1

COURSE TITLE: Logic and set Theory

COURSE CODE: SEMA 30053

CREDIT UNITS: 3 units

COURSE PRE-REQUISITE: None

COURSE DESCRIPTION: The course is a study of mathematical logic which covers topics such
as proportions, logical operators, rules of replacement, rules of inference, algebra of logic and
quantifiers. It also includes a discussion of elementary theory of sets such as fundamental
concepts of sets, set theorems and set operations.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

1. Enhance conceptual, analytical knowledge of different statistical computations.

2. High level of communicative competence to information needed to make correct analysis
and interpretation of data.
3. Cultivate the culture of professionalism, mentoring, humanism and ethical and social
responsibility.
4. Provide advance knowledge and skills in production and extension services.
5. Enhance conceptual, analytical and research skills in library and information science
through the use of technology
6. Cultivate the culture of professionalism, mentoring, humanism and ethical and social
responsibility.
7. Develop high quality of leadership and expertise in the field of library and information
science to meet global standards.
8. Cultivate the culture of professionalism, mentoring, humanism and ethical and social
responsibility.
9. Strengthen research capabilities towards national growth and development and develop
high quality of leadership and expertise in the field of library and information science to
meet global standards.

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 Table of Contents

Page
Proposition 4
Algebra of Proposition 7
Negation 8
Disjunction 9
Conjunction 10
Conditional 12
Biconditional 14
Truth Table 17
Set Theory 20
Set 21
Operation of Sets 22
Relations 28
Interval Notation 33
Functions 36
Function and Its types 37
Composition o f Functions 39

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 LESSON 1

PROPOSITIONS

Objectives:
1. To define proposition logically
2. To differentiate proposition and not proposition

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 Lesson 1: Propositions

What is Proposition

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true (denoted as T or 1) or false

(denoted as F or 0) but not both.

Examples of Propositions

1. 3 is an odd number.
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
3. 12 ÷ 4 = 5.
4. x + 4 = 10, iff x is an integer
5. President Duterte is the youngest among all Philippine presidents.

Examples of not Propositions

1. Who are you talking to?,

It is interrogative sentence.

2. Read this sentence carefully and with comprehension.

It is imperative sentence.

3. He is the class president of the class.

It uses pronoun He and we don’t know exactly whom the speaker is referring to.

4. 3 + x = 5.
Although it is declarative sentence, x has no prescribed value hence, we don’t know
what x represents.

5. Roda will pass the entrance examination.

The answer for this is either true or false, hence it is not proposition.

5
 Exercises

Write on the blank P if the sentence is proposition and NP if not proposition.

1 Today is Wednesday.
2 5 + 9 = 3.
3 Are you going to church this Sunday?
4 He is our class president.
5 PUP is a top performing school.
6 Please pay your bill on time.
7 3x + 4 = 6
8 Next month is April.
9 Can I join the group?
10. The sun rises in the west.
11. How far is it to the next town?
12. x + 2 = 2x when x = −2
13. 3 + (5 x 4) ÷ 12 = 15.
14. It will rain anytime next week.
15. x + 2 = 2x.

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 LESSON 2

ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITION
(Logical Operators/Sentential Connectives)
 Negation
 Disjunction
 Conjunction
 Conditional
 Bi-conditional

Objectives:

1. Determine the truth value of each compound statement

2. Know the rules of logic – negation, conjunction,
disjunction, conditional and bi-conditional – and apply
them to determine the truth value of a given proposition.
3. Construct compound statement from a given symbolic
form
4. Determine the converse, inverse and contrapositive of a
given implication and explain their relationships.
5. Recognize seven ways of rewriting an implication (if-then, all, implies, only if, is
sufficient for, …if..., and is
necessary for.

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 Lesson 2.1: Negation

Logical operators

Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more propositions.

These new propositions are formed from existing propositions using logical operators. The
logical operators that are used to form new propositions from two or more existing propositions
are called connectives.

Negation

Let p be a proposition. The statement “it is not the case of p” is another proposition called
negation of p denoted by ~p also read as “not p”

Examples

Proposition Negation
~𝑝: It is not the case that 5 is
positive
1. 𝑝: 5 is positive ~𝑝: 5 is not positive
~𝑝: It is not true that 5 is positive
~𝑞:It is not true that Paris is the
capital of Australia
~𝑞: Paris is not the capital of
𝑞: Paris is the capital of Australia
Australia
~𝑞:It is not the case that Paris is
the capital of Australia

Truth table of the Negation

𝒑 ~𝒑
T F
F T

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 Lesson 2.2: Conjunction

What is Conjunction

Let p and q be propositions “p and q” denoted by p ˄ q, is the proposition that is true when both
p and q are true and false otherwise
The proposition p ˄ q is called the conjunction of p and q.

Examples:

Propositions Conjunction

𝑝: It is raining cats and dogs 𝑝˄q: It is raining cats and dogs

𝑞: It is cold and it is cold

𝑝: Covid-19 infected millions of 𝑝˄q: Covid-19 infected millions of

people around the world. people around the world while
𝑞: Thousands of people died thousands of people died

Truth table of Conjunction

p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Lesson 2.3: Disjunction

What is disjunction

Let p and q be propositions “p or q” denoted by p v q, is the proposition that is false when p and
q are false and true otherwise
The proposition p v q is called the disjunction of p and q.

Examples:

Propositions Disjunction

𝑝: Jamaica is studying in her

𝑝vq: Jamaica is studying in her
room.
room or JM is watching Netflix
𝑞: JM is watching Netflix.

𝑝vq: Either 2 is the only even

𝑝: 2 is the only even prime.
prime. or 8 is a perfect
𝑞: 8 is a perfect square number.
square number.

Truth table of Conjunction

p q pvq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

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 Exercises

A. Let all declarative statement be propositions.Give its negation

1. p: 3x – 6 = 5
_________________________________________________
2. Every real number has a multiplicative inverse.
_________________________________________________
3. Quezon City is the capital of the Philippines
_________________________________________________
4. Trigonometry deals with the relation between the sides lengths and angles of
triangles.
__________________________________________________
5. 4x + 2y = 8

B. Transform the following simple propositions into composite sentences as required.

𝑝: Jamaica is painting in her room.
𝑞: JM is watching Netflix.
𝑟: Roberto is playing guitar.

p v q: ____________________________________________
p ˄ q: ____________________________________________
~p v r: ___________________________________________
~(p v q):__________________________________________
~(r ˄ q): _________________________________________
~(q ˄ ~p): ________________________________________
(p v ~q): _________________________________________
~(p ˄ q): _________________________________________

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 Lesson 2.4: Conditional

What is Conditional

Let p and q be propositions. If “p then q” is known as a conditional proposition. p is called the

premise, hypothesis or antecedent while q is known as the consequent or conclusion denoted
by p → q. The conditional proposition is false only when the premise is true and the condition is
false, true otherwise.

Examples:

p: √5 is irrational.
q: 2 is composite number.
r: Every real number has an additive inverse.
s: x2 + 2x +5 has an integral solution.
t: Whale is a mammal.

Propositions Conditional Proposition

p → q: if √5 is irrational then 2 is
composite number.

~p → s: If √5 is not irrational then

p: √5 is irrational.
x2 + 2x +5 has an integral solution.
q: 2 is composite number.
r: Every real number has an q → r: 2 is composite number
additive inverse. then every real number has
s: x2 + 2x +5 has an integral an additive inverse.
solution.
t: Whale is a mammal. t → ~p: If whale is a mammal then
√5 is not irrational.

r → ~s: If every real number has

an additive inverse then x2 +
2x +5 has integral solution.

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 Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Converse

The converse of a conditional statement is created when the hypothesis and conclusion are
reversed

Examples

Propositions Converse
p: three points are on the same q → p: If three points are collinear,
line, then they are on the same
q: three points on the same line
line.
are collinear.

p: I do errands . q → p: If I get my allowance, then

q: I get my allowance. I will do errands

Inverse

The inverse of a conditional statement is when both the hypothesis and conclusion are negated.

Examples

Propositions Inverse
p: three points are on the same ~p → ~q: If three points are
line,
collinear, then they are on the
q: three points on the same line
are collinear. same line.

p: I do errands . ~p → ~q: If I do not do errands,

q: I get my allowance. then I won’t get my allowance.

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 Contrapositive

The contrapositive of a conditional statement is a combination of the converse and inverse.

Examples

Propositions Contrapositive
p: three points are on the same ~q → ~p: If three points are not
line,
collinear, then they do not lie on
q: three points on the same line
are collinear. same line.
~q → ~p: If I do not get my
p: I do errands . allowance, then I will not do
q: I get my allowance.
errands

Truth table for conditional proposition

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

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 Lesson 2.5: Biconditional

Biconditional

Let p and q be propositions. The statement “p if and only if q” denoted by,p iff q is known as a
biconditional proposition. It is true whenever its components p and q have the same truth values
denoted by p ↔ q.

Examples:

p: √5 is irrational.
q: 2 is composite number.
r: Every real number has an additive inverse.
s: x2 + 2x +5 has an integral solution.
t: Whale is a mammal.

Propositions Biconditional Proposition

p ↔ q: √5 is irrational iff 2 is
composite number.

~p ↔ s: √5 is not irrational iff x2 +

p: √5 is irrational. 2x +5 has an integral solution.
q: 2 is composite number.
r: Every real number has an q ↔ r: 2 is composite number iff
additive inverse. every real number has an
s: x2 + 2x +5 has an integral additive inverse.
solution.
t: Whale is a mammal. t ↔ p: whale is a mammal iff √5 is
irrational.

r ↔ ~s: x2 + 2x +5 has an integral

solution iff every real number has
an additive inverse

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 Exercises

A. Give the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following conditional proposition.

1. If a figure is a square, then it is rhombus.

converse :
inverse :
contrapositive :

2. If two angles are not adjacent, then they do not form a linear pair.
converse :
inverse :
contrapositive :

3. If Regie does well in life, then he will succeed in his chosen career.
converse :
inverse :
contrapositive :

B. Let all declarative statement be propositions. Find the truth value of the following statement.
Write T for truth and F for false

1. If 2 is the only even prime number, then x2 + 4x +4 has integral solution

2. if (𝑥 + 3)2 is equal to x2 + 6x + 9, then the sun rises in the west.

3. If Philippines is in Europe, then sin 30° is equal to 1.

If addition has a commutative property, then Thursday comes before
4.
Saturday.
5.
If every real number has an additive inverse, then whale is a mammal

C. Let c be “Today is clear, “ r be “ It is raining today,” s be “It is snowing today, “ and y be

“yesterday was cloudy,” Translate into acceptable composite sentences.

1. c → ~r ˄ s).

2. y ↔ c.

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 3. y ˄ (c v r).

4. (y → r ) v c.

5. (c ↔ (r ˄ ~s) v y.

D. Represent the given proposition in symbolic form.

p: You run 10 laps daily.

q: You are healthy
r: You take multi-vitamins

________________1. If you run 10 laps daily, then you will be healthy.

________________2. If you do not run 10 laps daily or do not take multivitamins, then
you will not be healthy.
________________3. You will be healthy iff you run 10 laps daily and take multi-
vitamins.
________________4. If you are healthy, then you run 10 laps daily or you will take
multi-vitamins.
________________5. If you are healthy and run 10 laps daily, then you do not take
multi-vitamins.
________________6. If you take multi-vitamins then you are healthy.

E. Suppose the statement P,Q, R and S are assigned the truth values T,F, F, and T,
respectively. Find the truth value of each of the propositions

1. r → (s ˄ p). 6. p v r ↔ r ˄ ~s.
2. p → (r→s). 7. s ↔ p → ( ~p v s).
3. s ↔ (s v p). 8. q ˄ ~s → (p ↔ s).
4. (p→q) → r. 9. r ˄ s → (p → ~q v s )
5. p → (r v s). 10. (p v ~q ) v r → (s ˄ ~s).

LIFE is like a CAMERA. FOCUS on what’s important, CAPTURE the good things in life,
DEVELOP good qualities and DELETE negative thoughts. Then, don’t forget to smile despite
hardships….and if things don’t work out fine, just take another SHOT.

God Bless Everyone

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 Lesson 2.6: Truth Tables

A truth table provide the basic method of describing a Boolean function. It contains a row for
every combination of the variables and prescribes the value of the function (0 or 1) for each of
these combinations.

When constructing a truth table, you have to consider all possible assignment of True (T) and
False (F) to the component statements. For example, suppose the component statements are
P,Q, and R. each of these statements can either true or false so there are 2 3 = 8 possibilities.
The easiest approach is to use lexicographic ordering.

TAUTOLOGY IN TRUTH TABLE

A proposition is said to be a tautology iff its sentential form (symbolic form) always
generates a true truth table.

Example: Show that (p → q) V (q → p) is a tautology

p q p→q q→p (p → q) v (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

CONTRADICTION IN TRUTH TABLE

A proposition is said to be a contradiction iff its sentential form (symbolic form) always
generates a false truth table.

Show that (p v q) ˄ (~p ˄ ~q)

p q pvq ~p ~q ~p ˄ ~q (p v q) ˄ (~p ˄
~q)
T T T F F F T
T F T F T F T
F T T T F F T
F F F T T F T

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CONTINGENCY IN TRUTH TABLE

A proposition is said to be a contradiction iff its sentential form (symbolic form) always
generates a combination of true and false truth table.

p q p ˄q ~p (p ˄ q) → ~p)
T T T T F
T F F T T
F T F F T
F F F T T

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES

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 Exercises

Construct the truth table of the following then identify whether it is tautology, contradiction or
contingency.

1. [~(p v q)] ↔ (~p ˄ ~ q).

2. [(p v q) ˄ ~p] ↔ q.

3. (~p v q) ˄ (p ˄ ~q).

4. [(f → g) ˄ (f → h)] → (f → ( g ˄ h)).

5. (w v r) ˄ (~w v r).

6. p → (p → q)

7. p →~(q ˄ r).

8. (p → q) ↔ ~p v q).

9. (p → q ˄ r) (~p ˄ q).

10. p ˄ q → (q ˄ ~q → r ˄ q).

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 LESSON 3

SET THEORY

Objectives:
1. Define basic terminologies on sets
2. Perform set operation
3. Give relationship between and among kinds of sets
4. Explain and use the notation in sets
5. Identify the different relations and how they differ with one another
6. Tell whether the relation is reflexive, symmetric, transitive or equivalence

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 Lesson 3: Sets

What is Set
A set is a well defined collection of objects. This means that if S is a set and a is some object,
then either a is definitely not in S denoted by a S or a is definitely not in S denoted as a S.

We may describe a set either by giving a characterizing properly of the elements such as :

1. Set-builder notation {x/x ≥ 5}

2. Rule method
3. Listing method

SUBSET
If every element of a given set C is also an elements of another set D, then C is also a subset
of D denoted as C ⸦ D.

Example: Find all the subsets of set A = {1,2,34}

Solution: Given, A = {1,2,3,4}
Subsets = {},{1}, {2}, {3}, {4},{1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,3},{2,4}, {3,4},{1,2,3}, {2,3,4}, {1,3,4},
{1,2,4},{1,2,3,4}

Subsets are classified as

 Proper Subset
 Improper Subsets

PROPER SUBSET
A proper subset is one that contains few elements of the original set whereas an
improper subset, contains every element of the original set along with the null set.

For example, if set A = {2, 4, 6}, then,

Number of subsets: {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}, {2,4,6} and Φ or {}.

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 Proper Subset: {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}

Example:
If set A has elements as {12, 24} and set B has elements as {12, 24, 36}, then set A is the
proper subset of B, because 36 is not present in the set A. To be noticed here, set B is not a
subset of set B.

IMPROPER SUBSET
A subset which contains all the elements of the original set is called an improper subset.
Basically, the improper set includes the null set and the original set itself. It is denoted by ⊆.
For example: Set P ={2,4,6}
Then, the subsets of P are;
{}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} and {2,4,6}.
Where, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} are the proper subsets and {}, {2,4,6} are the improper
subsets. Therefore, we can write, {} ⊆ P and {2,4,6} ⊆ P.

POWER SET
The power set is said to be the collection of all the subsets. It is represented by P(A).
If A is set having elements{a,b}. Then the power set of A will be;
P(A) = {∅ , {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

Lesson 3.1: Operation of Sets

UNION OF SETS

The union of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as

A B={x|x∈A x∈B}

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

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 Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

Note that elements are not repeated in set

INTERSECTION OF SETS

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as

A B={x|x∈A x∈B}

Example 3: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2} .

Example 4: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A B = ∅.

𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒.

DIFFERENCE OF SETS

The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set defined as

A-B={x|x∈A x∉B}

Example 5: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A - B = {3} .

Example 6: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .

Note that in general, A – B ≠ B - A

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COMPLEMENT OF SETS

The complement of a set, denoted A', is the set of all elements in the given
universal set U that are not in A. In set- builder notation, A' = {x ∈ U : x ∉ A}. The
Venn diagram for the complement of set A is shown below where the shaded region
represents A'.

Thus A’ is the set of everything that is not in A.

The fourth set operation is the Cartesian product We first define an ordered pair and
Cartesian product of two sets using it. Then the Cartesian product of multiple sets is
defined using the concept of n-tuple.

ORDERED PAIR

An ordered pair is a pair of objects with an order associated with them. For more
rigorous definition of ordered pair click here.
If objects are represented by x and y, then we write the ordered pair as <x, y>.

Two ordered pairs <a, b> and <c, d> are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. For
example the ordered pair <1, 2> is not equal to the ordered pair <2, 1>.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT

The set of all ordered pairs <a, b>, where a is an element of A and b is an element
of B, is called the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A x B. The
concept of Cartesian product can be extended to that of more than two sets. First we
are going to define the concept of ordered n-tuple.

ORDERED n-TUPLE

25
 An ordered n-tuple is a set of n objects with an order associated with them (rigorous
definition to be filled in). If n objects are represented by x1, x2, ..., xn, then we write the
ordered n-tuple as <x1, x2, ..., xn> .

Definition (Cartesian product): Let A1, ..., An be n sets. Then the set of all ordered n-
tuples <x1, ..., xn> , where xi ∈ Ai for all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n , is called the Cartesian
product of A1, ..., An, and is denoted by A1 x ... x An .

EQUALITY OF n-TUPLE

Two ordered n-tuples <x1, ..., xn> and <y1, ..., yn> are equal if and only if xi = yi for
all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n .
For example the ordered 3-tuple <1, 2, 3> is not equal to the ordered n-tuple <2, 3, 1>.

SET OF NUMBERS

REAL NUMBERS, R

One of the most important properties of the real numbers is that they can be represented
by points ona straight line called number line

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INTEGERS, Z

Integers are also referred to as the “whole numbers”. One important property of the integers is
that they are closed under operations of addition,multiplication and subtraction. That is the sum,
product and difference of two integers is again an integer. It is denoted as:

Z = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

RATIONAL NUMBERS, Q

It can be expressed as the ratio of two integers (but not dividing by zero). It is closed under
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It is denoted as:

Q = {x|x = p/q where p ⸦ Z, q ⸦ Z}

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS, Q’

Real number that cannot be written as a simple fraction

Q’ = { √2 , √3, 𝜋 }

NATURAL NUMBERS, N

The first number system developed and were used primarily at one time for counting. They are
part of the number system which includes all the positive integers from 1 till infinity and are used
for counting purpose. It does not include zero (0). Therefore, they are also called counting
numbers.

N = {1,2,34,5,…}

27
 Exercises

A. Do as required

Let V = { d }
W = { c,d }
X = {a,b,c }
Y = { a,b }
Z = { a,b,d }

Determine whether each of the following statement is True or False

1. Y ⊂ X 6. V ⊂ X
2. W ⊅ X 7. Z ⊅ X
3. W ≠ Z 8.Y ⊄ Z
4. Z ⊃ V 9.X = W
5. V ⊄ Y 10.W ⊂ Y

B. Write the following sets using listing methods

A = {x|x2 = 4}
B = {x|x-2 = 5}
C = {x|x is positive, x is negative}
D = {x|x is a letter in the word MISSISSIPPI}

C. Rewrite the following statements using set notation

1. x does not belong to A

2. R is a superset of S
3. d is a member of E
4. F is not a subset of G
5. H does not include D

D. State whether each of the following is true or false

3
1 -7 ∈ N 6 -6 ∈ Q 11 √8 ∈ N

√9⁄4 ∈ Q’
2 √2 ∈ Q’ 7 11 ∈ P 12
3 4∈Z 8 ½ ∈Z 13 -2 ∈ Z
4 9 ∈P 9 √−5 ∈ Q’ 14 𝜋2 ∈ R
5 3𝜋∈Q 10 1 ∈ R 15 √−4 ∈ R

28
 LESSON 4

RELATIONS

OBJECTIVES:

1. Identify the different relations and how they differ with one another
2. Tell whether the relation is reflexive, symmetric, transitive or equivalence

29
 tghghfghgf
Lesson 4 : Relation

What is Relation

A relation R consists of the following:

1. A set A
2. A set B
3. An open sentence P(x,y) in which P(a,b) is either true or false for any ordered pair (a,b)
belonging to A x B

The product of set A and B consists of all

ordered pairs (a,b) where aϵA, bϵB

We the call R a relation from A to B and denote it by

R = (A,B, P(x,y))

Furthermore, if P(a,b) is true we write aRb, otherwise aRb

Examples of open sentences

1. x is less than y
2. x is the wife of y
3. x divides y
4. x is a multiple of y
5. x loves y

Let’s try this.

Relations or not?

Yes or
Relations Remarks P(a,b) if relation
No
Let R = (R,R, P(x,y)) where P(x,y) read as “x P(2,12), 2R12
Yes
is less than y” P(4,1), 4R1
Let R = (A,B, P(x,y)) where A is the set of People
men, B is the set of women reads as “x No cannot be
divides y” divided
Let R = (N,N, P(x,y) where P(x,y) read as “x 3R12,2R7,
Yes
is divides y” 5R15, 6R13

30
KINDS OF RELATIONS

Reflexive Relations

Let R = (A,A, P(x,y)) be a relation in a set and R be a subset of A x A then R is called a

reflexive relation if for every a ϵ A and (a,a) ϵ R.

R is reflexive if every element in A is related to itself.

Examples:

1. Let A be the set of the triangles in the Euclidean plane. The relation R in A defined by
the open sentence “x is similar to y” is a reflexive relation since every triangle is similar
to itself.

2. Let R be the relation in the real numbers defined by the open sentence “x is less than y”.
Then R is not reflexive since a≮ a for any real number a.

3. Let A be a family of sets and let R be the relation in A defined by “x is a subset of y”.
Then R is a reflexive relation since every set is a subset of itself.

Symmetric Relations

Let A be a set in which the relation R defined. Then R is said to be a symmetric

relation, if (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R, that is, aRb ⇒ bRa for all (a, b) ∈ R.

Examples

1. The set A of natural numbers. If a relation A be defined by “x + y = 5”, then this relation is
symmetric in A, for a + b = 5 ⇒ b + a = 5

2. Let A be the set of triangles in the Euclidean plane and let R be the relation in A which is
defined by the open sentence “x is similar to y”. Then R is symmetric, since if triangle a is
similar to triangle b then b is also similar to a.

3. Let R be the relation in the natural numbers N which is defined by “x divides y” Then R is
not symmetric since 2 divides 4 but 4 does not divides 2 (2,4) ϵ R but (4,2) ∉ R

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 Transitive Relation

Let A be a set in which the relation R defined.

R is said to be transitive, if

(a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R,

That is aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc where a, b, c ∈ A.

The relation is said to be non-transitive, if

(a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R do not imply (a, c ) ∈ R.

Examples:

1. In the set A of natural numbers if the relation R be defined by ‘x less than y’ then a < b
and b < c imply a < c, that is, aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc. Hence this relation is transitive.

2. Let A be the set of people on earth. Let R be the relation in A defined by the open
sentence “y loves y”, if a loves and b loves c, it does not necessarily follow that a loves c.
therefore, R is not a transitive relation

3. Let A be a family of sets and let R be the relation in A defined by “x is a subset of y”.
Then R is a transitive relation since: A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C implies A ⊂ C

Equivalence Relations

A relation R in a set A is an equivalence relation if:

1. R is reflexive, ∀ a ∈ A, (a,a) ∈ R

2. R is symmetric (a,b) ∈ R implies (b,a) ∈ R

3. R is transitive (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies (a,c) ∈ R

Examples:

1. Let A be the set of triangles in the Euclidean plane. Let R be the relation on A defined by “x
is similar to y”. R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive therefore, R is an equivalence
relation

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 Exercises

A. From the given open sentence, identify whether it is reflexive or not reflexive, symmetric or
not symmetric or transitive or nor transitive. Write your answers on the space provided.

a. x is less than or equal to y

b. x divides y
c. x + y = 10
d. x + 2y = 5

Reflexive
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

Symmetric
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

Transitive
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

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 LESSON 5

INTERVAL NOTATION

OBJECTIVES

1. Use interval notation to express the elements in a set.

2. Graph the solutions of a single inequality on a number line and express the
solutions using interval notation.
3. Graph the solution of a compound inequality on a number line and express the
solutions using interval notation.

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 Lesson 5: Interval Notation

What is Interval Notation

Interval notation is a way of writing subsets of the real number line .

An algebraic inequality, such as x≥2, is read “x is greater than or equal to 2.” This inequality
has infinitely many solutions for x. Some of the solutions are 2, 3, 3.5, 5, 20, and 20.001. Since
it is impossible to list all of the solutions, a system is needed that allows a clear communication
of this infinite set. Two common ways of expressing solutions to an inequality are by graphing
them on a number line and using interval notation.

A closed interval is one that includes its endpoints: for example, the
set {x | −3≤x≤1}{x | −3≤x≤1} .

To write this interval in interval notation, we use closed brackets [ ]: [−3,1]

An open interval is one that does not include its endpoints, for
example, {x | −3<x<1}{x | −3<x<1} .

To write this interval in interval notation, use parentheses (): (−3,1)

You can also have intervals which are half-open and half-closed:

It is written as [-2, 4)

A compound inequality is actually two or more inequalities in one statement joined by the
word “and” or by the word “or.” Compound inequalities with the logical “or” require that either
condition must be satisfied. Therefore, the solution set of this type of compound inequality

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 consists of all the elements of the solution sets of each inequality. When we join these individual
solution sets it is called the union, denoted ∪.

It is written as [-4, -2] ∪(-1,1) ∪(1,2) ∪{4}

Infinite Intervals

A = {x|x > 1} A = (1,∞)

B = {x|x ≥ 2} B = [2,∞)

C = {x|x < 3} C = (-∞, 3)

D = {x|x ≤ 4} D = (-∞, 4]

E = {x|x ϵ R} E = (-∞, 4]

Exercises

A. Rewrite the following interval in set-builder form

1. M = [-3,5)

2. S = (3,8)

3. T = [0,4]

4. W = (-7, -2)

5. X = [-3, 1)

B. In each case, graph on a real line and write the resultant set in interval notation.

1. {x|x ≥ -1} {x| -3 < x < 2}

2. {x|x < 2} {x| x ≥ 0}

3. {x| -3 < x ≤ 1} {x| x > 2}

4. {x| -2 < x ≤ 3} {x| x < 1}

5. {x| -3 ≤ x ≤ 0} {x| -2<x < 3}

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 LESSON 6

Functions

OBJECTIVES

1. Identify different functions and their uses

2. Build up solid foundation in mathematical reasoning by acquiring important
building blocks and skills.

37
 Lesson 6: Function and Its Types

What is a function

Suppose that to each element in a set A, there is assigned, by some manner or other a unique
element of a set B. This can be denoted as:

F: A → B ( read as f is a function of A into B)

The set A is called the domain of the function f and B is called the co-domain of f. Furthermore,
If a ∈ A then the element in B which is assigned to a is called the image of a denoted by :

F(a) (reads as f of a)

It is also known as a type of relation that assigns exactly one output in each input

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Examples:

1. Let f assign to each real numbers its square that is for every real number x, let f(x) =
x2
The domain and the co domain are both real numbers; f: R R
The image of -3 is 9, hence f(-3) = 9

2. Let f assign to each country in the world its capital city.

The image of Philippines is Manila or f(Philippines) = Manila

Types of Functions
In terms of relations, we can define the types of functions as:

 One to one function or Injective function: A function f: P → Q is said to be One to

One if for each element of P there is a distinct element of Q.

Example

1. Let f: R R be defined by the formula f(x) = x 3. The f is a one – one mapping since the
cubes of two different real numbers are themselves different.

2. The function f which assigns to each country in the world in its capiotal city is one-
one.

3. Let the function f: R R be defined by the formula f(x) = x2. The f is not a one-one
function since f(2) = f(-2) = 4. That is, since the image of two different real numbers 2
& -2 is the same 4.

39
  Many to one function: A function which maps two or more elements of P to the same
element of set Q.

 Onto Function or Surjective function: A function for which every element of set Q
there is pre-image in set P

Let f be a function of A into B. Then the range (A) of the function f is a subset of B,
that is, f(A) ⊂ B. If f(a) = B, that is, if every member of B appears as the image of at
least one element of A, then we say F is a function of A onto B of f maps A onto B

 One-one and Onto function or Bijective function: The function f matches with each
element of P with a discrete element of Q and every element of Q has a pre-image in P.

40
 Lesson 6.1: Composition of Function

What is Product function

Let f: A → B (co-domain of f) and g: B → C

f g
A B C

Let a ∈ A, then its image f(a) is in B which is the domain of g. Accordingly, we can find the
image of f(a) under the mapping g, that is, g(f(a)). Thus, we have a rule which assigns to each
element g(f(a)) ∈ C. On other words, we have a functyion of A into C. This new function is called
function or composition function of f and g and is denoted by (g ◦ f) .

More briefly, if f: A B and g: B c, then we define a function (g ◦ f): A C.

By (g ◦ f)(a) ≡ g(f(a))

f g
A B C

g◦f

Examples

1. To each real number, let f assign its square (f: R R ) be defined by the function f(x) = x 2.
To each real number, let g assign the number plus 3.

2. Given f(x) = x2 + 6 and g(x) = 2x – 1, find

a) (f ο g)(x)
b) (g ο f)(x)

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 Solution:

a) (f ο g)(x)
= f(2x – 1)
= (2x – 1)2 + 6
= 4 x2 – 4x + 1 + 6
= 4 x2 – 4x + 7

b) (g ο f)(x)
= g(x2 + 6)
= 2(x2 + 6) – 1
= 2x2 + 12 – 1
= 2x2 + 11

Exercises

A. Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and let the functions f: A → A and g: A → A be defined by

f(1) = 3 g(1) = 4
f(2) = 5 g(2) = 1
f(3) = 3 g(3) = 1
f(4)= 1 g(4) = 2
f(5) = 2 g(5) = 3

B. Find the composite function of the following

1. If f(x) = x2 – 4x + 2 and g(x) = 3x – 7, find (f ο g)(x)

2. If g(x) = –6x + 5 and h(x) = –9x – 11, find (g ο h)(x)
3. If f(x) = –2x + 9 and g(x) = –4x2 + 5x – 3, find (f ο g)(x)
4. If f(x) = x – 3 and g(x) = 4x2 – 3x – 9, find (g ο f)(x)

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C. Let the function f: R → R and g: R → R be defined by:

f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2
g(x) = 2x - 3

Find the product function (composition of function)

1. (f ο g)(x)
2. (g ο f)(x)
3. (g ο g)(x)
4. (f ο f)(x)

Every situation in life is temporary. So, when life is good, make sure you
enjoy it and receive it fully. And when life is not good, remember that it
will not last forever and better days are on the way

43
 REMINDERS:
1. Answer all the exercises reflected in this module for class standing
2. Answer the following exercises below for your Midterm/Final Exam

I. Write the following open sentence/s under the correct heading. Write only the letter.
RIGHT MINUS WRONG to achieve the purpose of this evaluation.

a. “x is parallel to y” e. “ x loves y”
b. “ x is a multiple of y” f. “ x is a subset of y”
c. “ x is a cousin of y” g. “ x is a similar triangle of y”
d. “ x has the same height with y” h. “ x is less than y”

reflexive symmetric transitive equivalence

II. Graph and write what is being asked using interval notation . Let A = [-4,2), B= (-1, 6), C
= (-∞, 1]

1. A∪B = 6. A∩C =

2. A∩B = 7. C-B=

3. A-B= 8. C-A=

4. B-A= 9. B∪C =

5. A∪C = 10. B∩C =

. III. List down the elements of the following set using the roster(listing) method

1. {x ∈ R ∣ x2 = 3}

44
 2. {m ∈ Z+ ∣ mn = 60 for some n ∈ Z+}
3. {m ∈ Z ∣ m2 = 3}
4. {m ∈ Z ∣ m2 < 115}
5. {n ∈ Z+ ∣ 39 < n3 < 85}

III. Given f(x) = x2 + 5x + 6, g(x) = x2 + 2, h(x) = x2 + 3x, find the following:

1. (f ◦ g )(x)

2. (g ◦ f )(x)

3. (h ◦ g)(5)

IV. The functions f: A → B, g : B → A , h: C → B, i: B → C, j: A → C are pictured in the diagram

below.

G
A C
g h
f F
B

Determine whether the following is a product function or not product function. If product function,
determine the domain and the co-domain using the correct notation. Example: G ◦ h: C → C

1.g ◦ f: 4. F ◦ h:
2.F ◦ f: 5. h ◦ G:
3. g ◦ h:

V. Put a check () on the blank if it is a function being represented and crossmark (x) if not.
Equal function 1. If R → R defined by the formula f(x) = x + 1 & g(x) = 2x
Onto function 2. If R → R defined by the formula f(a) = 3a3 - 4
Inverse function 3. If A → A be people defined by their DNA
One-to-one
function 4. If R → R defined by the formula f(x) = x2 - 2

45
 Onto function 5. If N → N defined by the formula f(x) = √𝑥

References:

Caturay, Carino et al.(2016); General Mathematics; Jenher Publishing House

Waner, S & Costenoble, S.R. (2001). Introduction to Logic

Lipschutz, S. (1981) Shaum’s Outline Series of Theory and Problems of Set Theory and related topics

Arrelano, Elvira L et., al Fundamental of Mathematics Lorimar Publishing

Sobecki, Bluman and Schirck-Matthews, Math in Our World McGraw-Hill

Stoll, R.R. (1979). Set Theory and Logic. Dover Publications, Inc. New York

https://www.cs.odu.edu/~toida/nerzic/level-a/set/set_operations.html

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