Section 1

Introduction
The government is concerned with the agriculture section and the renewable sources of
energy. therefore, HASTI has assigned a task to a civil team to design a dam in Wadi Moor with total
capacity of 550*106 m3 based on that the annual amount of water flowing through the valley is 200*10 6
m3.
HASTI has assigned to us the task of designing and simulating a hydraulic turbine in a parallel timing
with the civil team.
The project aims to develop enough electricity to cover the need of local farmers. Based on the annual
amount of water flowing in the valley we will be able to generate from 2.5 to 4 MW of electrical power
with annual generated power of 21 GWH.

Project development
 After we get the required data from the civil team, we will study all the types of turbines available in
the market to select the optimum turbine that will give the higher efficiency based on dam
specification (Head, Flow duration curve).
 Selecting the optimum number of turbine units and power for each unit and select the duration of
working operation of each unit along the year based on the decreasing amount of flow and head.
 Design the outlet channel of the dam and the penstock channel from outlet channel to the turbine
inlet
 Design the hydraulic valve to control the opening and closing the channels
 Selecting and designing the blades of the turbine based on the stress analysis from the head and
flow
 Designing and selecting the other essential parts such as bearings, shafts, couples and gearbox
 Designing the stay and guide vane based on the amount of flow and pressure.
 Designing the governor controller that control the angle of guide vane based on the change of flow
and pressure and the change in torque to operate the turbine generator on a specific speed that will
be dependent on the current load.
 Designing the required gate valve (Automatic and manual) butterfly, biplane, or spherical valve for
operating and emergency situations.
 Designing a lubrication system for the mechanical parts.
 design and select a suitable method filtering
 selecting the proper generator for the system and designing the specifications of the generator
(poles of stator and rotor, winding) based on the speed and torque generated from the turbine
 designing a supervisory control for the operating and monitoring of system operations such as
shutting down the turbines and monitoring the system status.
 Designing and selecting the proper transformer to step up the voltage to the required level.
 Design a cooling system for the generator and the transformer.
 Taking into consideration a suitable procedure into the design in each component
 Modeling and simulation using software

Hydraulic turbine or water turbine 

is a rotary machine that converts potential energy and kinetic energy of water into mechanical work. In
this article, we are going to discuss the Hydraulic Turbine along with its Definition, Classification,
Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications.

What is Hydroelectric Power?

The mechanical energy developed is utilized for running an electric generator which is directly coupled to
the shaft of the turbine. The electric power developed by the electric generator is known as hydroelectric
power.
So, the generation of hydroelectric power is cheaper than the other resources like coal, oil, etc.
Some parts of the hydroelectric power plant are a reservoir, dam, gates, surge tank, penstock, turbine,
generator, etc.

What is Hydraulic Turbine?

Hydraulic Turbine is the main prime over which helps to converts hydraulic energy into electrical energy
by the help of a generator. When a stream of water is hit the blades of the turbine, it forces the turbine to
rotate hence there is a generator fitted with the turbine so the generator has also come in rotation and
produces the electrical energy.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines:

The hydraulic Turbines were classified according to the following conditions.
The direction of flow of water
1. Available head
2. Specific speed
3. Action of water

An Explanation for the Classification of Hydraulic Turbines is as follows.

1. Classification of Turbine based on the direction of flow of water:

Tangential Flow:
If the water strikes the blades of the runner tangential to the path of rotation called Tangential flow.
For example, Pelton wheel turbine.
 Figure 0-1Pelton wheel turbine.

Radial Flow:  
If the water strikes the blades of the runner radially and coming out axially called as Radial flow.
For example, Francis turbine

Figure 0-2Francis turbine

Axial Flow:
In this flow, the water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine.
For example, Kaplan turbine

Figure 0- 3Kaplan turbine

Classification of Turbine based on Available head:

High head:
The turbine capable of working under the high potential head of water above 300m

For example, Pelton wheel turbine.  

Medium head:
The turbine is capable of working under a medium range of potential head about 60m to 300m

For example, Francis turbine.

Low head:
The turbine is capable of working under a low range of potential head less than 60m
Classification of Turbine based on Specific speed:
Low Specific Speed:
Turbine works in the range of 10-50.
For example, Pelton wheel turbine
Medium Specific Speed:
Turbine works in the range of 50-350.

For example, Francis turbine

High Specific Speed:

Turbine works in the range of 250-850.

For example, Kaplan turbine

Classification of Turbine based on Action of water:

Impulse:
There is no pressure drop on the runner or rotor. Kinetic Energy of water coming from the jet is used to
run the runner or rotor.

For example, Pelton wheel turbine.

Reaction:
There is a loss of Kinetic Energy as well as pressure energy on the runners of the blade.
For example, Francis turbine

Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine:

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
Available energy is converted A major part of available energy is
into kinetic energy converted to pressure energy
Pressure in the turbine is Pressure gradually reduces  while
constant water flows on the turbine blades
The wheel and the blades The blades are always under the
should have access to free air action of pressure, the wheel must
and must not run fully. always run fully.
Only one face of the blade is
Both sides
active
Regulation of flow and power is Difficult
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
easier without loss of energy
Used for high heads Low and medium heads
Efficiency is less Efficiency is more
Energy transfer is a change in
Due to a change in pressure head
energy

The difference between impulse and reaction turbine is shown below in a tabular column.

How a Hydraulic Turbine Work?

In general, the principal component of a turbine is a rotor. The rotor is a wheel carrying a number of
plates and vanes on its periphery.
The rotor is housed in a stationary casing and water possesses a good amount of potential energy which is
allowed to flow through pipes and finally discharged through nozzles and thus gaining kinetic energy.

Whenever the water strikes the runner and causes it to rotate, the mechanical energy developed is
supplied to the generator coupled to the runner which generates electricity.
Major Facilities and Equipment Covered by the Guidelines
 The general list of facilities and equipment involved in the operation and maintenance of
 hydropower plants, transmission lines and substations are as follows:

Hydropower Plant
 Civil Structural Facilities
 Dam/Diversion Weir/ barrage and storage reservoirs, water operations including
 downstream release requirements and consideration of prior water rights,
 Intake and Approach Channel/tunnel, Gravel trap,
 Desilting arrangements,
 Water conveyance system including forebay/surge tank and penstock, and
 Powerhouse complex including tailrace and switchyard.

Hydro-mechanical Works
 penstocks,
 Gates and valves of different types including main shutdown valve, and
 Power/energy Generating Equipment

Mechanical
 Turbines and its auxiliaries,
 Governors and associated OPU (Oil Pressure Unit) and guide apparatus, and
 Main Inlet Valve (MIV), draft tubes and draft tube gates.

Electrical
 Generators and auxiliaries,
 D.G. Set and A.C. auxiliary supply,
 D.C. supply, batteries and battery charger,
 Start up and synchronous panel, control panel, and
 Station auxiliaries such as station compressor, drainage and dewatering system
 and cooling water system.

Powerhouse Auxiliaries
 Cooling system,
 Ventilation system,
 Lubrication system,

Fire detection, fire-fighting and hydrant system, and

 Safety tagging and safety interlocks.

Switchyard
 Switchyard structure,
 Transformers,
  safety devices / alarms, and

Transmission Lines
 Overhead lines,
 Poles/ towers, pole anchors,
 Insulators, cross-arms, jumpers.

Sub-stations
 Transformers,
 Circuit Breakers (different types),
 Reactors,
 Capacitors,
 Voltage Transformers

Mechanical and hydraulic design

Given requirement:
Gross head :110 m
Flow rate: 7 m3/s

CAD design for the system Spiral Casing

Stay Vanes
Guide Vanes
Runner Blades
Draft Tube
Guide Vanes Mechanism
Penstock
Surge Tank (if needed)
Shaft and Coupling
CFD analysis and tests Flow analysis (Turbulence modeling)
Cavitation Analysis
Erosion Model Simulation
The efficiency and performance
Steady State analysis
The blade loading and streamline
Stress analysis Tensile stress
Bending stress
Shear stress for bolts
Obtain the following
 component calculated designed Standards
and
models
Penstock 740 mm 750 mm
diameter
Penstock 3.1 mm (stainless- 7.92 mm(stainless steel) ASTM
thickness steel) A312M
and ASME
B36.19M-
2004
ATLAS
STEELS
Flange - 16
thickness
Turbine Francis -
type
Number of 2 -
units
power 2293 kw 3000 kw
D3 0.572 HLA575C-
WJ-68
0
D2 0.596 -1Mechanic
al D1 0.631 parameters

H1 0.056
H2 0.172
A 0.604
B turbine 0.863
to casing
C 0.965
D 1.066
E 0.832
F 1.132
G 0.920
H 0.800
N draft 1.747
height
O 1.074
P draft 0.741
radius
Q draft 0.428
out
R draft 0.916
out2
S 3.162
T draft len 0.873
V draft 0.858
Z 1.649
M 0.345
L 0.541
Suction
head
Figure 0- 4 turbine symbols
 SECTION 3

Electrical components and design :

Type of Generators
There are basically two types of alternating current generator: synchronous and asynchronous (or
induction) generators. The choice of the type to be used depends on the characteristics of the grid to
which the generator will be connected and also on the generator’s operational requirements.
Synchronous generators are used in the case of stand alone schemes (isolated networks). In case of
weak grids where the unit may have significant influence on the network synchronous generator are
used. Salient pole machines or cylindrical rotor machines are specified. For grid connected schemes
both types of generator can be used. In case grid is weak; Induction generators may be used if there are
two units, one of the unit can be synchronous so that in case of grid failure; supply could still be
maintained. Unit size be limited to 250 kW. In case of stronger grids induction generators up to a 2000
kW or even higher have been used. Before making a decision on the type of generator to be used, it is
important to take the following points into consideration: - A synchronous generator can regulate the
grid voltage and supply reactive power to the network. It can therefore be connected to any type of
network. - An induction generator has a simpler operation, requiring only the use of a tachometer to
couple it to the grid as the machine is coupled to the grid there is a transient voltage drop, and once
coupled to the grid the generator absorbs reactive power from it. Where the power factor needs to be
improved, a capacitor bank will be necessary. The efficiency of an asynchronous generator is generally
lower than that of a synchronous one.

S. No. Item Syn. Generator Ind. Generator

1 Rotor construction Salient pole type Squirrel cage type
2 Excitation Required Not required
3 Isolated operation Possible Not possible
4 Stability To be maintained by excitation control No problem
5 Maintenance More because of excitation & control Less because of squirrel case rotor
equipments
6 Efficiency High Low
7 Inertia High Low
8 Cost High Low
9 Power factor Adjustable by excitation control Not adjustable determined by load
10 Suitability for highly Ideal Not suitable
fluctuating loads
11 Loads Highly capacitive Only inductive
12 Voltage variation Possible Not possible
Selection of generator

Salient pole Synchronous generators are used in most MHP (Micro Hydro Project) because it has
the ability to establish its own operating voltage and maintain frequency when the speed of the
shaft constant.

Synchronous Generator Construction

A DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which then produces a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is
then turned by a prime mover (eg. Steam, water etc.) producing a rotating magnetic field. This rotating
magnetic field induces a 3-phase set of voltages within the stator windings of the generator.
“Field windings” applies to the windings that produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and
“armature windings” applies to the windings where the main voltage is induced. For synchronous
machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms “rotor windings” and “field windings” are used
interchangeably.
Generally a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components:
a) Rotor Windings or Field Windings
a. Salient Pole
b. Non Salient Pole
b) Stator Windings or Armature Windings

Basically, the rotating part of an electrical machine is the rotor. The rotor is used to house the rotor
winding and magnetic poles. The electrical power is supplied to the rotor through slip rings and brushes.
Based on the construction the rotor of an electrical machine is classified into two types. They are,
 Salient pole type or projected pole type rotor ( low speed, more number of poles, Francis
turbines )
 Non-salient type or smooth cylindrical type rotor ( high speed, 2 or 4 poles, pelton wheel )

Salient Pole Type Rotor :

     The salient pole type construction of rotor is shown below is used in low and medium speed ( 125 to
500 rpm ) electrical machines. The poles are made of steel laminations rivetted together and are fixed to
the rotor by a dovetail joint. In synchronous machines, the damper winding is provided on the slots,
provided on the pole faces ( also known as squirrel cage winding ). The damper bars are short-circuited at
both ends by copper rings. These dampers are used in preventing hunting and to provide starting torque in
synchronous motors. The rotor windings are placed on the pole-pieces supported by pole shoes. The ends
of the winding are taken out through slip-rings for electrical connection.
The salient pole type structure has the following special features:
 They have a large diameter and short axial length.
 The pole shoes cover about ⅔ of the pole pitch.
 Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
 These are employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.

Non-Salient Pole Type Rotor :

     The construction of a non-salient type rotor also called a smooth cylindrical type. It is used in very
high-speed applications ( like turbo-alternators ) usually driven by steam turbines. The rotor consists of a
smooth solid forged steel cylindrical having a number of slots on its outer periphery ( parallel to the
shaft ) for accommodating rotor winding. The surface of the rotor of this type is smooth due to the
absence of projection of poles, thus maintaining uniform air-gap between stator and rotor. Such rotors are
designed mostly for 2-pole or 4-pole machines. The un-slotted portions from the pole face is shown in the
below figure.

Difference Between Salient Pole and Non-salient Pole Type Rotor :

S.no
. Salient Pole Type Rotor Non-salient Type Rotor

Outer surface is smooth ( poles are not

1. Poles are projected. projected ).

2. More number of poles are present. Two or four poles are present on the rotor

Large diameter (≈ 10m) and small axial Small diameter (≈ 1m) and large axial
3. lengths (≈ 3m). lengths (≈ 10m).
 Used for high speeds ( 1500 to 3000
4. Used for low and medium speeds. rpm ).

Less windage losses ( due to smooth

5. More windage losses. surface ).

6. Water turbines are preferred. Steam turbines are preferred.

7. Construction is complicated. Easy to construct.

8. Perfectly not balanced. Perfectly balanced.

9. Air gap is present in between poles. No air-gap in between poles.

10. Flux is not uniform due to interpolar gap. Flus is uniformly distributed.

Selection and Mechanical Characteristics

Vertical/Horizontal Configuration
With all turbines, a vertical or horizontal configuration is possible. The orientation becomes a function of
the turbine selection and of the power plant structural and equipment costs for a specific layout. As an
example, the Francis vertical unit will require a deeper excavation and higher power plant structure. A
horizontal machine will increase the width of the power plant structure yet decrease the excavation and
overall height of the unit. It becomes apparent that generator orientation and setting are governed by
compatibility with turbine selection and an analysis of overall plant costs
Dimension
Three factors affect the size of generator. These are orientation, kVA requirements and speed. The turbine
choice dictates all three of these factors for the generator.
The size of the generator for a fixed kVA varies inversely with unit speed. This is due to the requirements
for more rotor field poles to achieve synchronous speed at lower rpm.
Speed of generator
The speed of a generator is established by the turbine speed. The hydraulic turbines should determine the
turbine speed for maximum efficiency corresponding to an even number of generator poles. Generator
dimensions and weights vary inversely with the speed. For a fixed value of power a decrease in speed will
increase the physical size and cost of generators. Low head turbine can be connected either directly to the
generator or through a speed increaser. The speed increaser would allow the use of a higher speed
generator, typically 600, 750 or 1000 (1500) r/min, instead of a generator operating at turbine speed. The
choice to utilize a speed increaser is an economic decision. Speed increasers lower the overall plant
efficiency by about 1% for a single gear increaser and about 2% for double gear increaser. (The
manufacturer can supply exact data regarding the efficiency of speed increasers). This loss of efficiency
and the cost of the speed increaser must be compared to the reduction in cost for the smaller generator. It
is recommended that speed increaser option should not be used for unit sizes above 5 MW capacity.
Insulation and temperature rise
Insulation shall be provided as follows:
Stator winding material corresponding to class F
Rotor winding material corresponding to class F
The generator shall be capable of delivering rated output continuously at any voltage and frequency in the
operating range at rated power factor without exceeding the following values of temperature rise over
ambient temperature of 40 deg C. For ambient temperature higher than 40 degree C the temperature rise
shall be reduced correspondingly.
Stator winding 80°C
Rotor winding
Single layer 90°C
Multi-layer 80°C
Core 75°C
Each generator terminal shall be brought out of the stator frame for insertion of current transformers for
protection, metering and surge protection apparatus. The generator neutral shall be grounded suitably and
the generators shall be designed to safely withstand any mechanical / magnetic stresses resulting from
either a three or a single phase fault.
Rated voltage of generator
Followings are recommended rated voltages for generators of different rated output.

Up to 500 KW 415 V
501 to 2500 KW 3.3 KV
2501 to 5000 KW 6.6 KV or 11 kV
More than 5000 KW 11 KV

Range of voltage variation

The generators are normally manufactured to + 5% voltage variation range. The voltage variations at the
location of mini/small Hydro Power Station is very much higher to the range of say + 10% to + 15%. The
higher voltage variation range call for much higher sized machine and more pertinently, a special design
machine. It is therefore desirable to use standard design machine and try to adopt means to deal with
voltage variation in, for instance, by changing taps of transformer.
 TYPICAL COMPUTATION OF SPEED, SPECIFIC SPEED AND RUNNER
DIAMETER OF FRANCIS TURBINE

• Basic data
Net head 110 meter
Discharge 7 m3/sec
Efficiency 85%

Calculations

Power output at generator terminal kW =9.8×Q×H×η

Where Q = discharge in m3/sec
H = Net head in meter
η Efficiency
kW= 9.81×7×110×.85 = 6420.6 kW
Speed of the rotor in term of number of poles:
Frequency =50 Hz
ns∗P
f=
120
To maintain the frequency constant ,the synchronous speed
must be fixed at 1000rpm and the number of rotor poles must
equal 6

Basic Parameters Speed of the rotor in term of number of poles

Figure Basic parameters

Basic Parameters of generator

 Figure Generator parameter

Speed-torque after synchronization

Parallel Operation of AC Generators
Reasons for operating in parallel:
a) Handling larger loads.
b) Maintenance can be done without power disruption.
c) Increasing system reliability.
d) Increased efficiency.

Steps for paralleling generators

1. Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal voltage equal to the line voltage
of the system (use a voltmeter).
2. Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the running system by examining the
three light bulbs. If all three bulbs get bright and dark together, both generators have the same phase
sequences. If not, two of the conductors must be altered.
3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly higher than the system’s frequency.
4. When all three lights go out, the voltage across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase. This
is the time to close the switch.

Synchronizing a generator with the utility grid

Guide vane
Guide Mechanism :
It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the turbine. The
stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow
the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at the inlet.
The guide vanes( also called as wicket gates) are fixed between two rings. This
arrangement is in the form of a wheel and called a guide wheel. Each vane can be
rotated about its pivot center.
The opening between the vanes can be increased or decreased by adjusting the
guide wheel. The guide wheel is adjusted by the regulating shaft which is operated
by a governor.
The guide blades rest on pivoted on a ring and can be rotated by the rotation of the
ring, whose movement is controlled by the governor. In this way the area of blade passage is changed to
vary the flow rate of water according to the load so that the
speed can be maintained constant.

Governor
Governors are of four types
(i) mechanical
(ii) (ii) governor employing magnetic amplifier
(iii) (governor employing electro-hydraulic amplifier
(iv) (iv) digital governor.
The digital type other governor is maintenance free and fast response modern day governor, while the
other three types of governor may require maintenance.
Excitation system:
 Section 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section deals with the materials and the methods used in accomplishing the thesis. The materials
used are digital computer and MATLAB Modeling, designing, analyzing and implementing are the
methods used. The following sections present each of these in detail.

Mini Hydropower Systems Modeling

The first step in the analysis and design of the control system of mini hydropower system is mathematical
modeling of the different components. The transfer function method is widely used in designing control
systems. After proper assumptions and approximations are made to line arise the mathematical equations
describing the components, transfer functions are obtained. Thus, using these transfer functions, the mini
hydropower systems are modeled for flow control. A mode switch is used to switch in the control system.
The block diagram in Figure 3.1 shows the main components of a standalone, mini hydropower system.
Before designing the frequency control system, the appropriate model for each component should be
obtained.

Turbine Generator Consumer

Load

Spear
Stepper
Valve Controller Frequency
Motor Sensor

Figure 3.1: Frequency control scheme of a mini HPs

Modeling the synchronous generator

The model of the synchronous generator is derived from the swing equation. The swing equation states
that the net torque, which causes acceleration or deceleration of the rotor of the synchronous generator, is
the difference between the electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque applied to the generator. The
net torque is the product of the moment of inertia of the rotor and its couples, and the angular acceleration
of the rotor. And the swing equation dynamics of synchronous generator is under normal condition the
relative position of rotor axis and resulting magnetic field axis is fixed. The angle between rotor axis and
field axis is called power angle/torque angle. During any disturbance the rotor may accelerate/decelerate
w.r.t. synchronously rotating machine. The equation describe this relative motion is known as Swing
equation. Under steady state operation and neglecting loss
Tm = Te
The difference of the two gives acceleration torque (Ta)

Ta = Tm – Te [3.1]
Pm
where, Te =
ωm
Pe
Tm=
ωe

d 2θ
Ta= J 2
m

dt
By substitution
2
d θm Pm p e
J = - (3.2)
dt
2
ωm ωm

Multiply equation (3.2) by ω m

d2θm Pm pe
Jω m = ωm - ωm (3.3)
dt 2 ωm ωm

d2θm
Jω m =Pm – Pe (3.4)
dt 2
d2θm
J =Tm – Te (3.5)
dt 2
where J is the combined moment of inertia of the generator and the prime-mover [kgm2],
θm is the angular displacement of the rotor in mechanical radian, Tm is the mechanical torque in
N.m, Te is the electromagnetic torque in N.m, and t is time in seconds. The angular displacement of the
rotor of the synchronous generator and prime-mover of the turbine is given by

ωr Rotor speed less than

Synchronous speed
δ
ωo Rotor speed @synchronous speed
 δo

Reference speed

Figure 3.2 phasor diagram

Thus θm =ω smt + δ m (3.6)

where ω sm is rated angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical radians per sec, and δ m is the angular
displacement of the rotor with respect to the rotating magnetic field of the synchronous generator.
[Kundur P., Neal J.B., and Mark G.L., Power System Stability and Control,1994]
Double derivation the above equation yields:

d2θm d2 δ m
=0+
dt 2 dt 2
2 2
d θm d δ m
2
= 2
(3.7)
dt dt
2
d δm
Where 2
= is change in speed (∆ ω) and
dt
2
d θm
2
= is the angular acceleration of the rotor
dt
The equation above can be re written as
2
d δm
Jω m 2
= Pm – Pe (3.8)
dt
2
d δm
J 2
= T m – Te (3.9)
dt
The angular momentum (M) = Jω
2
d δm
M 2
= Pm - P e (3.10)
dt
It is convenient to write swing equation in terms of electrical power.
Electrical power angleδ , is related to mechanical power angle δ m by:
P
δe = δm (3.11)
2
Where p is number of pole
The swing equation can be
 2
2 d δe
M = pm - p e (3.12)
p dt 2
The per unit inertia (H) is defined as the kinetic energy in watt-seconds at rated speed divided by the rated
volt-ampere, S base (G) . Thus, usingω m 0 to denote rated angular velocity in mechanical radians per
second, the per unit inertia constant is
K.E K.E
Mathematically, H= =
G Sbase
1 2 1
K . E= J ω = Jω∗ω
2 2
Where, J=momentum of inertia and angular momentum (M) = Jω therefore,
1
Mω
[ ][ ]
2
2 1 J ω m 0 MJ MWhr (3.13)
H= = = =[sec]
G 2 (S base) MVA MVA

Equation (3.13) is normalized in terms of the per unit inertia constant H and solving Equation
(3.9) and (3.13) together and rearranging, the expression in Equation (3.14) is obtained.

2 Tm−Te
2 H d δm S base
= (3.14)
ωmo dt 2
ω mo
Equation (3.6) can be simplified to
2
2 H d δ m Pm−Pe
= (3.15)
ωmo dt 2 Sbase

where Pm= ω mo Tm is the mechanical input power to the synchronous generator and

Pe = ω mo Te is the electrical power generated by the same generator.

Thus, the swing Equation in per unit is
2
2H d δ
= Pm – Pe [Pm and Pe are in pur unit] (3.16)
ω o dt 2
2
2H d δ
= Pm(pu) – Pe(pu)
π f dt 2
From the network equation we have
Pe = Pmaxsin(¿ δ )¿

Where ω o = 0.5 pω m is the synchronous angular velocity of the rotor in electrical rad/s, p is number of
poles and δ = 0.5 pδ m is angular displacement in electrical radians.
When there is a load change in the mini hydropower system, it is reflected as a change in electrical torque
output of the synchronous generator. This introduces a mismatch between the mechanical and electrical
torques and thus accelerating or decelerating the rotor of the synchronous generator. This in turn results in
the deviation of the frequency of the mini hydropower system from its nominal value.
For small deviations (denoted by ∆ ) from initial values, the mechanical power, the electrical power, and
the rotor angle are given by
Pm = Pmo + ∆ Pm
Pe= Peo + ∆ Pe (3.17)

δ =δ 0+¿ ∆ δ ¿
Where δ - is rotor angle after perturbation
δ 0 -is initial rotor angle and
∆ δ - is change in rotor angle due to perturbation
Substituting the expressions in Equation (3.17) into the swing equation (3.16)
2H 2
d ¿ ¿ ¿ = Pmo + ∆ Pm - Peo - ∆ Pe (3.18)
ωo
Applying the rules of calculus to Equation (3.18) and simplifying results in
2
2H d ∆δ
= ∆ Pm - ∆ Pe (3.19)
ω o dt 2
Or in terms of small perturbations in speed,
∆ω
d
2H ωo = ∆ Pm - ∆ Pe (3.20)
dt
With the speed expressed in per unit and without explicit per unit notation, the swing equation is modified
to Equation (3.21).
d ∆ω
2H =∆ Pm - ∆ Pe (3.21)
dt
d ∆ω 1
= ¿Pm - ∆ Pe ) (3.22)
dt 2H
Taking the Laplace transform of Equation (3.22),
1
∆ ω( s)= = ¿Pm(s) - ∆ Pe(s)] (3.23)
2 Hs
Figure 3.3. Shows the relationship of Equation (3.23) using a block diagram
 1
∆ Pm 2 Hs ∆ω
+
∆ Pe
Figure 3.3: Block diagram of a synchronous generator

Modeling the hydraulic turbine

In mini hydropower systems, hydraulic turbines are used to derive synchronous generators.
These hydraulic turbines convert the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy which in
turn is converted into electrical energy.

Mathematical modeling of Hydraulic turbine

The representation of the hydraulic turbine and water column in stability studies is usually based on the
following assumptions:-
The hydraulic resistance is negligible.
The penstock pipe is inelastic and the water is incompressible.
The velocity of the water varies directly with the gate opening and with the square root of the net head.
The turbine output power is proportional to the product of head and volume flow.
Figure 3.4 shows the essential parts of a typical mini hydraulic plant
The turbine and penstock characteristic are determined by three basic equations relating to the following:
Velocity of water in the penstock
Turbine mechanical power
Acceleration of water column
The velocity of water in the penstock is given by

U =K u G √ H
Where
U=water velocity
G=gate position
H=hydraulic head at gate
Ku=a constant of proportionality
For small displacements about an operating point,
∂U ∂U
∆U= ∆ H+ ∆G 3.24
∂H ∂H
Substituting the appropriate expressions for the partial derivatives and dividing through by

U 0 =K u G 0 √ H 0 yields
∆U ∆ H ∆G
= +
U 0 2 H 0 G0
Or
1
∆ U = ∆ H +∆ G 3.25
2

Where the subscript 0 denotes initial steady-state values, the prefix ∆ denotes small deviains, and the
superbar “_” indicates normalized values based on steady state operating values.
The turbine mechanical power is proportional to the product of pressure and flow; hence,
Pm= K p HU
Linearizing by considering small displacements, and normalizing by dividing both sides by
Pm 0=K p H 0 U 0 , we have
∆ Pm ∆ H ∆ U
= +
Pm 0 H0 U0
Or
∆ Pm =∆ H + ∆U 3.26

Substituting for ∆ U from equation 3.25 yields

∆ Pm =1.5 ∆ H +∆ G 3.27

Alternatively, by substituting for ∆ H from equation 3.25 we may write

∆ Pm =3 ∆ U−2 ∆G 3.28

The acceleration of water column due to change in head at the turbine, characterized by Newton’s second
law of motion, may be expressed as
d ∆U
ρLA =−A ( ρ a g )∆ H 3.29
dt
Where
L=length of conduit
A=pipe area
ρ=mass density
a g=accelerationdue ¿ gravity
ρLA =mass of water inthe conduit
ρ a g ∆ H=incremental change∈ presure at turbine gate
t=time∈second
By dividing both side by Aρ a g H 0 U 0 , the acceleration equation in normalized form becomes

( )
L U 0 d ∆ U −∆ H
=
a g H 0 dt U 0 H0
Or
d ∆U
Tw =∆ H 3.30
dt
Where by definition,

L U0
T w= 3.31
ag H 0
Here T w is referred to as the water starting time. It represents the time required for a head H 0 to
accelerate the water in the penstock from standstill to the velocity U 0 . It should be noted that T w varies
with load. Typically, T w at full load lies between 0.5s and 4.0s.
Equation… represents an important characteristic of the hydraulic plant. A descriptive explanation of the
equation is that if back pressure is applied at the end of the penstock by closing the gate, then the water in
the penstock will decelerate. That is, if there is a positive pressure change, there will be a negative
acceleration change.
From equations 3.28 And 3.30 we can express the relationship between change in velocity and change in
gate position as
d ∆U
Tw =2( ∆ G−∆ U ) 3.32
dt

d
Replacing with the Laplace operator s, we may write
dt
T w s ∆ U =2(∆ G−∆ U )

Or
1
∆U= ∆G
1 3.33
1+ T w s
2
Substituting for ∆ U from equation 3.27 and rearranging, we obtain
∆ Pm 1−T w s
= 3.34
∆ G 1+ 0.5T w s
Equation 3.34 represents the classical transfer function of a hydraulic turbine. It shows how the turbine
power output changes in response to a change in gate opening or an ideal lossless turbine. [Kundur P.,
Neal J.B., and Mark G.L., Power System Stability and Control,1994]

∆G 1−T w s ∆ Pm ∆ω
1
1+ 0.5T w s + 2 Hs
∆ Pe
Figure 3.5.: Block diagram of a hydraulic turbine and a generator