day with a mean of 5.81hrs/day and standard deviation of 1.82. Based on
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 181

their time spent in vegetable field score, the respondents were classified into
three categories as shown in (Table 6).
Table 6. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their time spent in
vegetable field
Respondents Standard
Length of time Mean
Number Percent deviation

up to 3 hrs 7 7
4-7 hrs 69 69
5.81 1.82
above 7 hrs 24 24
All 100 100

Table 6 indicates that majority 69% of the respondents spent moderate time in
vegetable field where24% spent long time and 7% spent short time in vegetable
field. The findings of the study reveal that 93% of the farmers spent moderate to
long time in their vegetable field. For that reason high income from vegetable
cultivation were found. The study reveals that majority 94% of the respondents
had medium to high income from vegetable cultivation. Another reason is that
moderate or long time spent in the vegetable field ensures intensive care which
ultimately increases the maximum production of yield.
Annual family income
The annual family income score of the respondents ranged from 62.30 to 700.00
with the mean and standard deviation of 157.08 and 81.91respectively. Based on
their annual family income score, the respondents were classified into three
categories as shown in (Table 7).
Table 7. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their annual family
income
Respondents Standard
Range of income Mean
Number Percent deviation

up to 150.00 2 2
150.00-250.00 86 86
157.08 81.91
above 250.00 12 12
All 100 100

Table 7 shows that majority 86% of the respondents had medium annual family
income, 2% had low annual family income and 12% had high annual family
income. The annual family income of the farmers of the study area was medium.
182 PURKAYSTO et al.

The reason might be due to the fact that most of the respondents of the study area
were not only engaged in vegetable cultivation but also in other sources such as
service, business etc.
Annual income from vegetable cultivation
The annual income from vegetable cultivation score of the respondents ranged
from 17.70 to 247.00 with the mean and standard deviation of 45.83 and 27.95
respectively shown in (Table 8).
Table 8. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their annual income
from vegetable cultivation
Ranges of income from vegetable Respondents Standard
Mean
cultivation Number Percent deviation

up to 18.00 6 6
19.00- 73.00 85 85
45.83 27.95
above 73.00 9 9
All 100 100

Table 8 indicates that majority 85% of the respondents had medium annual
income from vegetable cultivation, 9% had high annual income from vegetable
cultivation and 6% had low annual income from vegetable cultivation. It also
indicates that 91% of the respondents had medium to high annual income from
vegetable cultivation. The average annual income from vegetable cultivation of
the respondents of the study area was medium. The reason might be because they
cultivate different types of vegetables in all year round.

Knowledge on environment friendly vegetable cultivation

Knowledge on environment friendly vegetable cultivation score of the
respondents ranged from 7 to 32 against the possible range from 0 to 40 with a
mean of 17.00 and standard deviation of 6.02 shown in (Table 9).
Table 9. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their environment
friendly vegetable cultivation
Respondents Standard
Knowledge Score Mean
Number Percent deviation

up to 10 16 16
11 -23 66 66
17.00 6.02
above 23 18 18
All 100 100
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 183

Organizational participation
The observed organizational participation score of the respondents ranged from 0
to 10 with a mean of 5.19 and standard deviation of 2.56. Based on their
organizational participation score, the respondents were classified into three
categories as shown in (Table 10).
Table 9 shows that majority 66% of the respondents had medium knowledge,
16% had poor knowledge and 18% of the respondents had high knowledge on
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. The study showed that most of the
respondents of the study area were more or less had some educational quality and
they were very conscious about environmental pollution. Again most of the
farmers of the study area were poor and they had little land for vegetable
production. They preferred environment friendly practices as they rarely sell their
vegetables at market rather they consumed it.
Table 10. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their organizational
participation
Participation Score Respondents Mean Standard
deviation
Number Percent
up to 2.00 17 17
3.00-7.00 64 64
5.19 2.56
above 7.00 19 19
All 100 100

Table 10 shows that majority 81% of the respondents had low to medium
participation in different organization where 17% had low organizational
participation, 64% had medium organizational participation, and another total
19% respondents had high organizational participation. Organizational
participation helps an individual to find out solutions to their own problems as
well as other social issues. A great majority of the farmers in the study area had
less organizational participation. The study revealed that farmers felt less interest
in organizational participation. Again their education level was not so high and
they felt hesitate in organizational participation. They were busy in earning their
livelihood, so most of the farmers were indifferent in organizational participation.
More organizational participation could create coordinated capability and
capacity to adopt environment friendly vegetable cultivation.

Credit received
The credit received score of the respondents ranged from 0 to 30 with the mean
and standard deviation of 10.70 and 6.89 respectively shown in (Table 11).
184 PURKAYSTO et al.

Table 11. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their credit received
Respondents Standard
Credit Score Mean
Number Percent deviation

up to 3 14 14
4-17 68 68
10.70 6.89
above 17-30 18 18
All 100 100

Table11 indicates that highest portion (68 %) of the respondents had received
medium amount of credit, while 14 % low and 18 % received high amount of
credit. Analysis of data indicates that most of the respondents (86 percent) were
medium to high credit recipients and few respondents (14 percent) were
supported by low credit facility. Almost all beneficiaries received credit for
vegetable cultivation.

Farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation

The observed scores for attitude towards environment friendly vegetable
cultivation ranged from 34 to 83 against the possible range of 20 to 100 with a
mean of 54.82 and standard deviation of 15.59 shown in (Table 12).
Table 12. Distribution of the vegetable growers according to their attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation
Respondents Standard
Farmer attituude Mean
Number Percent deviation

Highlyunfavorable attitude (<40) 20 20

Unfavorable attitude (40- <60) 40 40
Neutral attitude ( 60) 1 1
54.82 15.59
Favorable attitude(>60-80) 33 33
Highly favorable attitude (>80) 6 6
Total 100 100

List of environment friendly vegetable cultivation practices of the respondents

given below in the Table 13.
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 185

Table 13. Practice wise attitude score of the respondents towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation
Environment Respondents
Sl. friendly vegetable Number Percent Standard
Categories
no. cultivation Mean deviation
practices
1. Mechanical control Strongly 43 43
disagree
Disagree 25 25 2.28 0.78
No opinion 16 16
Agree 13 13
Strongly agree 3 3
2. Biological control Strongly 19 19
disagree
Disagree 31 31 2.64 1.21
No opinion 27 27
Agree 13 13
Strongly agree 10 10
3. Cultural control Strongly 0 0
disagree
Disagree 14 14 3.11 0.95
No opinion 21 21
Agree 24 24
Strongly agree 41 41
4. Genetic control Strongly 28 28
disagree
Disagree 23 23 2.81 1.56
No opinion 14 14
Agree 10 10
Strongly agree 25 25

Table 12 shows that the majority (40%) of the respondents had unfavorable
attitude, 20% respondents had highly unfavorable attitude, 1% of them had
neutral attitude while 33% respondents had favorable attitude and 6% had highly
favorable attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. The
findings indicate that majority (40%) of the respondents had unfavorable attitude
towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation.
Table 13 indicates that four environment friendly practices in vegetable
cultivation were taken to measure responses from the respondents. Practices were
mechanical control, biological control, cultural control and genetic control.
Responses for these practices were measured in 5 categories. In mechanical
control 43% were strongly disagree,25% were disagree,16% were no
186 PURKAYSTO et al.

opinion,13% were agree and 3% were strongly agree. In biological control 19%
were strongly disagree,31% were disagree, 27% were no opinion,13% were agree
and 10% were strongly agree. In cultural control 0% were strongly disagree,14%
were disagree,21% were no opinion, 24% were agree and 41% were strongly
agree. In genetic control, total 28% were strongly disagree, 23% were disagree,
14% were no opinion, 10% were agree and 25% were strongly agree. Above that
it can be said that, respondents showed more favorable attitude to the cultural
control and showed less favorable attitude to the mechanical control. Genetic and
biological control were in 2nd and 3rd position respectively.

Relationship between selected characteristics of the vegetable growers and

their attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation
Pearson’s product moment correlation co-efficient was computed in order to
find out the extent of relationship between attitude towards environment friendly
vegetable cultivation and their selected characteristics. To reject or accept the
null hypothesis, 1% and 5% level of probability was used. A statistically
significant and non-significant relationship was observed when the computed
value or “r” was greater or smaller than the tabulated value, respectively.
The result of correlation test is shown in (Table14).
Table 14. Correlation co-efficient showing relationship of each of the selected
characteristics of the vegetable growers and their attitude
Computed value Tabulated value at 98
Dependent df
Independent variables of co-efficient of
variable
correlation ‘r’ 0.05 level 0.01 level
Age -0.028NS
Education 0.655**
Family size -0.083NS
Farm size 0.193NS
Farmers’
Training received 0.234*
attitude towards
environment Time spent in vegetable 0.308**
friendly field
0.196 0.256
vegetable Annual family income 0.292**
cultivation Annual income from 0.324**
vegetable cultivation
Knowledge on environment 0.504**
friendly practices (IPM) in
vegetable cultivation
Organizational participation 0.542**
Credit received 0.240*
* Significant at the 0.05 level, ** Significant at the 0.01 level, NSNot significant.
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 187

Relationship between age and attitude towards environment friendly

vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found -
0.028 (Table 14), which is non significant and thus the null hypothesis could not
be rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that age of the farmers had
negative and non significant relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. This represent that age of the
respondents was not an important factor to show attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. But with the increase of age of the respondents’
attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation also decreases. Patel
et, al. (2007) also found similar findings in their study.

Relationship between education and attitude towards environment friendly

vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.655 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that education of the farmers had
significant and positive relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Thus it can be said that, education is
an important factor and as the education increase or decrease, attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation is also increased or decreased
respectively. Patel et al. (2007), Farhad and Kashem (2004) also found similar
findings in their studies.

Relationship between family size and attitude towards environment friendly

vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found -
0.083 (table 14), which is non significant and thus the null hypothesis could not
be rejected.
Based on the above findings, it was concluded that family size of the farmers had
negative and non significant relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Thus, it can be said that farm size of
the farmers had shown no impact on their attitude towards environment friendly
vegetable cultivation. Rahman (2010) and Parvez (2007) also found non
significant relationship between family size and attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation.

Relationship between farm size and attitude towards environment friendly

vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.193 (table 14), which is non significant and thus the null hypothesis could not
be rejected.
188 PURKAYSTO et al.

Based on the above findings, it was concluded that farm size of the farmers had
positive and non significant relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation .Thus, it can be said that farm size of
the farmers had shown no impact on their attitude towards environment friendly
vegetable cultivation. Rahman (2010) and Parvez (2007) also found non
significant relationship between farm size and attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation.

Relationship between training received and attitude towards environment

friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.234 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that training received had
significant positive relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. Environment friendly practices require the
manipulation of local natural resources for conservation and augmentation of
natural enemies which can be achieved by successful participation of farmers in
training. It means that, the farmers with more training received had favorable
attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Sarker (2002) and
Rahman (2010) also found similar significant positive relationship in their
studies.

Relationship between time spent in vegetable field and attitude towards

environment friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.308 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that time spent in vegetable field
had significant positive relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. It means that, with the increase or
decrease of time spent in vegetable field, the favorable attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation by the farmers is also increased or
decreased. Roy (2014) found similar significant positive relationship in his study.

Relationship between annual family income and attitude towards

environment friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.292(table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that annual family income of the
farmers had significant and positive relationship with the farmers’ attitude
towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Thus it can be said that,
annual family income of farmers had effect on attitude of farmers. If annual
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 189

family income increase or decrease, farmers’ attitude towards environment

friendly vegetable cultivation will also respectively increased or decreased.
Parvez (2007) and Rahman (2010) also found significant relationship between
annual income of the farmers and their attitude towards environment friendly
vegetable cultivation.

Relationship between annual income from vegetable cultivation and attitude

towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.324 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that annual income from vegetable
cultivation had positive significant relationship with the attitude of the farmers
towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. The positive relation implies
that attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation was observed
favorable among those farmers who had high annual income from vegetable
cultivation. Haider (2005) also found significant relationship between annual
income of the farmers from vegetable cultivation and their attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation.

Relationship between Knowledge on environment friendly vegetable

cultivation and attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.504 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that knowledge on environment
friendly vegetable cultivation had significant positive relationship with the
farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. It means
that, with the increase of knowledge on environment friendly vegetable
cultivation, favorable attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation
is also increased. Farhad (2004) and Rahman (2010) also found similar findings
in their study.

Relationship between organizational participation and attitude towards

environment friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.542 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Based on the above finding, it was concluded that organizational participation
had significant positive relationship with the farmers’ attitude towards
environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Higher the participation in different
organization, higher is the scope of exchanging information that leads to higher
the level of attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. Rahman
(2010) found similar findings in his study.
190 PURKAYSTO et al.

Relationship between credit received and attitude towards environment

friendly vegetable cultivation
The coefficient of correlation (r) between the concerned variables was found
0.240 (table 14), which is significant and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
The finding indicates that the attitude of the farmers increased with the increase
of credit availability. This seems to be logical, because high amount of credit
leads to high amount of investment and subsequently high profit and high
favorable attitude. So, it could be concluded that loan or credit play a significant
and vital role in enhancing attitude towards environment friendly vegetable
cultivation. Farhad (2003) and Rahman (2010) also found similar findings in
their study.

Ranking of the constraints faced by the farmers in using environment

friendly vegetable cultivation
In order to ascertain the extent of severity of constraint faced by the farmers in
using environment friendly vegetable cultivation, constraint facing index (CFI)
was computed. The CFI of any constraint could range from 0 to 300, where 0
indicated no constraint and 300 indicated high constraint. However, the
computed Constraint facing index (CFI) of the 9 constraints ranged from 67 to
195 and has been arranged in rank order according to their constraint indices
which appears in table 4.17.
Table 15. Ranking of the constraints faced by the farmers in using environment
friendly vegetable cultivation
Frequency of extent of constraint faced
Sl (N=100)
Constraints
No.
H M L N CFI Rank
1. Lack of resistant variety 35 34 22 9 195 1
2. Lack of quality seed 33 28 28 11 183 2
3. Expensive in using light trap 20 32 20 28 144 5
4. Time consuming in mechanical control to 29 24 22 25 157 4
the pests
5. Lack of pesticides with short residual 38 18 16 28 166 3
effect
6. Lack of knowledge about the beneficial 12 29 25 34 119 6
insects and harmful insects
7. Unavailability of organic farming 9 23 35 33 108 7
practices
8. Lack of cooperation among the farmers 9 16 45 30 104 8
9. Criticize to other farmers for use of 4 9 37 50 67 9
environment friendly practices
Elaborations:
H = High, M = Medium, L = Low, N = Not at all, CFI = Constraint facing Index
FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY 191

Data contained in (Table 15) indicate that the farmers faced highest constraint in
“lack of resistant variety “as indicated by its CFI of 195. This is the main
constraint faced by the farmers in relation to environment friendly vegetable
cultivation. The second and third constraints faced by them are “lack of quality
seed “(CFI 183) and "lack of pesticides with short residual effect" (CFI 166)
respectively. The fourth constraint was “time consuming in mechanical control to
the pests” (CFI 157). Fifth constraint was “expensive in using light trap” (CFI
144). Sixth constraint was “lack of knowledge about the beneficial insects and
harmful insects” (CFI 119). Seventh constraint was “unavailability of organic
farming practices” (CFI 108). Eighth constraint was “lack of cooperation among
the farmers” (CFI 104). In this way, comparatively less constraint (ninth) faced
by the fanners is "criticize to other farmers for use of environment friendly
practices" (CFI 67) that means it is not a serious constraint for the farmers in
using environment friendly vegetable cultivation.

Conclusions
Majority (40%) of the respondents had unfavorable attitude towards environment
friendly vegetable cultivation. Unfavorable attitude should be changed into
favorable attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation through
increasing their educational level, organizational participation, training received,
credit received etc. In this study (28%) of the respondents were illiterate and rests
of all were literate. Training received had significant positive relationship with
their attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation. 87% of the
respondents had no to low training. 76% of the respondents were short to
moderate time spender in their vegetable field. It also showed that 86% of the
respondents had medium family income. It plays a vital role in any socio-
economic development of the farmers. 82% of the respondents had poor to
medium knowledge on environment friendly vegetable cultivation. 81% of the
respondents was low to medium organizational participation. 82% of the
respondents were low to medium credit recipient. So, it can be concluded that
increase of credit availability may improve their situation and more favorable
attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation can be seen.

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194 PURKAYSTO et al.
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 195-202, June 2021
GENETIC VARIABILITY IN YIELD CONTRIBUTING CHARACTERS
OF TOSSA JUTE (Corchorus capsularis L.)

A. GHOSH1, B. K. BISWAS2 AND M. ARIFUZZAMAN3

Abstract
Fifty-six hybrids of Tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) were raised at Hajee
Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur from the
parental lines O-9897, O-795, JRO-524, Acc.-2381, Acc.-3423, Acc.-3438,
Acc.-3533 and Acc.-3860 and studied. Maximum 24 genotypes were in cluster
II followed by 11 in I, 9 in IV, 6 in VI, 4 in V and only 2 in cluster IV and the
minimum (2.871) was between the clusters IV and V. Cluster VI produced the
highest mean values for all the characters indicated the higher potential. Intra-
cluster distances were lower than inter-cluster distances, suggested less diversity
within a cluster. Mahalanobis D2-statistics for genetic divergent classified those
56 genotypes into six clusters. Cluster VI showed the highest intercluster
distance (23.565) with cluster I. Therefore, jute breeders may consider the
hybrids having desirable trait of cluster I and VI for further improvement of
Tossa jute.
Keywords: Tossa jute (Corchorus capsularis), inter-cluster distance, Eigen
values, Yield Contributing Character, Mahalanobis D2.

Introduction
Jute is a natural fibre popularly known as the golden fibre of Bangladesh. It is
an important traditional cash crop of the country. In fact, jute is the second
most important natural fibre in terms of global consumption after cotton. The
global awareness for the environmental protection creates the opportunity of
exploring jute (Chowdhury and Rashed, 2015). Jute has the priority over the
synthetic fiber as this contains quality of biodegradability and recycling
(Islam and Ahmed, 2012). Considering the impacts that it creates to the
environment and recycling nature, jute is considered as ‘sustainable’. Still
there is potential prospect to revive jute industry. By this time, with the help
of technology, jute gets new dimension. The future of jute fiber is very
greatly depending on its quality. The breeders gather deep knowledge on the
genetic diversity and variability, genetic architecture for fiber yield, and
yield-related anatomical traits of jute germplasm for varietal improvement of
jute (Ngomuo et al., 2017). The plants are sometimes selected on the basis of
some morphological traits which is actually unable to give any accurate

1
MS Student, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Hajee Mohammad Danesh
Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, 2 & 3Professor, Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University,
Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
196 GHOSH et al.

information on fiber quality. So, the breeders need to do anatomical studies of

jute plants for accurate information on fiber improvements (Majumdar, 2002).
Correlations between jute fiber quality and other yield attributing anatomical
characters are helpful to improve desired characters as well as to select good
germplasm for breeding purpose (Kumar et. al., 2007; Mati and Satya, 2009).
Multivariate methods such as cluster analysis and principal component
analysis (PCA) have proven to be useful for characterizing, evaluating, and
classifying germplasm for diversity when a large number of accessions or
genotypes to be assessed for several characteristics of anatomical importance
(Badenes et al., 2000).
Improvement of varieties is required to have more productivity from the
cultivation. Generally, the success of any crop improvement program largely
depends on the magnitude of genetic variability, genetic advance, character
association, direct and indirect effects on yield and its attributes. The selected
sergeants can be used in advancing the generation to develop diverse genotypes
in segregating generations. In this context, the present investigation was
undertaken to assess and also to explain the nature and magnitude of genetic
variability of 56 hybrids of Tossa Jute of O-9897, O-795, JRO-524, Acc.-2381,
Acc.-3423 Acc.-3438, Acc.-3533, and Acc.-3860 parents.

Materials and Methods

A set of 56 experimental hybrid of the Tossa jute generated and maintained
by the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding of Hajee Mohammad
Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur were used in this study.
The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with
three replications. The seeds of each genotype were sown in 3 rows of 3
meter long plot. The rows were 30 cm apart with planting space of 5-7 cm.
The replication blocks were interspaced with 60 cm. Manures and fertilizers
were applied as per recommended dose. Seeds were sown on 30 April 2018.
After 120 days of sowing, the sample plants of individual plots were
harvested for fibre yield. The data on fibre yield and its attributes as plant
height (m), base diameter (mm), green bark thickness (mm), green wight
without leaves (g), fibre weight (g), stick weight (g), fibre strength (MPa),
days to flowering and days to maturity were recorded from 5 randomly
selected plant of each genotype from each replication. The data obtained for
different characters were recorded first on MS excel sheet. Afterwards, the
data were analyzed using the software package R of version 3.4.2 and
Statistical Tool for Agricultural Research (STAR) Version: 2.0.1. Genetic
divergence analysis was concurrently performed by using Mahalanobis D 2-
statistics and based on the unique D 2- values 56 hybrids were classified
GENETIC VARIABILITY IN YIELD CONTRIBUTING CHARACTERS 197

purposefully into 6 groups. Multivariate analysis named clustering analysis

and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were performed with the help of
GENSTAT 5 program in computer.
Table 1. Characteristics of eight selected genotypes of Tossa jute

Sl. Accessions/ Parental

Origin Other characteristics
No. Varieties symbol
01. O-9897 O-5 x BZ-5 P1 Plant full green, leaves ovate
lanceolate, fruit indehiscence in
nature, seed bluish green in colour,
less photosensitive and late
maturing.
02. O-795 Uganda red P2 Plant reddish, leaves ovate
x O-4 lanceolate, fruit indehiscence in
nature, seed bluish green in colour,
less photosensitive and late
maturing
03. JRO-524 Indian P3 Plant full green, leaves ovate
origin lanceolate, fruit indehiscence and
sticky in nature, seed bluish green in
colour, less photosensitive and late
maturing.
04. Acc. 2381 Local P4 Plant reddish, leaves ovate
collection lanceolate, seed bluish green in
colour.
05. Acc. 3423 Local P5 Plant full green, leaves ovate
collection lanceolate, seed bluish green in
colour.
06. Acc. 3438 Local P6 Plant reddish, leaves ovate
collection lanceolate seed bluish green in
colour.
07. Acc. 3533 Local P7 Plant full green, leaves ovate
collection lanceolate, seed bluish green in
colour.
08. Acc. 3860 Local P8 Plant reddish, leaves ovate
collection lanceolate, seed bluish green in
colour.
198 GHOSH et al.

Results and discussion

Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
The first two principal components having eigen values for plant height (5.798)
and base diameter (1.753) accounted for 69% of the total variation among ten
characters of Tossa jute for 56 genotypes studied. Similar kind of results were
reported by Ghosh et al., (2014) in jute. Sawarkar et al., (2015) reported the
highest contribution (12.63%) was exerted by plant height of total divergence,
which supports the current findings. Alam et al., (2016) calculated Eigen values
and percentage of variation in respect of eleven characters in white jute (C.
capsularis L.) germplasm and found four of these Eigen values above unity
accounted for 90.81%.
Table 2. Eigen values and percentages of variation in respect of ten characters in 56
hybrids of Tossa jute
Percentage of total
Eigen Cumulative
Parameters variation accounted for
values percentage
individual characters
Plant Height (m) 5.798 52.74 52.74
Base Diameter (mm) 1.753 15.94 68.68
Green Bark Thickness (mm) 0.901 8.19 76.88
Green Wight Without Leaves (g) 0.802 7.29 84.17
Fibre Weigh (g) 0.542 4.93 89.10
Stick Weight (g) 0.510 4.64 93.74
Fibre Strength (MPa) 0.314 2.86 96.60
Days to Flowering 0.228 2.08 98.68
Days to Maturity 0.085 0.77 99.45
Fibre Weight/ Stick Weight 0.061 0.55 100.00

Cluster analysis
On the basis of Mahalanobis D2 analysis 56 genotypes were grouped into 6
clusters. The grouping of materials of same origin into different clusters was an
indication of broad genetic base of the genotypes belonging to that origin or vice-
versa. All members of cluster VI were from P8 origin. Table 3 represent the
composition of different clusters with their corresponding genotypes. Maximum
24 genotypes were in cluster II followed by 11 in I, 9 in III, 6 in VI, 4 in V and
only 2 in cluster IV.
GENETIC VARIABILITY IN YIELD CONTRIBUTING CHARACTERS 199

Table 3. Distribution of 56 hybrids of Tossa jute in 6 clusters

Number of
Cluster Hybrids
hybrids
I 11 P1 x P2, P1 x P5, P3 x P4, P4 x P6, P2 x P1, P3 x P1, P3 x
P2, P6 x P3, P7 x P1, P8 x P1, P5 x P7
II 24 P1 x P3, P1 x P7, P1 x P8, P2 x P3, P2 x P5, P2 x P6, P2 x
P7, P3 x P5, P3 x P6, P3 x P7, P3 x P8, P4 x P7, P4 x P8,
P5 x P6, P5 x P8, P6 x P7, P7 x P8, P4 x P2, P4 x P3, P5 x
P1, P5 x P3, P5 x P4, P7 x P2, P7 x P6
III 9 P1 x P4, P1 x P6, P2 x P4, P2 x P8, P4 x P5, P4 x P1, P5 x
P2, P6 x P4, P7 x P4
IV 2 P6 x P8, P7 x P5
V 4 P6 x P1, P6 x P2, P6 x P5, P7 x P3
VI 6 P8 x P2, P8 x P3, P8 x P4, P8 x P5, P8 x P6, P8 x P7
The Inter and intra-cluster distance (D2) of 56 genotypes of Tossa jute were
shown in Table 4. The maximum inter-cluster distance (23.565) between the
cluster I and cluster VI followed by cluster I and cluster V (20.616), cluster I and
cluster IV (18.405), cluster I and cluster III (14.857), cluster II and cluster V
(10.984) clearly indicating the presence of high genetic diversity between the
clusters. Similar kind of results in Tossa jute were found by Akter et al., (2005),
Roy et al., (2011), Jatothu et al., (2018) and Biswas et al., (2018). Selecting tossa
jute genotypes from high inter cluster distances with high mean values for fibre
yielding characters will help in developing high heterotic hybrids and also useful
in selecting better recombinants in the segregating generations for higher fibre
yield (Jatothu et al., 2018).
Table 4. Inter and intra-cluster distance of 56 genotypes of Tossa jute
Cluster Distance
Cluster
I II III IV V VI
I 0.1837
II 10.277 0.2843
III 14.857 4.5840 0.3297
IV 18.405 8.4250 4.2960 0.3376
V 20.616 10.984 7.1290 2.8710 0.2971
VI 23.565 14.05 10.72 5.4220 3.37051 0.37051
200 GHOSH et al.

In the present study, the maximum intra cluster distance was found in cluster VI
(0.37051) revealing high genetic diversity and minimum in cluster I (0.1837)
revealing less variation among genotypes in this cluster. In general, intra cluster
distances were lower than inter cluster distances suggesting less diversity within
a cluster but the genotypes under a cluster were far away from the genotypes of
other clusters.
Cluster mean analysis
Table 4 shows the comparison of cluster means for different characters. Cluster
VI produced the highest mean values for total plant height, base diameter, green
bark thickness, green wight without leaves, fibre weigh, stick weight, fibre
strength and days to maturity compared to the rest of the cluster indicated the
higher potentials of the genotypes in the population. The cluster means for the
selected characters determined the potential of a cluster for a character that might
help in selection of genotypes for further breeding programme for amelioration
of this important cash and fiber crop.
Table 5. Cluster mean value for yield and yield contributing characters of Tossa jute
Cluster mean
Characters
I II III IV V VI
Plant Height (m) 3.36 3.36 3.36 3.21 3.07 3.42
Base Diameter (mm) 15.89 15.88 15.88 15.97 16.31 17.35
Green Bark Thickness (mm) 15.22 15.23 15.18 15.05 14.34 16.99
Green Wight Without Leaves (g) 2.94 2.95 2.93 2.80 2.56 4.17
Fibre Weigh (g) 555.92 558.17 555.67 508.47 486.27 851.29
Stick Weight (g) 247.78 247.97 245.87 233.41 224.50 407.59
Fibre Strength (MPa) 590.10 591.68 592.78 589.61 576.29 617.22
Days to Flowering 77.05 76.98 76.96 77.15 77.13 76.61
Days to Maturity 112.31 112.44 112.43 112.06 111.67 113.06
Fibre Weight/ Stick Weight 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.18 2.17 2.09

Conclusion
The selected 10 characters showed wide range of variability among 56 hybrids of
Tossa jute. Plant height, base diameter, green bark thickness and green weight
without leaves, fibre weight and fibre weight/stick weight are the fibre yield
enhancing characters. Therefore, jute breeders might exploit these characters for
improving fibre yield in Tossa jute. Genetically distant parents have the potential
to develop useful recombinants for obtaining heteroblastic programming.
Considering the inter and intra-cluster distance, the inter genotypic crosses
between the genotypes from cluster I (P1 x P2, P1 x P5, P3 x P4, P4 x P6, P2 x
GENETIC VARIABILITY IN YIELD CONTRIBUTING CHARACTERS 201

P1, P3 x P1, P3 x P2, P6 x P3, P7 x P1, P8 x P1, P5 x P7) and cluster VI (P8 x
P2, P8 x P3, P8 x P4, P8 x P5, P8 x P6, P8 x P7) may be suggested to proceed
further selection.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Hajee
Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur for supporting
the research work with farm and laboratory facilities.

References
Akter, N., M. A. K. Mian, M. M. Islam, M. A. Alim and M. N. Islam. 2005. Estimation
of genetic parameters, character association and path analysis in jute (Corchorus
olitorius L.). germplasm. Bangladesh J. Pl. Breed. Genet. 18(1): 35-38.
Alam, M. J., M. E. A. Pramanik, Jannatul Ferdous and M. M. Islam. 2016. Assessment of
Genetic Variation in Selected Germplasm of White Jute (Corchorus capsularis L.).
Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci., 39(1): 41-54.
Badenes, M., J. Martínez-Calvo, and G. Llácer. 2000. Analysis of a germplasm collection
of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.). Euphytica. 114(3): 187-194.
Biswas, S. K., M. R. Debnath, M. Moniruzzaman, S. N. Islam and M. Z. Tareq. 2018.
Genetic Variability Study of Tossa Jute (Corchorus olitorius) Genotypes. Int. J. Bus.
Soc. Sci. Res., 6(3): 52-55.
Chowdhury, I. U. A. and M. S. Rashed. 2015. Market Access of Bangladesh’s Jute in
the Global Market: Present Status and Future Prospects. J. Econ. and Sustainable
Dev., 6(3).
Ghosh, R. K., A. Wongkaew, T. Sreewongchai, S. Nakasathien and C. Phumichai. 2014.
Assessment of genetic diversity and population structure in jute (Corchorus spp.)
using simple sequence repeat (SSR) and amplified fragment length polymorphism
(AFLP) markers. Kasetsart J. Nat. Sci., 48: 83-94.
Islam, M. S. and S. K. Ahmed. 2012. The impacts of jute on environment: An analytical
review of Bangladesh. J. Env. and Earth Sci., 2(5): 24-31.
Jatothu, J. L., A. A. Kumar, S. B. Choudhury, H. K. Sharma, R. T. Maruthi, Kar, C. S.
and J. Mitra. 2018. Genetic diversity analysis in tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.)
germplasm lines. J. Applied and Nat. Sci. 10(1): 1-3.
Karmkar, K., S. C. Bhattacharya, and A. Bakshi. 2007. A comparative study on simple
correlation coefficient value in capsularis Jute at different population level. J. Crop
and Weed, 3:30-32.
Maiti R. K. and P. Satya. 2009. Fiber bundle anatomy determines the yield potentials, and
fiber quality of bast fiber (Long Fiber): A hypothesis. Int. J. Agriculture Env. and
Biotech., 2(4): 41- 46.
Majumdar, S. 2002. Prediction of fiber qualities from anatomical studies in jute stem:
part-I prediction of fineness. Indian J. Fibre and Textile Research, 27: 248-253
202 GHOSH et al.

Ngomuo, M., T. Stoilova, T. Feyissa, and A. N. Patrick. 2017. Characterization of

morphological diversity of Jute Mallow (Corchorus spp.). Int. J. of Agronomy, vol.
2017, Article ID 6460498
Roy, S. K., B. Das, V. A. Kale and S. Haque. 2011. Genetic divergence study for yield
and quality traits in tossa jute. J. Crop and Weed, 7(1):130-132 (2011)
Sarker, S. R., M. A. H. Chowdhury, K. M. Mohiuddin, and B. K. Saha. 1995. Influence
of different levels of potassium on yield and fibre strength of jute. J. Agroforestry
and Env., 6(1): 39-42, 2012.
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 203-209, June 2021
SUITABILITY OF MEDIUM DENSITY FIBER BOARD MADE FROM
RUBBER WOOD FOR HOUSEHOLD AND INDUSTRIAL USE

M. M. RAHAMAN1, S. HOSSAIN2, M. R. ISLAM3 AND M. M. UDDIN4

Abstract
The use of fiber board is increasing due to limited supply of timer wood. This study
investigated the suitability of medium density fiber board (MDF) made from rubber
wood for household and industrial use. Rubber wood was collected from
Bangladesh Forest Development Corporation (BFIDC), Chattogram. Single layer
fiber boards were fabricated by five different densities, such as 700, 725, 750, 775
and 800 kgm-3. The mechanical and physical properties of medium density
fireboards fabricated by rubber wood fiber as a raw material and urea formaldehyde
as a resin were studied. The performance of composite was evaluated by its
mechanical and physical properties. Experimental investigation indicated that the
mechanical strength of medium density fiber board such as modulus of rupture
(MOR) and tensile strength increased with increasing board density. The bending
strength (188-234kgcm-2) passed the Indian, German and British standard while the
tensile strength (4.20-4.70kgcm-2) passed the German and British Standard
specification. The research concluded that 800kgm-3 fiber board made from rubber
wood had the best modulus of rupture (234 kgcm-2) and the highest tensile strength
(4.70 kgcm-2) among all other single layer medium density fiber boards.
Keywords: Medium density fiber board (MDF), rubber wood, modulus of rupture
(MOR), thickness swelling.
Introduction
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimates
that the production of industrial wood from plantations will be an increasingly
important source of industrial fiber throughout the world (Evans,1998). Wood
composite panels are a type of construction material used extensively as a raw
material in furniture, shelving, cabinetmaking and other non-load-bearing
construction applications. Two types of composite panels, such as particle board
and fiber board are typically made using different techniques and materials. Fiber
board is a type of engineered wood product that is made from wood fibers. There
are three types of fiber board such as low-density fiber board (LDF), medium-
density fiber board (MDF), and high-density fiber board (HDF).In general fiber
board is considered as higher quality than particle board.
Medium density fiber board (MDF) is one of the most widely used wood-based
panels to manufacture building and housing components such as furniture units for
interior applications. In recent years, production of MDF has significantly
1
Senior Research Officer, Veneer & Composite Wood Products Division, BFRI,
Chattogram, 2Research Officer, Veneer & Composite Wood Products BFRI, Chattogram,
3
Fild Investigator, Veneer & Composite Wood Products Division, BFRI, Chattogram, 4Fild
Investigator, Pulp & Paper Division, BFRI, Chattogram, Bangladesh.
204 RAHMAN et al.

increased and has a major market share in the wood composites industry
(Julsonetal.,2007, Akgul et al.,2008).
The demand for composite wood products, such as plywood, oriented strand board
(OSB), hardboard, particle board, medium-density fiber board, and veneer board
products has been recently increased substantially throughout the world
(Youngquist,1999; Sellers, 2000).
The first MDF was made in a particle board plant in Deposit, New York in
1965.MDF capacity has grown rapidly. From the first production in 1965, world
capacity is now estimated at 36x106m3yr-1while in New Zealand capacity is some
900,000 m3yr-1(Chapman,2004). Production of this product has increased
dramatically and new plants are planned worldwide. In 1996, MDF shipments from
U.S. plants set another annual record in an unbroken series, totaling 2.1 million
m3, which was forecasted to be 3 million m3 in 1997.In 1996, European production
of MDF jumped 18 percent to 4.5 million m3, continuing an unbroken upward trend
in Europe (Krzysik et al, 2001).
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations are being raised in Bangladesh
since the early sixteen for the production of latex. The wood of old trees whose
latex production has declined can be used as rubber wood on a continuous basis
(Hasnin et al, 1992). The present study was undertaken for finding out the
suitability of fiber board from rubber wood. The shortage of the raw material for
the forest industry is the main problem. To overcome the shortage of raw material
this study aimed to examine the feasibility of using unusable rubber wood.

Materials and Methods

Fiber preparation
Rubber woods were collected from Bangladesh Forest Industries Development
Corporation (BFIDC), Chattogram. Then woods were cut into pieces of shorter
length in Veneer and Composite Wood Products Division, Bangladesh Forest
Research Institute, Chattogram. The pieces were hammer milled to chips using
screen of 0.63cm diameter. The chips were then sieved through 20-mesh screen to
remove dust and fines and dried in the batch oven at 70oC temperatures to 4 to 5%
moisture content. The chips were cooked by direct steaming 120oCin a stainless-
steel rotary digester of 0.02 m3 capacity under 10 kgcm-2 digester pressures for one
hour. They were then refined in a single-rotating disk attrition mill to obtain fiber
of different freeness from each of the above cooks.
Fiber board manufacture
Five single layer fiber boards (MDF)were prepared under five treatments (T1=700,
T2=725, T3=750, T4=775 and T5=800 kgm-3) in the laboratory hot press using the
rubber wood fiber which followed by Latin Square Design (LSD). The dimension
of the fiber board was 50 cm x 50 cm x 1.20 cm having a target density. The
SUITABILITY OF MEDIUM DENSITY FIBER BOARD MADE 205

temperature of the platens of the hot press was maintained at 160 oC. Liquid urea
formaldehyde (UF) adhesive (50% solid content) was used on oven dry fiber for
fiber board preparation. The liquid urea formaldehyde was catalyzed with 2%
hardener (ammonium chloride) for hot pressing. No water repellent was used in
this preparation. The mats of the board were formed manually in wooden
fabricated bordered frame. Then the mats were pressed initially at 500psi specific
pressure for 6 minutes. The pressure was then lowered in two steps, firstly
150psifor 4 minutes and then 50psifor 2 minutes according to the experimental
condition shown in Table 1. The boards were then conditioned at 65 ±2% relative
humidity and 20±2oC temperature before they were put to tests.
Table 1. Experimental condition
UF - solid Board Board Pressing Mat Specific Pressure
content (%) thickness density temperature moisture Pressure time(minute)
(mm) (kg/m3) (oC) (%) (psi)

50 12 700-800 160 12 500 6

150 4
50 2

Test samples preparation

The fiber boards were cut into various test samples sizes such as (35.00cmx7.50cm
x1.20cm) for modulus of rupture and (5.08cm x5.08cm x1.20cm) for tensile
strength. The tests were carried out according to specification of IS: 2380 (Anon,
1977) with a constant loading speed of the testing machine at 12mmmin-1.
The parameters of modulus of rupture are as follows:
The modulus of rupture (equn.1), R can be found by substituting the maximum
load, P for the load at the proportional limit
3𝑃𝑙
𝑅 = 2𝑏h²……......................................................................... (1)
Where, R=modulus of rupture in kgcm-2
P=maximum load in kg
𝑙=length of span in cm
b=width of specimen in cm
h=depth of specimen in cm
The tensile strength perpendicular to the surface was also carried out according to
the specification of IS: 2380 (Anon,1977) with the exception that wooden blocks
of 7.62cm x 5.08cm x 2.54cm were glued in cold press with the test specimens.
206 RAHMAN et al.

To determine thickness swelling and water absorption the specimens of size 10.16
cmx 10.16 x1.20 cm were taken from each board.
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(%) Water absorption = × 100
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
The thickness of the specimens was measured with the platform type thickness
gauze with an accuracy of 0.01 mm and immersed in 25 mm depth of coolwater.
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
(%) Swelling = × 100
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
At the end of 2 hours and 24 hours, the test specimens were withdrawn from water,
wiped with a damp cloth, reweighed and re-measured the thickness as before. The
percentage of water absorption and thickness swelling were then calculated. The
test results were then compared with standard results given inTable2 and Table 3.

Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the randomized complete block design was
performed with the SPSS software package using the Least Significant Difference
(LSD) method to compare the mean values of MOR,IB, TS and WA of the boards
under various refining density at the 95% confidence level.
Table 2. Some standards specifications for strength property
Modulus of
Thickness Density of rupture Tensile
Requirements/specification Strength
of board board
of some standards (MOR)
(mm) (kgm-3) (kgcm-2)
(kgcm-2)
IS Specification 6-40 500 - 900 112.00 8.00
3087(Anon,1985b)
German Standard 13-20 600 -750 180.00 3.50
Din 68761
(Verkor, 1975)
BS Specification 6-19 - 140.00 3.40
5669 (Anon, 1979b)
SUITABILITY OF MEDIUM DENSITY FIBER BOARD MADE 207

Table 3. Some standards specifications for dimensional stability (Thickness

SwellingandWater Absorption)

Thickness Water
Thickness Density of Absorption
Requirements/specification Swelling ((%))
of board board ((%))
of some standards
(mm) (kgm-3)
2hrs 24hrs 2hrs 24hrs
IS Specification 6-40 500 - 900 10 25 - 50
3087(Anon.,1985b)
German Standard 13-20 600 -750 6 - -
Din 68761
(Verkor, 1975)
BS Specification 6-19 - 12 (for 1hr - -
5669 (Anon.,1979b) soaking)

Results and Discussion

The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that the effects of five different
densities (T1=700, T2=725, T3=750, T4=775 and T5=800 kgm-3) have significant
effects (p ≤ 0.01) towards the modulus of rupter (MOR), thickness swelling (TS)
and water absorption (WA). Tensile strength is higher significant than all other
parameters and the significant (p ≥ 0.05) value was 0.441259. The mean values
according to least significant difference (LSD) of MOR,IB,TS and WA are given
in Table4.
Measurements of modulus of rupture in static bending (MOR) and the tensile
strength (internal bondIB perpendicular to face properties are presented in Table
4. The data in Table 4 revealed that the bending and tensile strength values have
increased with increasing fiber board density, which are not proportional across
the treatments.
Fiber boards containing density 800kgm-3hadsignificantly (p ≥ 0.01) the highest
values of modulus of rupture among all other medium densities (Table 4). The
value is234.00kg/cm2 (Table4),which superseded the Indian- (112.00kgcm-2),
British- (140.00kgcm-2) and German- (180.00kgcm-2) Standard(Table 2).
All density boards tensile strength values were insignificant at 0.01% level
(Table4). Fiber board made from different densities meet the requirement of
German Standard Din:68761 (Verkor and Ledune,1975) and British Standard,
BS:5669(Anon.,1979b) but did not fulfill the requirement Indian Standard
Specification IS:3087 (Anon.,1985b). The higher density MDF makes it stronger
and more resistant to breaking when under heavy loads. Franz et al. (1975) pointed
out that modulus of rupture is the most important mechanical property of particle
board with respects their particle application as structural elements.
208 RAHMAN et al.

Table 4. Strength property and dimensional stability of MDF made from rubber
(Heveabrasiliensis)Wood
Modulus of Thickness Swelling WaterAbsorption
Board rupture Tensile
density Strength (%) (%)
(kgm-3) (MOR) -2
(kgcm )
(kgcm-2 ) 2hrs 24hrs 2hrs 24hrs

700 188 4.20 6.22 11.08 34.63 45.45

725 190 4.40 7.30 11.73 39.81 48.68
750 197 4.50 7.50 11.92 43.44 52.62
775 200 4.60 9.09 12.76 53.34 53.95
800 234 4.70 9.10 12.87 54.42 63.22
F-value 28.23 1.02 69.52 8.43 1882.52 1892.76
Significant value 1.99E-05 0.441259 2.94E-07 0.003029 2.46E-14 2.39E-14

The observed thickness swellings of the different types of boards were 6.22 -
9.10% after 2 hours and 11.08-12.87% after 24 hours water soaking (Table 4). The
average values of thickness swelling and water absorption for 24 hours immersion
are greater than 2 hours immersion. Thickness swelling and water absorption
values were significant at 0.01% level. It was found that, 2 hours thickness
swelling of 800 kgm-3 density board satisfied the values of Indian Standard IS:
3087 (Anon., 1985b) and German Standard (Verkor and Ledune, 1975)
specification. However, less water absorption is better than more absorption and
less thickness swelling is better than more swelling. The table (4) revealed that the
physical properties (thickness swelling and water absorption) increased with the
increase of the board density. Density 800kgm-3was very significant at 0.01% level
and had better performances among all other parameters.
MDF boards are commonly used as interior for household purposes. Since
household furniture is kept at a safe distance from water, it is less prone to water
absorption and thickness swelling. Kollman et al. (1975) reported that the highest
thickness swelling after two hours immersion in water should not exceed 6-10%
of the original thickness. Addition of additives may improve the properties of the
particle boards.

Conclusion
According to the test results it can be concluded that higher mechanical properties
were obtained for denser panels of medium density fiber board made from rubber
wood fiber. The results revealed that the 800 kgm-3 density rubber wood fiber board
had the highest values for all the parameters and comparable to other rubber wood
fiber boards. Other medium density fiber boards (700 kgm-3, 725 kgm-3, 750 kgm-3
and 775 kgm-3) made from rubber wood can also be used conventionally.
SUITABILITY OF MEDIUM DENSITY FIBER BOARD MADE 209

References
Anonymous. 1977. Methods of test for particle board and boards from other lignocellulosic
materials (First revision) IS: 2380(Parts I to XXI). Indian Standard Institution, New
Delhi.66pp.
Anonymous. 1979 (b). Specifications for wood chip board and methods of test for particle
board,BS: 5669.British Standard Institution, 28pp.
Anonymous. 1985 (b). Specification for wood particle boards (medium density) for general
purposes (First revision) IS:3087-1985 Indian Standard Institution, New Delhi 19 pp.
Akgul, M. and C¸amlibel, O. 2008. Manufacture of Medium Density Fiber board (MDF)
Panels from Rhododendron (R. ponticum L.) Biomass, Building and Environment, 43:
438443.Properties of MDF Based on Bagasse Fibers, 1933
Krzysik, A. M., James H. Muehl J A; Youngquist; Fabio Spina Franca. 2001. Medium
density fiber board made from Eucalyptus Saligna, Forest Products Jourmnal, USDA,
Vol. 51, NO .10. 47-50 pp.
Evans, J. 1998. The sustainability of wood production in plantation forestry. Unasylva
49(192): 47-52.
Franz, F.P.; E.W.; Kollman; A.J.; Kuenzi and Stamm.1975. Principles of wood science and
technology, wood based materials, Springer verlag, New York. Volume -11. 457- 505
pp.
Hasnin, S. M, D. Biswas, M. W. Sheikh and M.M. Ali. 1992.Assessment of Rubber wood
(Heveabrasiliensis) for Plywood and Particle board manufacture. Bulletin-
6,Composite Wood Products Series, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute,
Chittagong, 8 pp.
Kollman, F. P Franz, E. W Kunzi and A. J. Stamn. 1975. Principles of Wood Science and
technology, Wood based materials, Volume-II, Springer Verlag, NewYork.457-
505pp.
Chapman, K. M. 2004. A study of two aspects of medium density fiber board manufacture,
Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical and Process Engineering University of Canterbury,
March 2004.
Sellers, T. 2000. Growing markets for engineered products spurs research. Wood Tech.
127 (3): 40–43.
Verkor, S.A and G. Ledune. 1975. German standard DIN 68761.Cited in FAO port folio
of small scale wood based panel plants. Koningin, Astridlaan. B-8520-
Lauwe/Belgium. 54 pp.
Youngquist, J.A. 1999. Wood-based composites and panel products. In: Wood Handbook:
Wood as an Engineering Material. Gen.Tech.Rept.FPL-GRT-113. USDA Forest
Serv., Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, WI, pp. 1–31 (Chapter 10).
Julson, J., X.P Ye, M. Kuo, A. Womac and D. Myers. 2007. Properties of Medium Density
Fiber boards Made from Renewable biomass, Bio-resource Technology. 98(5):
10771084.
210 RAHMAN et al.
ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 211-226, June 2021
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT
TRAINING ON BORO RICE CULTIVATION IN
SERAJGANJ DISTRICT

M. A. QUAYUM1, M. M. HOSSAIN2 AND T. SHARMIN3

Abstract
A study was conducted under the project areas of Tarash Upazila at Sirajganj
district. The objectives were to assess the improvement of farmers’ knowledge and
perception on different factors of BPH incidence and its management to examine
the economic impact on rice and to determine the profitability of Boro rice
cultivation among the different groups of farms. Out of 850 samples listed, 170
representative farmers among which 16 target, 54 trained and 100 non-trained
farmers were selected respectively by stratified random sampling technique. Rice
plants are affected by 20-33 major insect pests. Among them, BPH is considered
as most damaging one. Eighty eight, 83 and 93% target, trained and non trained
farmers reported that the project needs to continue while 100% farmers of each
group reported that the project is beneficial to control BPH to increase rice
production. Eighty seven, 56 and 51 % farmers of the target, trained and non-
trained group used double nozzle for spraying insecticides to control BPH in their
field. In boro season, 2073 kg/ha and 1209 kg/ha yield loss of BRRI dhan29 were
found before and after the project, respectively. The lower yield loss was due to
proper management taken by the farmers who got training and acquired sufficient
knowledge for controlling BPH. The study revealed that 37% higher cost and 47%
higher time is required by single nozzle sprayer than double nozzle sprayer.
Therefore, farmers of all categories prefer double nozzle sprayer as it is good for
health and saves money and time. They also reported that use of double nozzle
sprayer is more profitable than single nozzle sprayer. Benefit cost analysis
indicated that the gross return, net return and BCR were found higher in case of
the target farmers and these were Tk.171107/ha, Tk.73735/ha and 1.76
respectively, but the cost of production per kg was lower (Tk.10.27) than those of
the other two groups due to more knowledge gathered by the target farmers on
management practices for rice production. Partial budgeting analysis indicated that
the double nozzle users were more benefited by Tk 7287/ha than the single nozzle
users for boro rice cultivation. Thus, after the project the farmers of all categories
of the project area were socio-economically benefited learning how to use double
nozzle for controlling BPH.
Keywords: Rice, Brown plant hopper management, Bangladesh.

Introduction
Pest problem in Bangladesh is becoming severe because of intensive rice
cultivation. Every year 15% and 18% yield losses occurred due to disease

1
Ex Principal Scientific Officer, Agril. Economics Division, 2Chief Scientific Officer,
Entomology Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Gazipur -1701, 3MS
Student, Department of Zoology, Dhaka University, Bangladesh.
212 QUAYUM et al.

infection and insect pests infestation respectively (Haq et al., 2006). Therefore, it
is essential to save the crops from this huge loss by using BRRI developed
different pest management technologies. Studies (Haq et al., 2006) revealed that
13% rice yield could be increased by adopting these technologies. For
environmental safety it is necessary to reduce the use of pesticides. It is quite
possible to protect the crop from the damage of insects and diseases by using
eco-friendly management practices such as use of resistant to moderately
resistant rice varieties, different cultural, mechanical and biological, cultivation
methods, fertilizer management, water management, rice based cropping
systems, use of botanicals etc (Haq et al., 2006). It is revealed that trained
farmers could easily differentiate between harmful and beneficial insects through
integrated pest management practice which is long lasting, inexpensive and
environmentally safe (Pathak and Khan, 1994). The use of pesticides has been
reduced remarkably after training at Farmer Field School (FFS) in different areas
of the country. Farmers obtained 12% more yield than before as result of training
in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 2004; Haq et al., 2006). Thus, farmers of the country
should practice this method to increase the rice production reducing the damage
by insects. Insect control is an important constraint limiting yields of modern rice
in all rice growing seasons. Research has firmly established that insects cause
considerable yield losses on rice crops in the tropics. It is also established that
those losses can often be prevented through the application of appropriate
insecticides. However, most insecticides are more expensive especially at the
high rate used for complete protection. There is also evidence that yield losses
can be reduced considerably through one or two applications of insecticides
(Islam et al., 2004). Also insects do not always appear in sufficient numbers to
warrant the use of high levels of application. On the contrary, sometimes there
are some types of insects appeared in the field and damage rice crops in a large
scale. Thus, there is a real economic problem of determining the optimal method
of controlling insect pests to get the maximum net return from their rice crops.
Benefit cost analysis by Gomez et al. (1979 ) indicated that the findings helped
emphasize the importance of IRRI’s objective to develop cheaper and cost-
effective methods of insect management in rice (IRRI 1979). Litsinger et al.
(1978) and Carbonell (1980) have examined farmers’ insect management
practices in Central Luzon, Philippines, in some detail to report on the design of
superior, farmer-applicable methods of pest management in rice in Laguna.
A number of sets of data have been examined showing yield losses due to insects
and the economics of insect control in fairly intensive rice growing areas in the
Philippines and found that if farmers cultivate modern insect resistant varieties
and apply no insecticides, they may lose between 0 and 2 t/ha to insects
averaging 1 t/ha. If they apply one treatment, costing less than peso 200/ha in
1979, the yield loss due to insects will be cut to about 0.5 t/ha (Herdt and
Jayasuriya, 1981). The implementation of pest control methods require a
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 213

substantial increase in farmers’ technical knowledge about insects and

identification of insects as well as insecticides to be used to control them. Rice is
subject to attack from dozens of insects, and the damage to the plant can be
severe. Some of the more common and widely distributed rice insects in Asia are
rice stem borers, brown planthopper (BPH), green leafhoppers, white-backed
planthopper, the gall midge and whorl maggot. The use of insecticides was
sometimes uneconomical because of the high cost of the chemicals. As a result, it
needs the insecticide industry as well as to devise ways of reducing the amounts
needed for effective insect control (Chandler, 1979).
Entomologists and agricultural economists are testing numerous methods of
increasing the efficiency and reducing the cost of insecticide use. Integrated pest
management- the combination of resistant varieties, different management
practices and insecticides are becoming most widely recognized as the most
effective and efficient way of keeping insect populations at low levels. For
instance, BPH outbreaks are common only where two or more rice crops are
grown consecutively in a single year. Thus, planting some other crops between
rice crops significantly reduces the BPH populations, because the insect has an
extremely narrow host range. BPH damage to the rice crop undoubtedly can be
kept at low levels and yields and profits can be increased by using resistant
varieties and by employing such practices as multiple cropping and insecticide
placement (Chandler,. 1979). The BPH was first officially recorded in
Bangladesh in 1969, but there are earlier records using synonyms of N. lugens in
1957 and in 1917. Catches in light traps near Dhaka showed that the insect
population has gradually increased since 1970. The first confirmed case of
hopper-burn, due to the BPH in Bangladesh was in 1976 found near Dhaka
(Alam and Karim, 1977). The BPH has become a serious threat to rice
production throughout Asia. The increase in severity of the insect appears to be
associated with the technology used in modern rice culture. The BPH recently
increased in abundance and caused severe yield losses in several tropical
countries of Asia. It damages the rice plant by directly feeding on it and by
transmitting the grassy stunt and ragget stunt disease. Losses from the insect
alone are more than one million tons of rice valuing US $100 million in Japan
and US$ 50 million in Taiwan. (Dyck and Thomus, 1979). The ecology of the
BPH involves the relationship between the insect and its biotic and abiotic
environments. The most important factors of the biotic environment are host
plants, and natural enemy fauna, those of the abiotic environment are climate
(temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, rainfall, wind) and agricultural
chemicals such as fertilizers, insecticides etc.(Dyck et al., 1979).
Boro rice contributes the lion’s share in the rice production in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh needs 2.7% increase of rice production per year (Alam et al, 2004). It
is clear from the table A that the area and yield as well as production of boro rice
gradually increase which indicates the importance of growing this crop to feed
214 QUAYUM et al.

the increased population. On the other hand, BPH is a major pest which affects
tremendously in this season. This is why this study was undertaken.
Table A. Area (000 ha), yield (ton/ha) and production (000 tons) of boro rice from
1971-76 to 2011-16 in Bangladesh.
Production (000
Year Area (000 ha) Yield (t/ha)
tons)
1971-76 1080.16 1.97 2113.00
1976-81 1065.62 2.03 2175.00
1981-86 1448.66 2.43 3526.00
1986-91 2206.82 2.42 5392.40
1991-96 2646.34 2.56 6784.80
1996-01 3322.31 2.94 9819.00
2001-06 3937.86 3.28 12927.40
2006-11 4681.68 3.80 17952.00
2011-16 4777.20 3.78 18947.60
Source: BBS,different issues from 1974 to 2014., DAE, 2014 and DAE, 2016
Rown planthopper causes severe damage in rice production in Bangladesh. The
insect passes a considerable time (about 2.5 months) in the respective field
unnoticed-before causing any visible damage required to cause hopper burn.
Unfortunately, the rice farmers fail to identify the pest at that time mostly due to
ignorance and unawareness which in turn allow the insects to develop a huge
population required to cause hopper burn. To combat the situation it is necessary
to make farmers aware through training about BPH management. Therefore, this
study has been undertaken with the following objectives to solve this serious
problem in BPH endemic areas of Sirajganj district.

Specific Objectives:
1. To assess the improvement of farmers’ knowledge and perception on
different factors of BPH incidence and its management;
2. To determine the farmers’ perceptions on the merits and demerits of the
BPH management technology (nozzle) selected through the project
activities;
3. To examine the economic impact of harmful insects infestation on rice
cultivation; and
4. To determine and compare the profitability of Boro rice cultivation among
different groups of farms.
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 215

Methodology
Sampling Procedure and sample size:
Five villages named Humkuria, Dobila, Ghargram, Washin and Kanchenswar
under the project areas of Tarash upazila at Sirajganj district were selected for
the study. Three types of farmers were recognized in those villages such as
target, trained and non-trained farmers. Target farmers were also called
participating farmers. Participating farmers/target farmers were those farmers
who were trained and plots of those farmers were selected for the project.
Trained farmers were those who got only training and they did not give land for
the project, while non-trained farmers were those who neither got training nor
gave land for the project. Farmers were listed first and found 850 farmers.
Then, the representative farmers were selected by stratified random sampling
technique. Total number of sample farmers was 170 for the study taking
proportionate number, 20% from each of the above category. Among the
selected samples, 16, 54 and 100 were target, trained and non- trained farmers,
respectively.

Data Collection and Analysis:

Survey was conducted during October 2016 to January, 2017. Data were
collected by trained enumerators interviewing the sample farmers through
structured questionnaire and finalized after pre-testing. Descriptive statistics as
well as profitability analysis were done for analyzing the collected data based on
target farmer, trained farmer and non trained farmers. In addition, partial
budgeting analysis was done to find out the economic benefits of using double
nozzle compared to single nozzle in spraying insecticides.

Results and Discussion

Farmers knowledge and perception on BPH:
Eighty eight, 83 and 93 % of target, trained and non trained farmers reported that
the project needs to continue while 100% farmers of each group reported that the
project is beneficial to control BPH to increase rice production (Table 1). Ninety
four, 74 and 96% farmers of target, trained and non trained farmers reported that
the BPH attack was comparatively higher in the boro season, while on an average
of all samples 89% farmers reported it. But only 6, 4 and 3% farmers of target,
trained and non- trained farmers reported that the BPH attack was higher in the
aman season. On an average of all groups of farmers 29 and 69 % farmers
respectively reported that the BPH attack was found in the nymph and adult
stages.
216 QUAYUM et al.

Table 1. BPH related information given by the different categories of

farmers (% respondents) in the study area
Group
Items Target Trained Non trained Average
farmers farmers farmers
Project needs to continue 88 83 93 89
Project is beneficial 100 100 100 100
Plant damage due to more attack 94 96 67 79
BPH attack shown 94 93 70 79
Badly affected season: Boro season 94 74 96 89
Aman season 6 4 3 4
Know about the BRRI Project 100 100 90 94
Know about resistant variety 13 6 13 11
Control measure taken 94 83 53 66
BPH attacks in Nymph stage 6 83 3 29
BPH attacks in adult stage 88 24 90 69
Use same insecticides as before 25 83 40 52
Methods of insecticides application:
Apply after drying field 75 65 47 55
Apply making furrow 75 50 30 41
Apply mixing kerosene and water 13 24 13 16
Transplant in Line for easy 31 24 10 16
application
Apply mixing with fertilizer 60 11 8 14
Apply after removing water 6 17 7 10
Type of nozzle used:
Single nozzle 13 44 49 44
Double nozzle 87 56 51 56

Farmers in the project area adopted different methods of insecticides application

for controlling BPH such as apply after drying field, apply making furrow,
mixing kerosene and water, transplant in line for easy application, mixing with
fertilizer and apply after removing water from the crop field (Table 1). On an
average, 55, 41, 16, 16 and 14% farmers respectively applied insecticides in their
field after drying field, making furrow, mixing kerosene and water, transplant in
line for easy application and apply mixing with fertilizer. Eighty seven, 56 and
51 % farmers of the target, trained and non- trained group used double nozzle for
spraying insecticides to control BPH in their rice crop field.
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 217

Impact on BPH management options:

Farmers in the project area adopt different types of BPH management practices
of which use of resistant variety, use of balanced fertilizer, regularly insect
monitoring, use of high organic fertilizer, use of light trap, insecticide use at
economic threshold level and draining out of water from the field are the most
important ones (Table 2) . Before the project, the control measure taken by the
different categories of farmers was poor, but after the project farmers of all
categories were more careful about the management practices for controlling
BPH. On an average, before the project, 14, 18, 68 and 6 % farmers used
balanced fertilizers, used high organic fertilizers, insecticide used insecticides at
economic threshold level, and drained out of water from the field to control
insects/BPH respectively, while after the project the corresponding figures were
81, 32, 89 and 85%.
Table 2. Brown plant hopper management options of different categories of farmers
(% of respondents) before and after the project
Before the project (2016) After the project (2017)
Management Non- Non-
option Target Trained Target Trained
trained Average trained Average
farmers farmers farmers farmers
farmers farmers
Use of resistant 6 - - 1 19 19 27 24
variety
Use of 6 9 17 14 14 93 74 81
balanced
fertilizers
Regular insect 6 7 2 4 44 74 23 41
monitoring
Use of high 13 28 13 18 50 48 20 32
organic
fertilizer
Use of light 6 4 4 4 31 11 6 10
trap
Use of Neem 6 9 2 5 13 6 7 7
extract
Use of - 4 3 3 44 48 17 29
beneficial
insects
Insecticide use 75 65 69 68 100 91 87 89
at economic
threshold level
Draining out of 6 6 6 6 88 76 90 85
water from the
field
218 QUAYUM et al.

Farmers’ perceptions on BPH:

Table 3 shows the general perceptions of farmers about BPH before and after the
project. It can be assumed from the table that the maximum farmers in the study
area did not know much about BPH before the project. But after the project most
of the farmers’ response on different aspects of BPH was correct. This indicates
that after the project farmers gathered sufficient knowledge regarding BPH.
Table 3. Farmers perceptions on different aspects of BPH control before and after
the project
Respondent farmers (%)
Before the project After the project
Aspects (2015) (2017)
Don’t Don’t
Yes No Yes No
know know
BPH eats other insects 2 - 98 4 26 70
BPH eats eggs of other insects 1 - 99 2 27 71
BPH sucks sap of leaves 29 - 71 50 29 21
BPH sucks stem 49 1 50 77 8 15
BPH eats spider 1 11 88 4 39 57
Spider eats BPH 19 16 65 80 3 17
BPH increased due to insecticide use 2 70 28 4 93 3
BPH decreased due to insecticide use 82 2 16 93 7 -

Table 4. Farmers’ response about the impact of harmful insects on rice in different
seasons before and after the project in the study areas
% respondents
Before the project After the project
Insects
Boro Aman Boro Aman
season season season season
Brown plant hopper(BPH) 99 14 80 11
White backed planthopper (WBPH) 87 10 82 13
Stem borer (SB) 92 14 70 8
Leaf roller (LR) 40 3 54 8
Rice hispa (RH) 2 1 2 3
Rice bug (RB) 64 9 61 6
Green leafhopper (GLH) 65 1 42 2
Ear cutting caterpillar (ECC) 23 2 11 3
Mealy bug (MB) 2 - 1 -
Thrips 56 - 35 7
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 219

Impact on infestation of harmful insects:

Ninety nine percent and 87 % farmers reported that BPH and WBPH respectively
attacked boro rice before the project while 80 and 82% farmers reported that
these insects attacked in this season after the project (Table 4). Similar findings
were obtained in case of stem borer, rice bug, GLH, ECC and thrips. This
indicates that the infestation of different harmful insects reduced to a great extent
during post-adoption period. After the project in the Aman season the findings
were quite opposite except BPH due lack of knowledge of farmers about the
insects.

Impact on rice yield loss:

Before the project in the boro season 2073kg/ha yield loss of variety BRRI dhan
29 affecting about 20% area while after the project only 1209 kg/ha yield loss of
this variety was found affecting only 6.5% area (Table 5). Similar results were
found in case of other varieties both in the boro season and aman season before
and after the project. Therefore, the benefit in case of yield loss in the Boro
season was found 42, 91, 15 and 37% for BRRI dhan 29, hybrid, miniket and
pajam respectively, The yield loss was found less after the project due to proper
management taken by the farmers after training and acquiring knowledge for
controlling BPH.
Table 5. Yield loss (kg/ha) and BPH affected area (%) in different seasons before
and after the project
Before the project (2015) After the project (2017)% benefit
Season Variety Yield loss Affected area Yield loss Affected area in case of
(kg/ha) (% of total ) (kg/ha) (% of total) yield
Boro BRRI dhan 29 2073 20.00 1209 6.50 42
Hybrid 676 7.10 61 0.12 91
Miniket 59 4.00 50 4.20 15
Pajam 63 5.20 40 3.5 37
Aman BR11 143 2.76 122 0.22 15
BRRI dhan 32 40 2.00 32 2.40 20
Ranjit 93 14.00 60 1.00 35
Bina-7 52 3.00 43 2.20 17

Farmers perception on spraying nozzle:

The most important advantage of double nozzle sprayer is that it covers more
land in less time reported by 100% farmers of target, trained and non- trained
farmers (Table 6). Ninety percent and 72% of target farmers respectively
reported that less labour cost and physically and environmentally helpful in case
220 QUAYUM et al.

of double nozzle. The disadvantages of double nozzle machine are needs furrow
and needs more money reported by 50 and 75% target farmers respectively,
while 37 and 54% trained farmers reported these disadvantages. However, on an
average, 41, 60 and 67 % farmers reported that double nozzle spraying needs
furrow, needs more money and line planting respectively. On an average of all
farmers, 18 and 32 % farmers respectively reported that easy walking and
spraying, and needs less money are the advantages of single nozzle sprayer. On
the other hand, 54 and 31 % farmers respectively reported that single nozzle
sprayer needs more time and high labour cost which are the most important
disadvantages of this sprayer. The other most important disadvantage of single
nozzle sprayer is that it sprays only one way reported by 84% farmers.
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of double and single nozzle sprayer as
opined by the different categories of farmers in the project area
Categories of farmers (% of farmers)
Advantages of double nozzle: Target Trained Non trained
Average
farmers farmers farmers
Covers more land in less time 100 100 100 100
Spray covers in the base of the plant 9 10 8 9
Uniformity in coverage 60 20 10 18
Good yield 64 45 16 30
Easy walking and spraying 70 30 28 33
Less labour cost 90 65 46 56
Physically and environmentally helpful 72 25 26 30
Disadvantages of double nozzle:
Needs furrow 50 37 42 41
Needs more money 75 54 61 60
Furrowing dries water 25 22 14 18
Needs line planting 75 78 60 67
Advantages of single nozzle:
Needs less money 31 37 30 32
Spraying covers base of the plant 63 30 20 27
Uniformity in coverage 13 7 14 12
Good yield - 4 5 4
Easy walking and spraying - 19 20 18
Physically and environmentally sound - 4 4 4
Disadvantages of single nozzle:
Needs furrow 27 30 33 31
Needs more time 88 65 43 54
Furrowing dries water 36 4 7 9
Needs line planting 18 12 40 29
Needs frequent tank loading 18 6 4 6
High labour cost 40 35 27 31
Sprays only one way 90 80 86 84
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 221

The average cost per hectare for applying insecticides by single nozzle sprayer
was Tk 1542 and time required is 21.12 hr/ha, but the average cost and time
required by double nozzle sprayer were Tk 964 and 11.12 hr/ha respectively
(Table 7). This indicates that 37% higher cost and 47% higher time is required by
single nozzle sprayer than double nozzle sprayer. Therefore, farmers of all
categories prefer double nozzle sprayer as it is good for health and saves both
money and valuable time.
Table 7. Comparative cost (Tk./ha) of spraying by single and double nozzle sprayer
Difference over double
Items Single nozzle Double nozzle
nozzle
Cost (Tk./ha) 1542 964 578 (37)
Time required (hr/ha) 21.12 11.12 10.00 (47)
Times/season 1.70 1.22 0.48 (28)
Note: Cost: Cost of pesticides and labour. Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages
Table 8 showed that 100% farmers reported that they prefer double nozzle
sprayer to single nozzle sprayer. Eighty eight, 93 and 60% farmers of target,
trained and non- trained group respectively reported that double nozzle sprayer is
hygienic to use. On an average, 62% farmers in the survey area informed others
about double nozzle sprayer.
Table 8. Preference of type of nozzle by the different categories of farmers
Categories of farmers (% )
Items Target Trained Non- trained
Average
farmers farmers farmers
Prefers single nozzle - - - -
Prefers double nozzle 100 100 100 100
Double nozzle-healthy 88 93 60 73
Double nozzle not healthy - 9 20 25
Inform others about double nozzle 100 93 40 62
Farmers informed about double nozzle (no.) 25 37 8 19

Farmers perceptions on the use of Double Nozzle:

Table 9 shows the opinions of different categories of farmers about double nozzle
sprayer for controlling BPH. On an average, hundred percent farmers of the three
categories of farmers reported that less time is required by double nozzle sprayer
to spray and improved technology. They also reported that use of double nozzle
sprayer is more profitable than single nozzle sprayer. On an average, 96, 98 and
97 % farmers respectively reported that double nozzle sprayer are good for
small and poor farmers, more yield giving and very satisfactory solution.
222 QUAYUM et al.

Table 9. Farmers’ opinion on double nozzle sprayer for controlling BPH

Categories of farmers (%)
Opinion Target Trained Non trained
Average
farmers farmers farmers
Right solution in case of insecticide use 100 100 93 96
Good for small and poor farmers 100 100 93 96
Environment-friendly technology 100 93 57 72
Difficult and needs knowledge acquiring for 88 83 83 84
application
Less time needed 100 100 100 100
More time needed 31 22 46 37
Need more capital 50 74 50 58
More yield 100 100 97 98
Very suitable for this locality 100 96 93 95
Very satisfactory solution 100 96 97 97
Technically very easy 94 56 57 60
Improved and profitable 100 100 100 100

Impact of using Double Nozzle on Boro rice production:

Table 10 showed the comparative cost of Boro rice cultivation by single nozzle
users and double nozzle users in the study area. The land preparation cost for
single nozzle users and double nozzle users were Tk.15782/ha and Tk.17341/ha
respectively. The fertilizer cost and irrigation cost were more or less same for
both the groups. However, the human labour cost was found higher for the single
nozzle users (Tk.55580/ha) compared to double nozzle users (Tk.48985/ha) due
to higher seedbed preparation cost and insecticide cost as well as difference in
management practices. The cost for insecticides was 19.12 % higher for the
single nozzle users compared to the double nozzle users due to less amount of
insecticide use by the double nozzle users. The total cost was found higher
(4.23%) for the single nozzle users than the double nozzle users. The yield, gross
return, net return and BCR were higher for the double nozzle users compared to
the single nozzle users. Therefore, the cost of cultivation was found higher for
the single nozzle users (Tk 13.37/kg) compared to the double nozzle users
(Tk.12.40/kg) indicating 7.22% higher cost of cultivation for the single nozzle
users for Boro rice cultivation
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 223

Table 10. Comparative cost and returns (Tk/ha) of MV Boro rice cultivation for
double nozzle and single nozzle users
Cost items Double nozzle Single nozzle Difference
users users
Land preparation 17341 15782 1559 (9.88)
Seedbed cost 2266 2970 -704 (23.70)
Seeds 1418 1287 131 (10.17)
Fertilizer 8256 8221 35 (0.43)
Irrigation 13225 12644 581(4.60)
Insecticides 440 544 -104 (19.12)
Human labour 48985 55580 -6595 (11.87)
Land rent 22264 22214 50 (0.2)
Total Cost 114195 119242 -5047(4.23)
Yield (kg/ha) 9206 8920 286 (3.21)
Gross returns 168150 165910 2240 (1.35)
Net returns 53955 46668 7287(15.61)
BCR 1.47 1.39 0.08 (5.93)
Cost of cultivation (Tk./kg) 12.40 13.37 -0.97 (7.22)
Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages. Plus sign means higher and minus
sign means lower cost and returns of the double nozzle users than those of the single
nozzle users.
Partial budgeting analysis indicates that the double nozzle users are benefited by
Tk 7287/ha than the single nozzle users for using double nozzle sprayer for Boro
rice cultivation in the study area (Table 11). Therefore, double nozzle is more
economically advantageous than single nozzle.
Table 11. Partial budgeting, single nozzle versus double nozzle users
Debit (Tk/ha) Credit (Tk/ha)
Single Nozzle users Double nozzle users
1. Cost of single nozzle users plot 119242 1. Returns from single nozzle 165910
users plot
2. Revenue forgone for not 168150 2. Cost saved for not practicing 114195
practicing double nozzle double nozzle
3. Profit/loss - 7287 3. ------- -------
280105 280105
224 QUAYUM et al.

Impact on profitability of Boro rice cultivation:

Most of the cost items were found higher for the non- trained farmers as shown
in the table 12. The cost for land preparation, fertilizer, irrigation and human
labour were Tk.18631/ha, Tk.8913/ha, Tk.14062/ha and Tk.57599/ha
respectively in case of non-trained farmers, while the corresponding figures for
the trained farmers were Tk.15514/ha, Tk.7504/ha, Tk11853/ha and
Tk.44634/ha. The total cost for Boro rice cultivation in case of the target, trained
and non-trained farmers were Tk. 97372/ha, Tk.103901/ha and Tk.126226/ha
respectively. The yield was found higher for the target farmers (9480 kg/ha)
compared to the trained (9200 kg/ha) and non-trained farmers (8973 kg/ha) due
to better management practices. The gross return, net return and BCR were found
higher in case of the target farmers and these were Tk.171107/ha, Tk.73735/ha
and 1.76 respectively, but the cost of production per kg was lower (Tk.10.27)
than those of the other two groups. This is due to more knowledge gathered by
the target farmers on management practices for crop production.
Table 12. Cost and returns (Tk/ha) of MV Boro rice cultivation of different farmers
group in relation to training status
Farmers group according to Training obtained
Cost item
Target Farmer Trained Farmer Non-Trained Farmer
Land preparation 15565 13314 18631
Seedbed cost 1310 2553 2792
Seeds 857 1322 1460
Fertilizer 6516 7504 8913
Irrigation 9906 11853 14062
Insecticides 469 415 526
Human labour 40744 44634 57599
Land rent/season 22007 22308 22239
Total Cost 97372 103901 126226
Yield (kg/ha) 9480 9200 8973
Gross returns 171107 169590 164740
Net returns 73735 65689 38514
BCR 1.76 1.63 1.31
Cost of cultivation (Tk./kg) 10.27 11.29 14.07

Conclusions and Recommendations

After the project the farmers of all categories of the project area were financially
benefited by using improved BPH management techniques. They had gathered
sufficient knowledge regarding BPH control, use of balanced fertilizer dose and
IMPACT OF BROWN PLANT HOPPER (BPH) MANAGEMENT TRAINING 225

insecticides application. Farmers became aware of harmful insects which were a

threat to increase crop production because they got training on different aspects
of pest management. They could increase higher yield and income from rice
production using right management practices and applying proper inputs. They
learned how to use double nozzle for controlling BPH and reported that use of
double nozzle is better than single nozzle use because it has more advantages
than that of single nozzle. Double nozzle sprayer can be disseminated among the
farmers through the personnel of department of agricultural extension and
research institutes. Thus rice growing farmers need necessary training on
improved insecticides application and its proper management to gain adequate
knowledge to increase rice production. Therefore, sufficient credit should be
provided to the farmers in time to purchase high cost inputs. At the same time
policy should be made to subsidize on agricultural implements like double nozzle
sprayers so that farmers can use these with minimum cost to grow rice profitably.
So the more the training of farmers on improved BPH management techniques
for rice cultivation the more benefit they obtain.

References
Alam, S., and A.N.M.R.Karim, 1977. Brown Planthopper (Nilavarvata lugens)- a
probable threat to rice cultivation in Bangladesh. Paper presented at Second Annual
Bangladesh Science Conference, January 1977. Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh.
BBS, different issues from 1974 to 2014. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh. Bangladesh
Bureau of Statistics. Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the
People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
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ISSN 0258-7122 (Print), 2408-8293 (Online)
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 46(2): 227-240, June 2021
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH

M. KHATUN1 AND M. S. RAHMAN2

Abstract
This paper is an endeavor to depict the picture of farming life and livelihoods of
Haor community in two districts namely Netrokona and Kishoreganj of
Bangladesh. It assessed the socioeconomic condition, livelihood patterns, risk
and uncertainty of Haor farming. Primary data were collected from 120 farm
households. A simple random sampling technique was followed to select the
households. Overall, 33% of the households head had no formal education
which was 31% and 34% in Kiahoreganj and Netrokona respectively. About 9%
of the farmer belonged to large farm category while 12% of them were marginal.
The half of the households in Netrokona belonged to small farm category which
was accounted for 32% in Kishoreganj. At the same time, the percentages of
landless households in Netrokona and Kishoreganj were 30% and 27%
respectively. Crop production was the primary means of livelihood of 80% of
the surveyed households. Besides, business, labour, public and private service,
fishery etc. were some of other livelihood sources of the surveyed households.
Boro (rice) – fallow – fallow was the most dominant cropping pattern. The
causes of single dominant cropping pattern was the intrusion of flood or Haor
water, low land, lack of knowledge about new crop variety and production
technology and lack of flood resistant crop varieties. Flash flood was the main
cause of vulnerability of Haor people in both the districts. In order to reduce the
vulnerability, most of the respondents construct barriers to stop floodwater.
Households mostly depend on borrowing or taking loan and government support
to lead their family livelihood during and after flash flood. Establishing new
cropping patterns along with managing alternate sources of income might be the
options to improve the livelihood of Haor people.
Keywords: Haor, Livelihoods, Cropping pattern, Vulnerability, Bangladesh.

Introduction
Haor, a back swamp or bowl-shaped large tectonic depressions located north-
eastern region of Bangladesh between the natural levees of rivers and may
comprise a number of Beels (Rana et al., 2010). Large areas of Sunamganj,
Sylhet, Habiganj, Maulvibazar, Netrakona, Kishoreganj and Brahmanbaria
districts of Bangladesh are covered by many Haors. There are 373 Haors which
cover an area of about 1.99 million ha and accommodate about 19.37 millions of
people covering around 43% of the total area of Haor (Jakariya and Islam, 2017;
Abuodha and Woodroffe, 2006; BHWDB, 2012).

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Finance and Banking, Bangladesh
Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, 2Scientific Officer, Agricultural
Economics Division, BARI, Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh.
228 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

Haors are basin like structures where water remains stagnant or flash flooding
condition during the months of June to November (Sarif et al., 2016). These
basins also act as a natural reservoir by regulating water flows of the Meghna
river system (Rahman et al., 2016). Heavy rainfalls and onrush of water from the
upstream Meghalaya hills in India causes inundation of Haor crop lands each
year. Surface runoff by canals and rivers makes basins an extensive water body
in the monsoon but dry up mostly in the post-monsoon period (Bevanger and
Broseth, 2001; Adger et al., 2003; Abedin et al., 2013). Annual rainfall ranges
from 2200 mm along the western boundary to 5800 mm in its north east corner
and is as high as 12000 mm in the headwaters of some catchments extending to
India (BHWDB, 2012).
The Haor region has long been lagging behind mainstream national development
although the economic development of Bangladesh is moving steadily at a
moderate pace (BHWDB, 2012). As this region covers a major part of the
country and population so it deserves special development initiatives. But it has
the lowest categories of living standard and high population density. Having one
of the poorest road communication networks in terms of connectivity with the
main land, 11 Haor upazillas are not connected with roads network (BHWDB,
2012). The Haors are the source of livelihoods of millions of rural people who
depend on Haor for fishing, rice farming, boating, hunting, wage laboring in sand
and stone mines (Planning Commission, 2016). Farmers of Haor areas depend on
crop land where almost 80% areas are covered by the boro rice production
(Hossain et al., 2017) and remain fallow in during Kharif-1 and Kharif-2 season
as inundated by flood water. Only 10% of the Haor area is covered by T. Aman
rice. Pre-monsoon flash flood, hailstorm and drought are the main constraints to
grow modern boro rice in the Haor region (Alam et al., 2010).
Despite geographical isolation, Haor areas have huge potentials. Though
development potentials are huge in Haor areas, there is a lack of integrated
approach for maximizing the utilization of resources (both human and natural
resources) for the sustainable development of Haor (Planning Commission,
2016). Crop production techniques, people’s livelihood and economic activities
are quite different from those of the other parts of Bangladesh (Alam et al.,
2010). So, it is necessary to demonstrate the real picture of life and livelihood of
Haor dwellers for mainstreaming them in the journey towards national progress
of Bangladesh. In line with this view the present study was designed to fulfill the
following specific objectives:
i. To assess the socioeconomic condition and livelihood pattern of Haor
community,
ii. To evaluate the cropping patterns, land utilization pattern and risk of
Haor farming and
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 229

iii. To demonstrate the vulnerability of Haor dwellers and their adaptation

strategies against vulnerability.

Materials and Methods

Study area and sampling procedure
Based on the existence of Haor and Haor based ecosystem, two districts namely
Netrokona and Kishoreganj were selected for the study. Farmers were selected
based on the information provided by DAE to ensure that the farmers of this area
well exposed by the impact of Haor related hazards. On consultation with DAE
personnel, a list of households was prepared from Dingapota Haor in Mohanganj
Upazila along with Digar Haor and Jaherpur Haor at Khaliajuri Upazila under
Netrokona district, and Bonpur Haor and Meherpur Haor of Kishoreganj district.
From the individual list, 60 households were randomly selected from each
district. They were different in land holding size and also indifferent in different
socioeconomic attributes. Thus, a total of 120 households were finally selected
for the survey.

Sources of data and data collection procedure

The study is based on primary data. Besides, secondary data was also collected
from the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics (BBS), different published and unpublished reports, presentations,
related websites, and individual experts. An interview schedule was used to
collect field level primary data. Before finalizing the interview schedule it was
pre-tested in the survey areas. The researcher along with two assistants collected
field level data from the selected respondents. Data collection was started in 1st
February 2018 and completed in 30 April 2018.

Results and Discussions

Socioeconomic profile: It is evident that the highest percentages (31%) of
household’s head of Netrokona district were in between 30-39 years while 37%
household’s head of Kishoreganj district were in 50-59 years (Table-1). The level
of education of the household’s head demonstrates that 33% had no formal
education (Table-1). Moreover, the highest year of schooling was found up to 1-5
years of schooling which means that most of the respondents did not complete
the primary level of education. Distribution of households by family size (Table-
1) indicated that 22% of the households in all areas belonged to small family (1-4
persons/hh), 52% belonged to medium family (5-7 person/hh) and 27% belonged
to large family (above 7 person/hh).
The 50% of the households of Netrokona were small farmer followed by 31%
medium farmer and 6% large farmer (Table-1). At the same time, 13% of the
households of this district fell under marginal farm categories. Besides, the
230 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

highest percentages of respondents (46%) of Kishoreganj district were medium

farmers followed by 32% small and 10% marginal. Only 12% of the households
were large farm categories in this district (Table-1). A number of primary
occupations were found in which 80% of the head of the households occupation
was crop production (Table-1). Besides business, labour, public or private
service, and fishery were also primary income sources of the respondents. Table-
1highlights the family status of the households where 69% of the family
belonged to nuclear family following by 31% joint family.
Table 1. Socioeconomic profile of the sample respondents
% of respondents
Demographic variables Kishoreganj
Netrokona district All areas
district
Age (years)
20-29 13 2 8
30-39 31 17 24
40-49 29 17 23
50-59 19 37 28
≥60 8 27 18
Education (year of schooling)
No formal education 31 34 33
1-5 51 58 55
6-10 18 8 13
11-12 0 0 0
>12 0 0 0
Family Size (No. of family member
Small family ( 1-4) 33 10 22
Medium family (5-7) 48 56 52
Large family (above 7) 19 34 27
Farm size
Marginal farmers (<0.19 ha) 13 10 12
Small farmers (0.19-1.0 ha) 50 32 41
Medium farmers (1-3.03 ha) 31 46 39
Large farmers (>3.03 ha) 6 12 9
Family status
Male Headed HHs 93 95 94
Male female ratio 95 110 103
Nuclear family 65 73 69
Joint family 35 27 31
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 231

% of respondents
Demographic variables Kishoreganj
Netrokona district All areas
district
Occupational status
A. Main Occupation
Agriculture 81 78 80
Business 8 19 24
Labour 2 1 2
Service 1 0 1
Fishery 2 2 2
Others 6 0 3
B. Secondary Occupation
No profession 10 41 26
Agriculture 17 19 18
Business 12 22 17
Labour 10 3 7
Service 6 0 3
Fishery 41 14 28
Others 4 1 3
Source: Field survey, 2018
Monthly income and expenditure: Monthly income and expenditure of the
households showed that 40% of the respondents belonged to less than Tk. 5000
per month followed by 37% whose monthly income was between Tk. 5000-
10000 (Table-2). Only 7% of the households in the survey area had their monthly
income more than Tk. 30000. Proportion of households based on expenditure
groups did not match to their income group. Highest percentage (29%) of the
households’ monthly expenditure was below Tk. 5000. There were no household
whose monthly expenditure belonged to more than Tk. 30000.
Table 2. Distribution of farms according to income and expenditure
Percent of farms as per income and expenditure (Tk./month)
Items 5001- 10001- 15001- 20001-
5000 >25000
10000 15000 20000 25000
Income 40 37 9 3 4 7
Expenditure 29 8 23 18 22 0
Source: Field survey, 2018
232 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

Land utilization pattern and sharing agreements: Table-3 shows distribution

of sample households based on land holdings. It is evident that 70% of the
respondents of Netrokona district cultivated their own land whereas it was 73%
in Kishoreganj district. The percentage of landless farmers among the survey
respondents were 30% and 27% in Netrokona and Kishoreganj district
respectively. About 77% of the survey respondent’s crop land was under two
crops in a year where it was 70% in Kishoreganj district (Table-3).
Table 3. Percent distribution of households according to land holdings
Farmer responded (%)
Pattern of land holdings
Netrokona Kishoreganj
Owner cultivator 70 73
Share cropper 13 9
Renting in land (Tenant) 37 48
Renting out land (landlord) 8 3
Landless 30 27
Land under one crop in a year 77 70
Land under two crop 4 20
Source: Field survey, 2018
Table 4. Sharing agreements practiced among the survey tenant farmers
Farmer responded (%)
Tenure arrangements
Netrokona Kishoreganj
1. Owner received half of the crop produced (without by 48 31
product) but not providing any part of cost of production.
2. Owner received half of the crop produced (without by 32 29
product) and provides some portion of the cost of fertilizer
and irrigation.
3. Owner provided half of the cost of fertilizer and irrigation and 1 3
receives half of the crop produced and by product.
4. Owner shared half of the total cost of cultivation and receives 1 7
half of the crop produced and by product.
5. Owner gave just irrigation cost and receives half of the crop 1 2
produced and by product.
6. Owner gave just seed cost and receives half of the crop 1 1
produced (without by product).
7. No part of the cost is shared by the owner and receives 14 22
predefined part of the crop such as 40Kg per 33 decimal.
8. Owner received one third of the crop produced (without by 2 5
product) but not providing any part of the cost of production.
Source: Field survey, 2018
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 233

Land sharing agreements are demonstrated in Table-4 where eight different

agreements were found among the survey tenant farmers. The most practiced
tenure system was owner of the land receive half of the crop produced without by
product but not sharing any of the cost of production and this was found 48% and
31% of the tenant farmer from Netrokona and Kishoreganj district respectively.
At the same time 32% and 29% of the survey tenants of this district were in
another agreements where owner of the land receives half of the crop produced
(without by product) and provides some portion of the cost of fertilizer and
irrigation. It is also evident from Table-4 that 14% from Netrokona district and
22% from Kishoreganj district were in another agreement where no part of the
cost is shared by the owner and receives predefined part of the crop such as 40Kg
per 33 decimal (Table-4).
Cropping pattern practicing in the survey areas: The study intended to find out
the present variation of cropping pattern among its survey areas (Table-5). In Itna
upazila of Kishoreganj, 93.34% of the land used for growing only Boro rice.
Keeping the other two seasons fallow. Besides, about 7% of the land in this upazila
were under two other cropping pattern i.e., chilly-fallow-fallow and vegetables-
fallow-fallow. But in Mithamoin upazila of Kishoreganj the highest 46.67% of
land occupied by Boro rice-fallow-fallow following by 13.33% in groundnut- B.
Aman-fallow and vegetables-fallow-fallow. On the other hand, the respondents of
Khaliajuri upazila under Netrokona practiced Boro rice–fallow–fallow cropping
pattern whereas it was followed by 87.33% at Mohanganj upazila (Table-5).
Overall, it can be concluded that Boro rice–fallow-fallow was the primary and
most practiced cropping pattern among the respondents under this study.
Table 5. Cropping pattern practiced by the respondents
Farmer Farmer
Cropping pattern responded Cropping pattern responded
(%) (%)
Kishoreganj
Itna upazila Mithamoin upazila
Boro rice– Fallow–Fallow 93.34 Boro rice–Fallow–Fallow 46.67
Chilly–Fallow–Fallow 3.33 Groundnut–B. Aman–Fallow 13.33
Potato–Vegetables–Fallow 10.00
Mashcolai–Fallow–Fallow 6.66
Vegetables– Fallow–Fallow 3.33
Jute- Fallow–Fallow 10.00
Vegetables–Fallow–Fallow 13.33
Netrokona
Khaliajuri upazila Mohanganj upazila
Boro rice–Fallow–Fallow 87.33
Boro rice– Fallow–Fallow 100 Chilly–Fallow–Fallow 6.00
Jute–Fallow–Fallow 6.60
Source: Field survey, 2018
234 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

Causes of static cropping pattern: Most of the respondents opined that intrusion
of flood water (30% in Netrokona and 39.4% in Kishoreganj) was the prime reason
for practicing the same pattern of crop production year after year (Table-6).
Besides, low crop land (18.33% from Netrokona and 28.33% from Kishoreganj)
was another important reason for static cropping pattern. During the rainy season,
these low lands have easily drowned under water for about six months in a year.
They also told that if someone want to cultivate in other than boro rice than it was
damaged by local people through their livestock. It needs farmer’s combined
efforts to cultivate in the fallow land with a number of off season crops.
Table 6. Causes of static cropping pattern in the study areas
Farmer responded (%)
Causes
Netrokona Kishoreganj
Intrusion of flood or Haor water 30.00 39.4
Low land 18.33 28.33
Lack of knowledge 16.67 8.33
Lack of flood resistant variety 10.00 -
Long habit of rice production 8.33 -
Disturbance by livestock during fodder shortage 6.67 5.00
Small amount of land 5.00 6.67
Shortage of manpower 5.00 6.67
Source: Field survey, 2018
Possible cropping pattern in the survey areas: Table-7 refers that vegetables,
potato, groundnut, wheat and mustard have the possibility to grow in relatively
less low land which is locally called “Kanda”. As for example, Kishoreganj
district, Boro rice-fallow-fallow pattern is practiced by more than 70% of the
respondents; but about 65% of land may be brought under groundnut-B. aman
rice-fallow pattern. This will be an added option over the existing cropping
pattern for the farmers of this area. At the same time, 25% of the land of
Netrokona may be brought under mustard-Boro rice-fallow pattern.
Table 7. Possible cropping patterns in the Haor areas
Exploitable area under
Study upazila Possible cropping pattern
pattern (%)
Itna and Mithamain Groundnut-b. aman rice-fallow 65
Potato-vegetables-fallow 15
Wheat-b. aman-fallow 20
Mohanganj and Khaliajuri Mustard-boro rice-fallow 25
Boro rice-fallow-t. aman rice 20
Source: DAE and Field survey, 2018
Disaster in the Haor: The Table-8 enumerates a number of natural disasters
experienced by the Haor inhabitants during the last few years. Almost all of the
disasters were the sources of significant damages in Haor areas. Among them hill
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 235

pitch and flash flood are the most common one. Flash flood starts from April and
continues until September. Due to climate change there is no definite time for
raining in the Haor areas. Inundation from heavy rainfall or frequent rainfall is
also a regular occurrence in the study area. During the last few years’ damages of
livestock or death of human has increased considerably due to frequent occurring
of hailstorm and thunderstorm in the Haor areas.
Table 8. Extent of disasters in the Haor areas
Nature of disaster Extent of occurance
Hill pitch and flash flood April to September
Heavy rainfall and inundation April to May
Thoroughly rainfall July to September
Hailstorm and thunderstorm April to may
Siltation in land April to July
Source: DAE and field survey, 2018
Vulnerability of households in the survey areas: Vulnerability index was
prepared to find out the causes of vulnerability of Haor people. Flash flood was
the main causes of vulnerability in both the districts (Table-9). Beside this poor
marketing system, health hazard, land slide, inadequate financial support was
ranked as 2nd, 3rd, 4th respectively for the Haor people of Kishoreganj district. On
the contrary, land slide, poor marketing system, food insecurity, sanitation and
nutrition were ranked as 2nd, 3rd, 4th respectively for the Haor people of
Netrokona district.
Table 9. Vulnerability index
No. of No. of
Vulnerability Index Rank
Causes of respondents respondents
Vulnerability Kishoreganj Netrokona
Kishoreganj Netrokona Kishoreganj Netrokona
1 2 3 1 2 3
Land slide 19 3 38 35 7 18 101 137 4 2
Flash Flood 48 12 0 60 0 0 168 180 1 1
Sanitation 8 12 40 10 20 30 88 100 7 5
and nutrition
Migration 7 15 38 11 15 34 89 97 8 6
Health 18 21 21 6 14 40 117 86 3 8
hazard
Food 6 18 36 15 16 29 90 106 6 4
insecurity
Inadequate 9 18 33 13 16 21 96 92 5 7
financial
support
Poor 21 23 16 19 25 16 125 123 2 3
marketing
system
Note: 1=Low, 2=Moderate and 3 =High, Source: Field survey, 2018
236 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

Risk factor in crop production: A number of risk factors in crop production

were identified in the survey areas (Table-10). The most risk that the farmers
have to face is flood which may be occurred due to flash flood or heavy rainfall.
The way it happened caused enormous damages to the rice crop. Lack of labour
during harvesting and planting period is the most common problem. Hail storm
and uncertain rain are other two common hazards on which the farmer had
nothing to do. They were not so frequent in the past but farmers told that during
the last few years the magnitude of hail storm and uncertain rain were very
frequent. At the same time, 16.67% of the respondents in Kishoreganj and 20%
in Netrokona told that they suffered from drought problem (Table-10).
Table 10. Risk factors in crop production in the study areas
Farmer responded (%)
Types of Risk Kishoreganj Netrokona
All areas
District District
Flash flood 100 100 100.00
Crisis of labor 86.00 76.00 81.00
Hail storm 23.33 41.66 32.50
Pest and disease in crops 21.67 38.33 30.00
Uncertain rain 18.33 28.33 23.33
Drought 16.67 20.00 18.34
Lack of crop production inputs 11.67 11.67 11.67
Source: Field survey, 2018
Adaptation strategies in before, during and after flooding: A number of
measures were considered and taken by the respondents of the selected Haor
areas before the flooding (Table-11). One of the common tasks of the inhabitants
of Haor areas is to construct different barriers to stop floodwater from entering
into home (89%). Besides this 64% of them construct their dwelling households
above flood level. The 72% of the respondents told that they always monitor the
situations of floods and surroundings to become update about the flood. At the
same time 47% of the respondents listen to the local or national radio stations or
surfing television channel to take updates about the upcoming flooding.
During a flood, affected people try to decrease their degree of damages and
losses. Monitoring the surroundings (92%) and listen to the local radio stations or
television for information (78%) were the most important tasks during the flood
time. Beside this they kept their children and other family member out of the
water (57%), and left the low areas (34%) which are subject to flooding. Again,
when a flood occurred, the family who left the dwelling places back to that place
just immediately after the flood (61%).
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 237

Table 11. Steps practicing before, during and after flooding

Steps Farmer responded
(%)
Before
Construct barriers to stop floodwater from entering into 89
home
Monitoring the surroundings 72
Construct buildings above flood level 64
Take protection of the property 63
Listen to the local or national radio stations or television for 47
information
Fixing the places to go 39
Get out of housing subject to flooding 27
Assemble disaster supplies for leaving quickly 19
During
Monitoring the surroundings 92
Listen to the local radio stations or television for 78
information
Keep children and other family member out of the water 57
Leave the low areas that may be subject to flooding 34
Move to safe area before access is denied due to rising 19
water
Contact with the emergency response authority 16
After
Return to the flooded areas immediately after flooding 61
Contact with the emergency response authority 17

Source: Field survey, 2018

Alternate livelihood during and after flooding: In Netrokona, 65% of the
respondents were laid on loan or credit whereas it was 40% for Kishoreganj.
Besides this borrowing was an important source to manage their daily necessities
accounted for 69% in Netrokona and 38% in Kishoregaj (Table-12). The 89%
from Netrokona and 56% from Kishoreganj opined that they received different
amount of loan to meet their daily necessities. At the same time government
support considered a very important source of livelihood during the flood time.
The 74% from Netrokona and 68% from Kishoreganj opined that government
support were one of their major sources to lead their life after flood period
(Table-12).
238 KHATUN AND RAHMAN

Table 11. Sources of alternative livelihood during and after flooding

Farmer responded (%)
Sources
Netrokona Kishoreganj
During flood time
Selling the previous year food stock 22 25
Consuming the previous year food stock 32 32
Savings 32 37
Selling livestock 37 20
By loan/credit 65 40
Government support 32 55
Paid labour 40 27
Through borrowing 69 38
Eating one time in a day 5 2
Fishing 33 25
Business 9 29
Garments 0 10
After flood time
Selling the previous year food stock 17 39
Consuming the previous year food stock 30 46
Savings 47 49
Selling livestock 45 22
By loan/credit 89 56
Government support 74 68
Paid labour 51 12
Fishing 19 27
Business 13 19
Source: Field survey, 2018

Conclusion
Overriding challenge of Haor inhabitants is perhaps the fact that they have
limited livelihood options. This restricts their educational attainment. No
respondents were found above secondary level of education in the survey areas.
Besides, they have to depend on one cropping pattern Boro-Fallow-Fallow. As
crop production is the main occupation of the survey areas, so it is necessary to
diversify their cropping pattern. For this groundnut-B. aman rice-fallow,
mustard-boro rice-fallow can be the alternate pattern. Flash flood, lack of labour,
hail storm etc. were the main risk factor of crop production. Haor dwellers
STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD OF HAOR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH 239

follow a number of adaptation strategies to mitigate their losses such as

constructing barriers to stop floodwater, monitoring the situations, construct
dwelling places above flood level etc. Besides, borrowing or taking loan and
government support were the primary means of livelihood during risk time.
Establishing new prospecting cropping pattern and managing alternative income
sources might be the possible options for improving the life and livelihood of
Haor dwellers in Bangladesh.

Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh for providing fund. Special thanks to
Director (BAURES), Bangladesh Agricultural University and respective Upazila
Agricultural Officer of Kishoreganj and Netrokona for their cooperation.
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Ahmed, F. and M. Z. Alam. 1993. Mango leaf consumption by Cricula trifenestrata
Heifer (Lepidoptera: Saturnide) larvae under field conditions. Bangladesh J. Entomol.
31: 9-17.
Cano, H., N. Gabas and J. P. Canselier. 2001. Experimental study on the ibuprofen
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De Beer, G. R.1940. Embryology and Taxonomy. In: The New Systematics. (Ed. Huxely,
J.). Oxford Univ. Press, London. pp. 365-393.
Dockery, D. J. and C. A. Pope, 1994. Acute respiratory effects of particulate air
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Edmonds, J. and K. M. Karp. 1997. Theoretical improvements in Algorithmic Efficiency
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Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI)
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Phone: 02-49270038
E-mail: [email protected]
BANGLADESH JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
Vol. 46 June 2021 No. 2

Production potential of sweet potato based intercropping system in Sylhet

region − M. I. Nazrul 123
Gge biplot and ammi analysis of yield of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) −
H. U. Z. Raihan, M. M. Billah, M. I. Riad, M. B. Sarker, and M. M. Rohman 133
Efficacy of different approaches to control litchi fruit borer − M. A. Taher,
M. M. Uddin, K. S. Islam and M. A. Rahman 143
Effect of soil and foliar application of plant nutrients on purple blotch and
tip-burn of onion − M. I. Faruk 153
Purity level of different brands of marketed pesticides − M. Afroze,
M. D. H. Prodhan, A. Begum, M. S. Ahmed and D. Sarker 167
Farmers’ attitude towards environment friendly vegetable cultivation −
P. D. Purkaysto, M. R. Amin, M. A. Islam, M. Rahman and F. A. Nasim 175
Genetic variability in yield contributing characters of tossa jute (Corchorus
capsularis L.) − A. Ghosh, B. K. Biswas and M. Arifuzzaman 195
Suitability of medium density fiber board made from rubber wood for
household and industrial use − M. M. Rahaman, S. Hossain, M. R. Islam and
M. M. Uddin 203
Impact of brown plant hopper (BPH) management training on boro rice
cultivation in Serajganj district − M. A. Quayum, M. M. Hossain and
T. Sharmin 211
Study on livelihood of Haor community in Bangladesh − M. Khatun and
M. S. Rahman 227

Published by the Director General, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI),

Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh. Printed at Baishakhi Mudrayan, 49/6, Ram Krishna
Mission Road, Wari, Dhaka-1203, Mobile: 01782559244.

Published: January 2022