Important notes Mth-622

Final term for MCQ’S

1. Path Independence
• Independence of path is defined as that the work done by an object remains same
between initial point and the final destination of the particle, it does not matter which
path is taken by the object.
• “A force field is said to conservative if the total work done by the particle moving along
a curve is independent of the path taken by the particle and depend upon the end points
of the curve only.”
1. Necessary and sufficient conditions for a Conservative Force Field:-
• A force field F is conservative if and only if there exists a continuously differentiable
scalar field V such that 𝐹 ⃗=−∇𝑉 or, equivalently, if and only if
curl 𝐹 ⃗= ∇×𝐹 ⃗=0 identically.
• A continuously differentiable force field F is conservative if and only if for any closed
nonintersecting curve C (simple closed curve) 𝑊=  F .dr = 0
c

• The total work done in moving a particle around any closed path is zero.
2. Examples of Conservative Forces
• Gravitational force , Elastic spring force is example of conservative force.
• The work done of a particle moving along a closed path is zero and the force which
causes such motion is conservative.
• Forces that cannot be expressed in the term of a potential energy function are called
non-conservative forces.
• The forces that do not store energy are called nonconservative or dissipative forces.
• If there is no scalar function V such that 𝐹 = −∆𝑉 [or, equivalently, if 𝑉 × 𝐹 = 0], then F
is called a non-conservative force field.
• Friction, the impulse (time dependent force) is also a non-conservative force.
• Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a particular type of oscillation and periodic motion
in which restoring force of an object is directly proportional to the displacement of the
object acting in opposite direction of displacement.
• Mathematically, the restoring force 𝐹 is given by FR = −𝑘𝑥.
where the subscript 𝑅 represents the restoring force and 𝑘 is the constant of
proportionality often called the spring constant or modulus of elasticity.
• In Newtonian mechanics, by Newton's second law we have eq. of S.H.M
d2x
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 or 𝑚𝑥̈ +𝑘𝑥 = 0.
dt
• This vibrating system is called a simple harmonic oscillator or linear harmonic oscillator.
• Mass on a spring:-
An object of mass m linked to a spring of spring constant k represents the simple
harmonic motion in closed region.
• The equation representing the period for the mass attached on a spring
m
• 𝑻 = 2
k
• The above equation expresses that the time period of oscillation is independent of
amplitude as well as the acceleration.
• Simple pendulum:-
The movement of the mass attached to a simple pendulum is considered as simple
harmonic motion.
• The time period of a mass m attached to a pendulum of length l with gravitational
l
acceleration g is given by T= 2 .
g
• Amplitude:-
• Amplitude is defined as the maximum distance covered by the oscillating body in one
oscillation or length of a wave measured from its mean position.
• The amplitude of a pendulum is one-half the distance that the mass covered in moving
from one terminal to the other.
• The vibrating sources generate waves, whose amplitude is proportional to the
amplitude of the vibrating source.
• Time period is minimum time required by a oscillation system to complete its one cycle
of oscillation of the specific system.
• It is denoted by T and measured in seconds.
• The frequency (f) of an oscillatory system is the number of oscillations pass through a
specific point in one second.
• It is measure in hertz (Hz).
1
• The frequency of S.H.M can be calculate by using the following relation 𝑓 = .
T
• If T is the kinetic energy, V the potential energy and 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 the total energy of a
1
simple harmonic oscillator, then we have 𝐾.𝐸 = 𝑇 = mv 2
2
1
and 𝑉 = kx 2 .
2
1 1
Then the total energy of S.H.M will be 𝐸 = mv 2 + kx 2 .
2 2
• The forces acting on a harmonic oscillator are called damping forces which tend to
decrease the amplitude of the successive oscillations or simply force apposing the
motion.
• The damping force is proportional to the velocity.
• Mathematically, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣 = −𝑏𝑥̇
• where 𝑑 represents the damping force and 𝑏 is the damping coefficient.
• The negative sign shows that that direction of 𝐹𝑑 is opposite to the velocity 𝑣.
b
• = 2𝜁,
m
k
• = 𝜔0
m
• The equation of damped harmonic oscillator can be written as ̈ +2𝜁𝑥̇ + 02 x = 0.
• The theorem, called Euler's theorem, is fundamental in the motion of rigid bodies.
• “A rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point of the body is equivalent to a rotation
about a line which passes through the point.”
• The line referred to is called the instantaneous axis of rotation.
• Rotations can be considered as finite or infinitesimal.
• Finite rotations cannot be represented by vectors since the commutative law fails.
• Infinitesimal rotations can be represented by vectors.
• Chasle’s theorem states that the most general rigid body displacement can be produced
by a translation along a line (called its screw axis) followed (or preceded) by a rotation
about that line.
• A rigid body has six degrees of freedom.
• By Euler’s theorem, three of these are associated with pure rotation.
• The remaining three must be associated with translation.
• To describe the general motion of a rigid body, think of the general motion as translation
of a fixed point 𝑂 in the body to a point 𝑂′ followed by the rotation about an axis through
𝑂′.
• Kinematics is the branch of mechanics deals with the moving objects without reference
to the forces which cause the motion.
• Some features of rigid body motion are:-
• Displacement.
• Position.
• Velocity.
• Linear Velocity & Angular Velocity.
• Linear Acceleration & Angular Acceleration.
• Motion of a Rigid Body (Translation & Rotation).
• In Space this is closely related to the concepts of point, position,
' direction and displacement’. Measurement in space involves the concepts of
length or distance, with which we assume familiarity.
• Units of length are feet, meters, miles, etc.
• In Time this concept is derived from our experience of having one event taking place
after, before or simultaneous with another event.
• Units of time are seconds, hours, years, etc.
• In Matter Physical objects are composed of "small bits of matter" such as atoms and
molecules
• A measure of the "quantity of matter" associated with a particle is called its mass.
• Units of mass are grams, kilograms, etc.
• Unless otherwise stated we shall assume that the mass of a particle does not change with
time.
• When a moving particle remains on a single straight line, the motion is said to be
rectilinear.
• The general equation of motion is then = 𝑚𝑎 ⟹ (𝑥,̇,𝑥̈) = 𝑚𝑥̈.
• Rectilinear motion of a body is defined by considering the two point of a body covered
the same distance in the parallel direction.
• An example of linear motion is an athlete running g along a straight track.
• The rectilinear motion can be of two types:-
i. Uniform rectilinear motion.
ii. Non uniform rectilinear motion.
• Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of motion in which the body moves with
uniform velocity or zero acceleration.
• Non uniform rectilinear motion is such type of motion with variable velocity or
nonzero acceleration.
• Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is a special case of non-uniform rectilinear
motion along a line is that which arises when an object is subjected to constant
acceleration. This kind of motion is called uniformly accelerated motion.
• Uniformly accelerated motion is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object
changes by an equal amount in every equal intervals of time.
• An example of uniformly accelerated body is freely falling object in which the amount
of gravitational acceleration remains same.
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
• The motion of a particle moving in a curved path is called curvilinear motion.
• Example: A stone thrown into the air at an angle.
• Curvilinear motion describes the motion of a moving particle that confirms to
a known or fixed curve. The study of such motion involves the use of two co-ordinate
systems, the first being planar motion and the latter being cylindrical motion.
• Tangential and normal unit vectors are usually denoted by et and en respectively.
• Velocity of Curvilinear motion:-
• If the tangential and normal unit vectors are et and en respectively, then the velocity
ds
will be 𝑣 ⃗ = et
dt
You have already learnt that 𝑣 = vT.
• Acceleration of Curvilinear motion:-
• If the tangential and normal unit vectors are et and en respectively, then the acceleration
will be
 d 2s (ds / dt )2
• 𝑎⃗= e + en
dt 2
t

• You have already learnt that
dv v 2
• 𝑎= T + N
dt r
• Examples of Curvilinear motion:-
• A stone thrown into the air at an angle.
• A car driving along a curved road.
• Throwing paper airplanes or paper darts is an example of curvilinear motion.
• 𝑒1,2 and 𝑒3 are mutually perpendicular and so the cylindrical coordinate system is
orthogonal.
• Introduction to Projectile
• If a ball is thrown from one person to another or an object is dropped from a moving
plane, then their path of traveling/motion is often called a projectile.
• If air resistance is negligible, a projectile can be considered as a freely falling body so
d 2r d 2r
the Eq of motion will be m 2 = −mg or = −g .
dt dt 2
• “The law of conservation of energy describes that the net energy of an isolated system
remains conserved. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms
from one form to another.”
• In case of conservative force field, the total energy is a constant.
• If 𝑇 is for kinetic energy and 𝑉 is for potential energy, then the total energy 𝐸 is 𝐸 = 𝑇 +
𝑉 = constant .
• Impulse is a special type of force defined by applying the integral of a force 𝐹, over the
time interval, t, for which it acts on the body.
• Impulse is a directional (vector) quantity in the same direction of force as force is also
a directional quantity.
• When Impulse is applied to a rigid body, it results a corresponding vector change in its
linear momentum along the same direction.
• The SI unit of impulse is the newton second (𝑁 ·𝑠), and the dimensionally equivalent
unit of momentum is the kilogram meter per second (𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠−1).
• Torque is defined as the turning effect of a body. It is trend of an acting force due to
which the rotational motion of a body changes. It is also called twist and rotational
force on an object.
• Torque is defined as the cross product of the force vector to the distance vector, which
causes rotational motion of the body. 𝝉 = r  F
• The magnitude of torque depends upon the applied force.
• The length of the lever arm connecting the axis to the point where the force applied, and
the angle between the force vector and the length of lever arm. Symbolically we can write
it as: 𝝉 = |𝒓||𝑭|𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽
• Torque is a vector quantity implies that it has direction as well as magnitude.
• The SI unit for torque is the newton meter (Nm).
• The direction of torque can be approximate using Right Hand Rule.

• Rigid bodies:-
• When a force is applied to an object/ system of particles, and if the object maintains its
overall shape, then the object is called a rigid body.
• Gap between two fixed points on the rigid body remains same regardless of external
forces exerted on it.
• We can neglect the deformation of such bodies.
• A rigid body usually has continuous distribution of mass.
• Definition of Elastic Bodies:-
• When a force is applied to a system of particles, it changes the distance between
individual particles. Such systems are often called deformable or elastic bodies.
• Examples
• A spring and rubber band are some common examples of elastic bodies.
• A wheel is a common example of rigid body.
• Properties of Rigid Bodies
• The number of coordinates required to specify the position of a system of one or more
particles is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system. For example a
particle moving freely in space requires 3 coordinates, e.g. (x, y, z), to specify its
position. Thus the number of degrees of freedom is 3.
• A displacement of a rigid body is a direct change of position of its particles.
• Translational motion is the displacement of all particles of the body by the same amount
and the line segment joining the initial and the final position of the particles represented
by parallel vectors. Examples of translational motion are particles freely falling down to
earth and the motion of a bullet fired from a gun.
• Circular motion of a body about a fixed point or axis is called rotation.
• If during a displacement the points of the rigid body on some line remains fixed and all
other are displaced through the same angle, then this displacement is called rotation.
• A rigid performs rotations around an imaginary line called a rotation axis.
• If the axis of rotation passes through the center of mass of the rigid body then body is
said to be spin or rotate upon itself.
• If a body rotates about some external fixed point is called revolution or orbital motion
of the rigid body.
• The example of revolution is the rotation of earth around sun and motion of moon
around sun.
• Rotational motion concerns only with rigid bodies. The reverse rotation of a body
(inverse rotation) is also a rotation.
• A wheel is common examples of rotation.
• Translational motion along the given fixed plane and rotational motion about a suitable
axis perpendicular to the plane.
• This fixed axis is specifically chosen to pass through the center of mass of the rigid
body.
• The axis about which the rigid body rotates is called instantaneous axis of rotation,
where this axis is perpendicular to the plane.
• The point where instantaneous axis meets the fixed plane along which the body
performs translation motion is described as the instantaneous center of rotation.
• The center of mass (c.m.) or centroid of system of particles is a hypothetical particle
such that if the entire mass of the system were concentrated there, the mechanical
properties would remain the same.
• In particular expression of linear momentum, angular momentum and kinetic energy
assume simpler or more convenient forms when referred to the coordinated of this
hypothetical particle and the equation of motion can be reduced to simpler equation of a
single particle.
• If a system experiences no external force, the center-of-mass of the system will remain
at rest, or will move at constant velocity if it is already moving.
• If there is an external force, the center of mass accelerates according to 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.
• Basically, the center-of-mass of a system can be treated as a point mass, following
Newton's Laws.
• If an object is thrown into the air, different parts of the object can follow quite
complicated paths, but the center-of-mass will follow a parabola.
• If an object explodes, the different pieces of the object will follow seemingly
independent paths after the explosion. The center of mass, however, will keep doing
what it was doing before the explosion. This is because an explosion involves only
internal forces.
• The moment of inertia of a rigid body is a property which depends upon its mass and
shape, (i.e. the mass distribution of the body) and determines its behavior in rotational
motion.
• In rotational motion, the moment of inertia plays the same role as the mass in linear
motion.
• Formally the moment of inertia 𝐼 of the particle of mass 𝑚 about a line is defined by
I = md 2 where 𝑑 is the perpendicular distance between the particle and the line (called
the axis).
• Radius of gyration specifies the distribution of the elements of body around the axis in
terms of the mass moment of inertia.
• When a rigid body is rotating about a fixed point O, the angular velocity vector 𝜔 and
the angular momentum vector L (about O) are not in general in the same direction.
• Each point in the body there exists distinct directions, which are fixed relative to the
body, along which the two vectors are aligned i.e. coincident. Such directions are called
principal directions and the axes along them are referred to as principal axes of inertia.
• The corresponding moments of inertia are called principal moments of inertia.
• If the principal axes at each point of the body exist, then their orthogonality can be
proved by stating that axes relative to which product of inertia are zero are the principal
axes.
• Dynamics is the branch of mechanics deals with forces and relationship fundamentally
to the motion but sometimes also to the equilibrium of bodies.
• These will be two types of forces, internal and external. Internal forces act between
particles of the system; all other are external.
• The rigid bodies are a system of particles in which the position of particles is relatively
fixed.
• An actual rigid body consists of very large number of particles and therefore we may
suppose that there is a continuous distribution of mass.
• If (𝑟) denotes density of a volume element 𝑑𝑉, surrounding the point 𝑟, then the mass of
this element will be (𝑟)𝑉.
• The angular momentum of a single particle is defined as the cross product of linear
momentum and position vector of concerned particle. Mathematically = 𝑟 ×𝑚𝑣.
• The time rate change of angular momentum in the absence of some external forces is
zero. Mathematically, we can write 𝒅𝑳 /𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝑳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭.
• The time rate of change of the angular momentum of a system is equal to the total
moment of all the external forces acting on the system.
• If a system is isolated, then 𝑁 = 0, and the angular momentum remains constant in
both magnitude and direction:
• Kinetic energy is the energy produced in any body during its motion. It is equal to the
half of the product of mass and square of the velocity of the moving body.
• Solid Circular Cylinder :-
1
• We assume the radius of cylinder is 𝒂 and mass 𝑀 about axis of cylinder I = Ma 2 .
2
• Hollow Circular Cylinder:-
• We assume the radius of cylinder is 𝒂 and mass 𝑀 about axis of cylinder. We consider
the thickness of Wall of cylinder is negligible. I = Ma 2
• Solid Sphere:-
2
• We assume the radius of sphere is 𝒂 and mass 𝑀 about a diameter. I = Ma 2 .
5
• Hollow Sphere:-
• We assume the radius of sphere is 𝒂 and mass 𝑀 about a diameter. We consider the
thickness of sphere is negligible. I = Ma 2
• Rectangular Plate:-
• We consider sides of length 𝒂 and 𝒃, and mass M about an axis perpendicular to the plate
1
through the center of mass. I = M (a 2 + b 2 )
12
• Thin Rod:-
• We assume the length of rod is 𝒂 and mass M about an axis perpendicular to the rod
1
through the center of mass. I = Ma 2
12
• Triangular Lamina:-
1
• We assume the height 𝒉 and mass M of lamina. I = Mh 2 .
6
• Right Circular Cone:-
3
• We assume the radius of the circular cone is 𝑎 and mass M. I = Ma 2 .
10
• The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body about an axis perpendicular to the body is
equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axis lying in
the plane of the body and meeting at the common point with the given axis.
• The axes relative to which product of inertia are zero are called the principal axes and
the moment of inertia along these axes are called principal moment of inertia.
• For a rigid body, there exist a set of three mutually orthogonal axes called principal
axes relative to which the product of inertia are zero  and 𝐿 are considered along the
same direction.
• This system will have a non-trivial solution, i.e. (  ≠ 0), if the determinant of the matrix
of coefficients is zero.
• A 3×3 symmetrical matrix has three real eigenvalues, which may be distinct or
repeated.
• The eigenvectors of a symmetrical matrix corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal.
• It is always possible to find three mutually orthogonal eigenvectors for a 3×3
symmetric matrix, whether the eigenvalues are distinct or repeated.
• The principal of moment of inertia are always real numbers. This is obviously physical
because the moment of inertia is defined as the quantity  i mi di 2 where 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑑𝑖 are
both real.
• When all three principal moments I1 , I 2 , I3 are distinct, then by the theorem 2, three
mutually orthogonal principal axes can be found.
• When I1 = I 2 but I1  I3 , then by the theorem 3, we can still determine three mutually
orthogonal principal axes, because the inertia matrix is symmetric.
• In many instances a body possesses sufficient symmetry so that at least one principal
axis can be found by inspection, i.e;the axis can be chosen so as to make two of the three
products of inertia vanish.
• We consider a plane rigid body i.e. a 2D body; for example a plate of uniform
thickness. Such a system can be regarded as a coplanar distribution of mass.
• Since there are three mutually orthogonal principal axes, one of them must be
perpendicular to the plane of the body.
• The other two axes will lie in the plane of lamina.
• Suppose a rigid body has no axis of symmetry. Even so, the tensor that represents the
moment of inertia of such a body, is characterized by a real, symmetric 3×3 matrix that
can be diagonalized. The resulting diagonal elements are the values of the principal
moments of inertia of the rigid body.

• The axes of the coordinate system, in which this matrix is diagonal, are the principal axes
of the body, because all products of inertia have vanished.
• Thus, finding the principal axes and corresponding moments of inertia of any rigid body,
symmetric or not, is virtually the same as to diagonalzing its moment of inertia matrix.
• The solutions are not independent. They are subject to the constraint
cos2  + cos 2  + cos 2  = 1
• In other words the resultant vector e1 specified by these components is a unit vector.

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