Laboratory Manual

IV SEM (WINTER), CIVIL ENGINEERING

l Course Name: Surveying Laboratory. Course Code: CEC 210

Lab In-charge: Prof. Dheeraj KumarCourse

Instructor: Prof. Sowmiya Chawla
Prof. Avinash Kumar Singh

Technical Support: Shri Sunil Kumar

Shri Dayamoy Karmakar

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 LIST OF SURVEYING PRACTICALS
Course: IV Semester (Winter), Civil Engineering, Course Code: CEC 210

Sl. Aim of experiment No. of Learning Outcome

No. Practical
Study and sketch of linear measuring Measurement of linear distances
1 instruments (Chain, Tapes and Distomat) and 1 using chain and tape by direct
carryout chain and tape surveying. and indirect methods
Study and sketch of Prismatic Compass and
Measurement of bearing and
2 measurement of bearing of lines of a traverse. 1
computation of include angle
Study and sketch of Vernier & Micro-Optic Measurement of horizontal angle
3 1
Theodolite (20”) and measurement of followed by Repetition &
horizontal angle Reiteration method
Study and sketch of Micro-Optic Theodolite (1”) Measurement technique to find
4 1
and measurement of vertical angle and find out out the height of an object by
the height of an object measuring the vertical angle.
Traverse surveying with theodolite & find out Understanding the concept of
5 2
the error of closer by applying Bowditch’s Rule traversing
Knowledge of instrument to
Study & sketch of various levelling instruments measure the vertical height with
6 1
and carry out fly levelling by Rise & Fall respect to Datum or known
method. elevation.
Knowledge of precise, advance &
Profile levelling for determination of gradient digital leveling instrument.
7 1
and cross section by Height of Instrument
method
Introduction to Total Station &
Study & sketch of Total Station and
8 1 principal for measurement of
measurement of angle, distance & coordinates
angle, distance & coordinates.
between two station
Traversing with Total Station Practical knowledge of traversing
9 1
with Total Station.
To understand how to establish
10 Setting out simple circular curve by Rankine’s 1 curve in the field
method using Theodolite & Tape or Total
Station
Knowledge of GPS, DGPS &
11 Study & sketch of GPS, DGPS & GNSS and 1 GNSS system and methods for
field data collection field data collection
Knowledge of various software
12 Downloading the field data from Total Station, 1 for downloading, plotting of field
GPS, DGPS & GNSS and preparation of plan data and preparation of plan.
with field data.
Evaluating the understanding of
13 Evaluation 1 the course by the students.

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 PATTERN OF ASSESSMENT

S.no. Head Distribution of marks

1. Practical notebook 20

2. Field book 10 Sessional

3. Punctuality & Performance 20

4. Lab exam 30 End -term

5. Viva-voce 20

Total 100

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 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS OF THE LABORATORY

1. LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES:

 Every student must be with required PPEs during the lab experiment.

 Ensure that all safety devices are adequate, appropriate and good working condition.

 Every Student should follow the SOP (Stander Operating Procedures) of all instruments.

 Every Student should know the location of First AID KIT (s) and Fire extinguisher.

2. RULES & GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY EXPERIMENT:

 All students will take a sit for their attendance and understand about the laboratory experiment.

 Before starting the Laboratory experiment, follow all written and verbal instructions carefully.

 Before use any instrument or software, read and follow the SOP carefully.

 Any difficulties, error, missing of any parts of the instruments or break-down, must be reported to

the teacher, instructor or Laboratory superintendent.

3. DO’S & DON’TS DURING LABORATORY EXPERIMENT:

 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.

 Proper dress should maintain during the laboratory class.

 Observe good housekeeping practices.

 Issue and hand over the instruments and accessories from proper place.

 Students are not allowed to work in the Laboratory alone.

 Don‘t wander around the room, distract other students, or interfere with others.

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 Do not enter with food and drink beverages in the laboratory.

 Don‘t touch any instrument, accessories and computer without permission.

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 EXPERIMENT: 1

Name of the Experiment:

Study and sketch of linear measuringinstruments (Chain, Tapes and Distomat) and carryout chain and
tape surveying.

Objective:

1. To take measurements to determine the relative positions of the existing features on or near the ground.
2. To layout or to mark the positions of the proposed structures on the ground.
3. To determine areas, volumes and other related quantities.

Linear Measurement:
Linear measurement is a measurement of length. There are three methods of linear measurements. Such as
 Direct Method
 In-Direct Method
 EDM Method
Approximate methods of linear measurement are
 Pacing
 Passometer
 Pedometer
 Odometer
 Speedometer
 Measuring Wheel

Instruments used in Chain Surveying:

 Chains
 Tapes
 Arrows
 Ranging Rod & Offset Rod
 Pegs
 Plumb-bob
 Optical Square
 Spring Balance

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Chain:
The chain consists of a number of large links made of galvanized mild steel wire of 4 mm diameter. Each end
of the large links is bent into a loop. These links are connected in series by small connecting links. The
connecting links consist of three rings; the outer two rings are of oval-shape where the central ring is
circular. These connecting links provide flexibility to the chain. The two ends of the chain have brass handles
which are used for pulling and dragging the chain. The handles have swivel joints to provided flexibility so
that it is possible to swivel the handle round the bolt whiteout it‘s twisting. The length of the links is measured
from the centre of the connecting central ring to the centre of the next connecting central ring, and it is 200
mm for all links except the end links. End links also 200 mm length including the brass handle. The surveying
chains are of four different lengths according to IS: 1492-1970, (1) 5 m (25 links), (2) 10 m (50 links), (3) 20
m (100 links) and (4) 30 m (150 links). To enable the reading of fraction of a chain length without difficulty,
brass tallies or tags and rings are attached to the chain at some fixed interval. Every mete length of the chain
should be accurate to within ± 2 mm under a tension of 80 N as per IS specification. The overall length of the
chain should be within the limits 30 ± 8 mm for 30 m chain.

Types of Chains:
 Metric chain
 Gunter‘s chain or Surveyor‘s chain
 Engineer‘s chain
 Revenue chain
 Steel band or Band chain

Fig.1.1 Folded Chain

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Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length and brass rings
are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.

Tapes:
Measuring Tapes can be classified into 5 types, depending upon the material used in their manufacture.
 Linen or cloth tapes
 Glass- fibre tapes
 Metallic tapes
 Steel tapes
 Invar tapes

Linen or cloth tapes:

These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The linen tape consists of a long strip, 10 mm to 15 mm wide. These
tapes are available in lengths of 10 m, 20 m, 25 m, 30 m. The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.
The linen tape changes in length due to shrinkage and stretching. It is also liable to twist and tangle. The tape
is also affected by dampness and heat. The plastic –coated tapes are tougher than ordinary linen tapes and
are more durable. These are relatively more water proof.

Fig. 1.4 Linen or cloth tape

Glass – fibre tapes:

These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but these are made of glass- fibre. The tapes are
quite flexible, strong and non-conductive. These can be
used even in the vicinity of electrical equipment. These tapes do not stretch or shrink due to changes in
temperature or moisture. These tapes are available in various lengths. These tapes are more useful than linen
tapes.

Fig. 1.5 Glass-fiber tape

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Metallic Tapes:
The metallic tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of water proof fabric or glass fibre in which
metallic wires are interwoven. Generally, the strands of cooper wire are used for interweaving, but brass or
bronze wires are also sometimes used. The metallic wires prevent excess stretching of the tape. The metallic
tapes are made in width of 10 mm to 15 mm.

Fig. 1.6 Metallic tape

Steel tapes:
The steel tapes are more accurate than metallic tapes. The tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip. The
tapes of widths 6 mm, 9.5 mm, 13 mm and 16.0 mm are commonly used. The thickness of the tap used is 0.15
mm, 0.20 mm or 0.4 mm. The normal length of the tapes is 1 m, 2 m, 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 30 m, or 50 m. The
strips of tapes of 1 m and 2m may be flat or curved.

Fig. 1.7 Steel tape

Invar tapes:
Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%); which has a very low coefficient of thermal
expansion. These tapes are generally 6 mm wide, and are available in lengths of 20 m., 30 m and 60 m. The
invar alloy is a soft material, and, therefore, the
invar tapes should be handled carefully to avoid bends and kinks. Invar tapes are kept on reels of large
diameter to avoid kinking.

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 Fig. 1.8 Steel tape

Arrows:
Arrows or chain pins are used to mark the position of the ends of the chain on the ground. The arrows are
made of good quality, hardened and tempered steel wire of 4 mm diameter and of a minimum tensile strength
of 700 70 kg f/mm. The wire is black enamelled with an enamel of uniform thickness. The length of the arrow
varies from 25 to 50 cm. As per IS: 1842-1961, the overall length is 400 mm, and the diameter of the loop is
50 mm.

Fig. 1.9 Arrows

Ranging rods:
The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is called ranging out or ranging. Ranging
rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the straight line joining the end
stations. Ranging is essential before starting the measurement of a line whose length is more than a chain
length so that measurement is made along a straight line.
The ranging rods of octagonal cross section are also used. IS: 2288-1963 specifies ranging rods of two
lengths. The smaller one is of 2 m length, with 10bands of 200 mm each. The larger one is of 3 m length, with
15 bands of 200 mm each.

Fig. 1.10 Ranging rods

Pegs:
Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end points of a survey line. The pegs
are used to mark the intersection of lines and other such points which are more or less permanent, and are
required to be retained for some time. The
pegs most commonly used are 25 mm x 25 mm in cross section and 150 mm long. For soft grounds, the pegs
of 40 mm length are used.

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 Fig 1.11 Pegs

Plumb Bobs:
The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely suspended plumb bob always points
towards the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line. A plumb bob is a ball mad of brass, of the
shape of a pear . It has a fine, hardened steel point . There is an eye or a hook at the top for attaching a
string of braided nylon. The length of the cord is about 2 m and the weight of the plumb generally varies from
2 to 5 N. the length of the bob is about 50 mm.

Fig. 1.12 Plumb bobs

Spring Balance:
A spring balance is a type of weighing scale. It consists of spring fixed at one end with a hook to attach an
object at the other. It works by Hooke's Law, which states that the force needed to extend a spring is
proportional to the distance that spring is extended from its rest position. Therefore, the scale markings on the
spring balance are equally spaced. A spring scale only weight. A spring balance can be calibrated for the
accurate measurement of mass in the location in which they are used. A spring scale will only read correctly
in a frame of reference where the acceleration in the spring axis is constant. The scale on top would read
slightly heavier due to also supporting the weight of the lower scale itself. Spring balances come in different
sizes. A spring balance may be labeled in both units of force (pounds, liters) and mass (grams, kilograms).

Fig. 1.13 Spring balance

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Optical Square:
An optical square is a small pocket instrument. It is used for setting out right angles. It consists of a small
circular box about 5 to 65 mm diameter and about 12.5 mm deep. There are three small openings of about 1.5
mm diameter. There are two mirrors are inclined at 45° to each other. The horizon glass is fixed in position,
wherever the index glass can be adjusted. The optical square is based on the optical principle that if a ray of
light undergoes two successive reflections in a plane in right angles to each of the two plane mirrors.

Fig. 1.14 Optical Square

Chain Surveying:
Chain surveying is the method of land surveying in which only linear measurement are made. No angular
measurement is taken. Chain surveying is used for areas of small extent on open ground having few simple
details. This is the simplest type of surveying and consists of measuring the lengths of the lines marked out in
the field. Chain surveying is used for securing data for exact description and marking of the boundaries of a
piece of land or for preparing the maps of the area to show various details.

Principles of Chain Surveying:

A triangle is the simple figure which can be plotted from the lengths of the three sides even if the angles are
not known. In chain surveying, the area to be surveyed is divided into a framework consisting of triangles.
The simplest possible chain surveying consists of only one triangle.
Field work in Chain Surveying: The field work of chain surveying can be divided into the following four
stages:

 Reconnaissance
 Marking Stations
 Running survey lines
 Taking offsets.

Reconnaissance:

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Reconnaissance is the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed to have some idea of the terrain and
the principal features of the ground. During reconnaissance, the surveyor generally makes an index sketch (or
the key plan) to show the principal features, such as building, roads, nallahs, boundaries.

Marking Stations:
After completing reconnaissance, the main stations are marked on the ground so that the stations can be
readily located afterwards, if required to the survey is of a temporary character, the stations are generally
marked by fixing a ranging rod at each stations.

Running survey Lines:

Survey lines are run to measure the distance between main stations and to locate the adjacent details by
offsets. The chaining is usually commenced from the base line and continued to other survey lines.

Taking Offsets:
Offsets are lateral distances measured from the survey line to the detail. The offsets are of two types:
 Perpendicular offsets or simply offsets,
 Oblique offsets or ties.

Recording Measurements:
The measurement taken in chain surveying is recorded in the field book. The field notes should be
 Accurate
 In a proper format
 Complete
 Clear and neat
 Legible and
 Unbiased

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 Fig. 1.15 Chain surveying

EDM Method:

In the electro-magnetic methods, distances are measured with instruments that rely on transmission,
propagation, reflection, and subsequent reception of either radio waves, light waves or infrared waves.
The Distomat is a very small, compact electronic distance measurement (EDM) device, particularly useful
in construction and engineering works. The Distomat measures distances smaller than 500 meters by
simply pointing the instrument to a reflector and reading the result. Distomat uses near infrared radiation
band of wavelength about 0.9 micrometer as carrier wave which is easily obtained from gallium arsenide
(Ga As) infrared emitting diode. These diodes can be very easily directly amplitude modulated at high
frequencies. Thus modulated carrier wave is obtained by an inexpensive method. Due to this reason, there
is predominance of infrared instruments in EDM. Some of the popular models of Distomat manufactured
by Wild Heerbrugg are as follows
1. Distomat DI 1000
2. Distomat DI 5S
3. Distomat DI 3000
4. Distomat DIOR 3002
5. Tachymat TC 2000 (Electronic Tacheometer)

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 F

Figure 1.16: DI 1000 Distomat Figure 1.17: Control keys and

Display panel of DI 1000 Distomat

Obstacle in chaining:
 When chaining is free but vision is obstructed
 When chaining is obstructed but vision is free
 When chaining and vision are both obstructed

When chaining is free but vision is obstructed:

Such a problem arise when a rising ground or a forest area interrupt the chain line. The end stations are
not visible from intermediate points when a forest area comes across the chain line.

Let AB is the actual chain line which cannot be ranged and extended because of interruption of jungle. Let
the chain line extended up to R. a point P select on the chain line and random line PT is taken in a suitable
direction. Point C, D and E are selected on the random line and perpendiculars are projected from them.
Perpendicular point C meets the chain line at C1. The perpendicular point D and E meet the chain line D1
and E1. Now the distance PC, PD, PE and CC1 are measured from triangle PDD1 and PCC1

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Again, from triangle PEE1 and PCC1

Or EE1=

Length DD1 and EE1 is calculated. The calculated distance measured along the perpendicular at D and E
Point D1 and E1 should lie in the chain line AB, which can be extended accordingly.
Distance PE1= √ (PE2−EE12)

When chaining is obstructed but vision is free:

When chaining is obstructed but vision is free such a problem arise when a pond or a river come across
the chain line

Suppose AB is the chain line. Two point C and D are selected on it on opposite bank of the pond. Equal
perpendicular CE and DF are erected at C and D. the distance EF measured.

CD=EF The pond may also be crossed by forming a triangle as shown in fig. a point C is select on a chain
line. The perpendicular CE set out at C and line ED is suitably taken. The distance CE and ED are
measured.

CD= √ (ED2−CE2)

A small river comes across the chain line. Suppose AB is chain line. Two point C and D are selected on
this line on opposite bank of the river. At C a perpendicular CE is erected and bisected at F. a

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perpendicular is set out at E and a point G is selected on it that D, F and G are in the same straight line.
From triangle DCF and GEF

GE=CD

The distance GE is measured and thus the distance CD is obtained indirectly.

When chaining and vision are both obstructed:

Such a problem arise when a building come across the chain line. Suppose AB is the chain line. Two
point C and D are selected on it at one side of the building. Equal perpendicular CC1 and DD1 are
erected. The line C1D1 is extended until the building is crossed. On the extended line two
point E1 and F1 are selected. The perpendicular E1E and F1F are so erected that

E1E=F1F=D1D=C1CE1E=F1F=D1D=C1C

Thus the point C, D, E and F will lie on the same straight line AB Here

DE=D1E1DE=D1E1

The distance D1E1 is measured and is equal to the required distance DE

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 EXPERIMENT: 2

Name of the Experiment: Study and sketch of Prismatic Compass and measurement of
bearing of lines of a traverse.

Prismatic Compass (0 to 360 Degrees):

The prismatic compass is a magnetic compass in which there is a prism for taking observation. The prismatic
compass is used for the determination of the whole circle bearings of the lines. The prismatic compass
consists of a circular box about 85 to 100 mm diameter. The box is made of brass or non-metallic material. At
the center of the box there is a hard steel pivot which supports the magnetic needle. The magnetic needle used
in a prismatic compass is of board form. An aluminum ring graduated in degree and half degrees is directly
attached to the needle. The box is fitted with a glass disc at its top. The graduation of the aluminum rings
increase clockwise from 0° to 360° with the 0 of the graduations coinciding with the south end of the needle.
Thus 90° graduation is at the west, 180° graduation at the north and 270° graduation at the east.

Fig.2.1: Prismatic compass

Description of Instruments:

Compass Box:

It is a circular box of diameter 85 to 110 mm having pivot at the center and covered with plain glass at top.

Magnetic Needle:

It facilitates in taking the bearings of survey lines with reference to the magnetic north.

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Graduated Ring:

The bearings are marked inverted on the graduated Rings from 0° to 360° in a clockwise starting 0° from
south.

Pivot:

Magnet is freely held with this.

Object Vane:

It consists of prism with a sighting slit at the top. The prism magnifies and erects the inverted graduations.

Brake Pin:

It is pressed to stop the oscillations of the graduated ring.

Lifting Pin:

On pressing it brings the lifting lever into action.

Color Glasses:

Red and blue glasses are provided with the prism to Sight luminous Object.

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 Fig. 2.2: Traverse by Prismatic Compass

Graduation in Prismatic Compass:

Apparatus:

 Prismatic compass

 Tape
 Chain
 Arrows
 Pegs
 Ranging Rods

Temporary Adjustment of Prismatic Compass:

The prismatic Compass is set up at a point. The following temporary adjustments are needed to be
carried out at each set up of instrument.

Centering:

Centering is the process of keeping the instrument of exactly over the station. It is carried out by dropping
a piece of stone so that it falls on the top of the peg fixed at station point.

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 Leveling:

Prismatic Compass is leveled by means of ball and socket arrangement so that the graduated ring may
swing freely.

Focusing the Prism:

The reflecting prism is adjusted to the eye sight of the observer by raising or lowering then stud until the
graduations are seen sharp clear.

Procedure:

Closed traverse is generally run around a structure. It is defined as a series of connected lines whose
directions and lengths are determined precisely. Following procedure is adopted to run a closed compass
traverse.

 Let us say we have to run a closed compass traverse ABCDEA.

 Set the prismatic compass at point A. center it and level it.

 Take bearings of traverse lines AB and AE.
 Shift the compass to point B center it and level it. Take the bearings BC and BA.
 Link-wise complete the traverse as shown in fig (a).
 Measure the length of traverse line AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA.
 Record the observation in tabular columns.
 Care must be taken to see that the stations are not affected by local attractions. If they are affected
corrections to local attractions should be applied first and then the traverse should be plotted with
corrected bearings.
 Simplest method of plotting is angle and distance method with a protractor. If Last point is falling
short by some distance in meeting the first point then it means that there is a closing error.

Fig. 2.3: Close compass traverse

Field Book and Records:

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Observation Table:
Line Length FB BB Difference Correction Corrected Corrected R
FB e
BB m
ar
ks

AB 32 30°00‘ 210°30‘ 180°30‘ 0°30‘/2 30°15‘ 210°15‘

BC 41 100°30‘ 280°30‘ 180°30‘ 0°30‘/2 100°15‘ 280°15‘

CD 39 220°30‘ 40°00‘ 179°30‘ 0°30‘/2 220°35‘ 40°15‘

DA 65 310°00‘ 130°00‘ 180°00‘ 0°0‘ 310°00‘ 130°00‘

The whole circle bearing system (W.C.B) or Azimuthal system:

 In this system, the bearing of a line is measured with north (or south) in clockwisedirection.
 The value of the bearing thus varies from 0° to 360°.
 Prismatic compass is graduated on this system.
 In India and U. K ., the W.C.B is measured clockwise with north

Whole circle bearing system Quadrantal bearing system

The Quadrantal bearing system (Q.B):

 In this system, the bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north or south, whichever is
nearer.
 Thus, both north and south are used as reference meridians and the direction can be either clockwise or
anticlockwise depending upon the position of the line
 In this system, therefore, the quadrant, in which the line lies, will have to be mentioned.
 Surveyors compass is graduated on this system
 In the quadrantal system, the reference meridian is prefixed and the direction of measurement
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 (Eastward or Westward) is affixed to the numerical value of the bearing
 The Q.B of a line varies from 0° to 90°.

Magnetic Compass:

 The magnetic compass gives directly the magnetic bearings of lines.

 The bearing may either be measured in the W.C.B system or in Q.B. system depending upon the form of
the compass used.
 The bearings so measured are entirely independent on any other measurement

Theory of Magnetic compass:

 The general principle of all magnetic compass depends upon the fact that if a long, narrow strip of steel
or iron is magnetised, and is suitably suspended or pivoted about a point near its center so that it can
oscillate freely about the vertical axis, it will tend to establish itself in the magnetic meridian at the
place of observation.
Essential features of a magnetic compass:

 Magnetic needle, to establish the magnetic meridian

 A line of sight, to sight the other end of the line
 A graduated circle, either attached to the box or to the needle, to read the directions of the lines

Magnetic Declination:

 Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between the true meridian and the magnetic
meridian shown by the needle at the time of observation.
 If the magnetic meridian is to the right side (or eastern side) of the true meridian, declination is said to
be eastern or positive
 If it is to the left side (or western side), the declination is said to be western or negative

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Local attraction

 A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle which is uninfluenced by other

attracting forces.
 However, sometimes, the magnetic needle may be attracted and prevented from indicating the true
magnetic meridian when it is in proximity to certain.
 Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as the above, which prevents the needle
from pointing to the magnetic north in a given locality.
 Some of the sources of local attraction are: magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric current, steel
structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel- bowed spectacles, metal buttons, axes,
chains, steel tapes et., which may be lying on the ground nearby.

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 EXPERIMENT: 3

Name of the Experiment: Study and sketch of Vernier & Micro-Optic Theodolite (20”) and measurement
of horizontal angle

Vernier Theodolites:
A theodolite is an important used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles in surveying. In the vernier are
used for taking the readings. These theodolites are most commonly used in general work. Most of the vernier
theodolites can be read angles up to 20‘‘.

Main parts of a vernier theodolite:

The discussion is generally and applies to most of the vernier theodolites manufactured in Indiaand abroad.

 Telescope.
 Trunnion axis.
 Vernier frame.
 Vertical circle.
 Plate level.
 Standard.
 Upper plate.
 Lower plate.
 Inner axis.
 Outer spindle.
 Inner spindle.
 Altitude bubble.
 Levelling screw.
 Clip screw.
 Hook.
 Tribrach.
 Vertical clamp screw.
 Vertical tangent screw.
 Trivet.
 Tripod.
 Tripod leg.

Fig3.1 Main parts of vernier theodolite

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Telescope:
The telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the horizontal axis or the trunnion axis. The
aperture of the objective is generally 38mm .The magnification varies from 18 to 28 diameters. The
length of the telescope tube is usually between 100 to 175 mm.

Vertical Circle:
The vertical circle is graduated in degrees, with graduations at 20‘. The graduations in each quadrant
are numbered from 0 to 90 degree in opposite directions from the two zeroes placed at the horizontal
diameter of the circle.

Vernier Frame:
The Vernier frame, also called T-frame or index frame, consists of a vertical leg called clipping arm
and a horizontal bar called the index arm.

Vertical Clamp Screw:

The vertical circle and hence the telescope can be clamped at any desired vertical angle bymeans of
the vertical clamp screw.

Altitude Bubble:
A sensitive level tube, called altitude bubble, is attached to the top of the T-frame. The sensitivityof the
altitude bubble is usually 20‘‘ per 2 mm.

Striding Level:
A very sensitive level is sometimes mounted at right angles to the telescope axis. It is used in
astronomical observation for levelling the horizontal axis. It is not in theodolite.

Upper Plate:
The upper plate, also called the Vernier plate, supports the standard at its upper surface.

Lower Plate:
The lower plate is also known as the main scale plate or the horizontal circle. The lower plate is
graduated in degrees from 0° to 360 ° with graduations at 20 ° ‗.The diameter of the horizontal circle
is between 100 to 130 mm. This diameter is used to designate the size of the instrument.

Plate Level:
A level tube, called plate level, is mounted on the upper plate. The sensitivity of the plate level is
usually 35‘‘ per 2mm.

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Levelling head:
The levelling head consists of two parallel plates, separated by three levelling screws. The upper
parallel plate of the levelling head is called the tribrach and the lower one is called the trivet stage or
foot plate.

Shifting Head:
The shifting head is a centring device placed below the lower plate but above the tribranch so that the
centring may be done after the instrument has been levelled. it consists of two plates which can moved
relative to each other .when the device is untightened, the whole upper of the instrument can be
slightly shifted horizontally up to about 10 mm diameter.

Magnetic Compass:
The magnetic compass is generally of circular type. It is mounted on the upper plate between the
standards. The letter N of the compass is under the objective end of the telescope when the telescope is
in the normal position, and the letter S is under the eyepiece end.

Finder- collimator device:

The telescope is generally fitted with a pair of external sights or finder collimator for rough pointing
of the telescope towards the object.

Tripod:
Theodolite is mounted on a strong tripod when being used in the field.

Fundamental Lines: There are 5 fundamental or axis of a theodolite.

 Vertical axis.
 Horizontal axis.
 Line of collimation.
 Altitude level axis.
 Plate level axis.

Fig.
3.2
Fun
dam
enta
l
axis of theodolite Fig. 3.3 Reading system of
Vernier theodolite

27
When the theodolite is in proper adjustment, the following four conditions between fundamentallines
are satisfied.
 The axis of the plate level is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
 The horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
 The line of collimation is at right angles to the horizontal axis.
 The axis of the altitude level is parallel to the line of collimation when it is horizontal, and the
vertical reads
zero.
 The horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis. It is along the trunnion axis and the line of
collimation
is visualized as a line along the axis of the telescope. It always remains in a plane perpendicular to
the
horizontal axis.
 The altitude level axis and the plate level axis are perpendicular to the vertical axis.

Functions of clamp and tangent screws:

Clamp Screws:
 The beginner finds it difficult to manipulate the clamp screws provided for the upper plate and
lower plate.
The following three conditions should be clearly understood.
 When the upper clamp screw is tightened but the lower clamp screw is loose, the instrument rotates
on its
outer axis, without any relative motion between the two plates. The Vernier reading does not
change.
 When the lower clamp screw is tightened, but the upper m clamp screw is loose, the instrument
rotates on the
inner axis with a relative motion between the two plates. The Vernier reading change.
 When both the upper clamp screw and the lower clamp screw are tightened, the instrument cannot
rotate at
all.

Tangent Screws:
 For small movement of plates, corresponding tangent screws are used. Before using any tangent
screw, the
corresponding clamp screw must be tightened first; it will not work.

 When the upper clamp screw has been tightened, small movement of the upper plate can be made by
the
upper tangent screw.
 When the lower clamp screw has been tightened, small movement of the lower plate can be made by
the
tangent screw.

28
Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite:

The following five temporary adjustments are required.

Setting up:
For setting up the instrument, place the tripod over the station. The legs of the tripod should be spread
so that they make angles of about 60º with the horizontal. The shoes of the legs should be pushed into
the ground by applying a force parallel to the legs.

Centering:
Centering is done to place the vertical axis exactly over the station mark. Approximate centering is
done by means of the tripod legs. The exact centering is done by means of the shifting head or the
centering device.

Levelling up: Accurate levelling of the theodolite is done with the help of levelling screws or foot
screws with reference to the plate levels. The levelling is done to make the vertical axis of the
instrument truly vertical.

Focusing the eyepiece:

 The eyepiece is focused to make the cross hairs distinct and clear. The following procedure is used.
 Point the telescope towards the sky or hold a sheet of while paper in front of the objective.
 Turn the focusing screw until the image of the object appears clear and sharp.

Angle Measurement by Repetition Method:

 Set up instrument at O with face left or right.
 Make the Vernier A at 0°0΄0 ˝ to Vernier B at 180°0΄0˝ with upper clamp to lower unclamp.
 Bisect the point A exacting by using lower clamp screw.
 Unclamp the upper, clamp to lower screw. Clamp rotate clockwise bisect B
 After bisecting B point make upper clamp to lower unclamp and read both the Vernier‘s.
 Swing the telescope towards A clockwise by leaving verniers unchanged. Using lower tangent
 Screws i.e. initial reading is final reading of first round.
 Apply the same procedure as per A for bisecting B swing the telescope towards A.
 After three rounds face is changed same three rounds are taken on changed face. Average
 Reading is calculated in each face. Mean of two faces is final reading.

29
 Observations Table:
Face Left Swing Right Face Right Swing Avg.
Instrument Stn.

Left
Observe Stn.
Angle
Reading Angle Reading Angle

Repetition

Repetition
VA VB Mean VA VB Mean

O A
B
B

Micro-Optic Theodolite.

Fig. 3.4 Micro-optic theodolite

Reiteration Method:
Reiteration method is preferred when several angles is to be taken at the particular point i. e.horizon
closed.

Procedure:
 Select a station point O.
 Set the theodolite at O and do the temporary adjustments. The telescope is adjusted for left face
right swing.
 Set the micro-meter to zero using upper clamp. Loosen the lower clamp, direct the telescope to the
station
point A and bisect A exactly by using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw.
 Note the micro-meter readings at station point.
 Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until the point B is exactly bisected.
 Note the micro-meter readings at point B. Likewise points C and D
 Turn the telescope at station point A until the point A is exactly bisected.
 The difference of two reading will be included angle between two lines. Such as
 <AOB, <BOC, < COD, <DOA.
 Repeat the process to take the readings at face right condition.
 Calculate the angle of <AOB, <BOC, < COD, <DOA.
 Calculate the mean angle. Then add all the angles. It should be 360°

30
 If not then find out amount of correction for each individuals angle.
 Compute the correct angles of <AOB, <BOC, < COD, <DOA.

Observation Table:

Inst.Stn.Obs.Stn. Face Light Swing Right Face RightSwing Left Correction Corrected Angle

Reading Angle Reading Angle

O A
B
C
D
A

31
 EXPERIMENT: 4

Name of the Experiment:

Study and sketch of Micro-Optic Theodolite (1”) and measurement of vertical angle and find out the
height of an object

Fig. 3.5 Reading system of Micro-optic Theodolite

Fig. 3.6 Components of Micro-optic Theodolite

1” Theodolite:

One second Theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical
planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications, and have been adapted for specialized
Fig. 2.7 1” Theodolite 32
purposes in fields. A modern theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted within two
perpendicular axes—the horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is
pointed at a target object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured withgreat precision,

Use of Theodolite:
 Measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
 Locating points on a line.
 Prolonging survey lines.
 Finding difference of level.
 Setting out grades
 Ranging curves
 Tachometric Survey
Parts of Theodolite:

Telescope:
The telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the horizontal axis or the trunnion axis. The
aperture of the objective is generally 38mm .The magnification varies from 18 to 28 diameters. The
length of the telescope tube is usually between 100 to 175 mm.

Vertical Circle:
The vertical circle is graduated in degrees, with graduations at 20‘. The graduations in each quadrant
are numbered from 0 to 90 degree in opposite directions from the two zeroes placed at the horizontal
diameter of the circle.

Vertical Clamp Screw:

The vertical circle and hence the telescope can be clamped at any desired vertical angle by
means of the vertical clamp screw.

Altitude Bubble:
A sensitive level tube, called altitude bubble, is attached to the top of the T-frame. The sensitivityof the
altitude bubble is usually 20‘‘ per 2 mm.

Plate Level:
A level tube, called plate level, is mounted on the upper plate. The sensitivity of the plate level is
usually 35‘‘ per 2mm.

Tripod:
Theodolite is mounted on a strong tripod when being used in the field.

33
Clamp Screws:

 Horizontal clamp screw is to rotate the instrument on the horizontal plane when it is unclamped.
When it is
tightened it fix the instrument to the particular point.
 Vertical clamp screw is to rotate the instrument on the vertical plane when it is unclamped. When it
is
tightened it fix the instrument to the particular point.

Tangent Screws:
For small movement of plates, corresponding tangent screws are used. Before using any tangent
screw, the corresponding clamp screw must be tightened first; it will not work.

Transiting:
Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing. It is the process of turning the telescope about its
horizontal axis through 1800 in the vertical plane thus bringing it upside down and making it point,
exactly in opposite direction.

Swinging the telescope:

It means turning the telescope about its vertical axis in the horizontal plane. A swing is called right or
left according as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counter clockwise.

Face Left:
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a reading, the
position is called the face left and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this
position is known as the face left observation.

Face Right:
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a reading, the
position is called the face right and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this
position is known as the face right observation.

Changing Face:
It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the observer, if originally it is to the
left, and vice – versa. It is done in two steps; firstly revolve the telescope through 1800 in a vertical
plane and then rotate it through 1800 in the horizontal plane i.e. first transit the telescope and
then swing it through 1800.

Line of Collimation:
It is also known as the line of sight .It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross- hairs of
the diaphragm to the optical centre of the object- glass and its continuation.

Axis of the telescope:

It is also known an imaginary line joining the optical centre of the object- glass to the centre of eye
piece.
34
 Axis of the Level Tube:
It is also called the bubble line. It is a straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube
at the centre of the tube. It is horizontal when the bubble is in the centre.

Vertical Axis:
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the horizontal plane.

Horizontal Axis:
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the vertical plane. It is also called the
trunnion axis.

Measurement of horizontal angles by reiteration method:

This method is another precise and comparatively less tedious method of measuring the horizontal
angles. It is generally preferred when several angles are to be measured at a particular station. This
method consists in measuring several angles successively and finally closing the horizon at the starting
point. The final reading of the vernier A should be same as its initial reading.

A
B

C
D
Fig. 3.8 Horizontal angle measurement by reiteration method

Procedure:
Suppose it is required to measure the angles AOB, BOC and COD.

 Set up the instrument over station point O and level it accurately.

 Direct the telescope towards point A which is known as referring object. Bisect it accurately and check
the reading of Vernier and note down the initial reading. Loosen thelower clamp and turn the telescope
clockwise to sight point B exactly. Read the verniers again and the mean reading will give the value of
angle AOB.
 Similarly bisect C & D successively, read both verniers at each bisection, find the value of the angle
BOC and COD.
 Finally close the horizon by sighting towards the referring object (point A).

35
 The Vernier A should now read the same initial reading. If not note down the error. This error occurs
due to slip etc.
 If the error is small, it is equally distributed among the several angles .If large the readings should be
discarded and a new set of readings be taken.
Observations Table 2.2

Inst. Obs. Face Light Swing Face RightSwing Correction Corrected Angle
Stn. Stn. Right Left
Reading Angle Reading Angle
O A
B
C
D
A

36
 EXPERIMENT: 5

Name of the Experiment:

Traverse surveying with theodolite & find out the error of closer by applying Bowditch’s Rule

Traversing:
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions are to be measured and the
process of surveying to find such measurements is known as traversing.

Why Traversing:

 Triangulation and Trilateration networks are the most accurate methods for fixing the control
points. But In densely wooded country or very flat country such methods are physically
impossible or very expensive for erecting signals in order that the control points are visible.
 In underground mine too it is practically impossible to establish control points with the help of
Triangulation and Trilateration due to the confined space/limited space/jig jag path.
 In such conditions it is advantageous to construct control nets using the method of traversing.

Types of Traverse:
A Traverse may be of two types
 Open Traverse
 Closed Traverse

Open Traverse:
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at one point and terminates at another
point as shown in the figure. Open traverse is also called as unclosed traverse. It is suitable for
surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.

37
Closed Traverse:

A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse formed a closed circuit as shown in the figure.
In this case, both starting and terminating points of the traverse coincide with each other. It is suitable
for the survey of boundaries of ponds, sports grounds, forests, etc.

Methods of Traversing:

 Chain Traversing
 Chain and Compass Traversing (Loose or Free needle method)
 Plane Table with chain/tape Traversing
 Transit-Tape Traversing

Every traverse can be run by the following ways

 by fast needle method

 by measurement of angles between the lines.

Tacheometric/Total Station Traversing:

by measurement of angles between the lines.

38
Transit (Theodolite)-Tape Traversing

In the case of Transit (Theodolite)-Tape traversing, the linear measurements are done by using
tape and angular measurements are done by theodolite.

a) Traversing by fast needle method

In this method also, the magnetic bearings of the traverse lines are measured by a
theodolite fitted with a compass. However, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not
established at each station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured
with reference so the direction of magnetic meridian established at the first station. The
method is, therefore, more accurate than the loose needle method

There are three methods of observing the bearings of lines by fast needle method
 Direct method with Transiting
 Direct method without Transiting
 Back Bearing Method

b) Traversing by measurement of angles between the lines

In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite. The
method is, therefore, most accurate in comparison to the previous three methods. The
magnetic bearing of any one line can also be measured (if required) and magnetic
bearing of other lines can be calculated. The angles measured at different stations may
be either included or deflection angles

It includes two methods:

 Traversing by Included Angles

 Traversing by Deflection Angles

Traversing by Included Angles (Fig 3.3)

• An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by the two survey lines
meeting there.
• The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a backsight on the
preceding station.
• Included angles can be measured either clockwise or counter-clockwise but it is better to
measure all angles clockwise, since the graduation of the instrument circle increases in
39
 this direction
• the angles measured clockwise from the back station may be interior or exterior
depending upon the direction of progress round the survey
• If direction of progress is counter-clockwise and angles measured clockwise then it
directly gives interior angles.
• If direction of progress is clockwise and angles measured clockwise then it directly gives
exterior angles.

Fig 3.3: Traversing by Included AnglesTraversing by Deflection Angles (Fig 3.4)

• A deflection angle is the angle which a survey line makes with the prolongation. It is
designated as right (R) or Left (L) according as it is measured clockwise or anticlockwise
from the prolongation of the previous line. Its value may vary from 0 to 180 degree

Fig 3.4: Traversing by Deflection AnglesChecks in closed/Open Traverse:

• Checks in Closed Traverse

40
A. Check for Linear Work:
For important work the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements
consists in chaining each survey line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on
different dates and by different parties.

B. Checks for Angular Work:

1. Traverse by Included angles

a. The sum of measured interior angles should be equal to (2N-4) right angles, where N =
no. of sides of the traverse If the exterior angles are measured, their sum should be
equal to (2N+4) right angles.

2. Traverse by deflection angles:

The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should be equal to 360 degree, taking the right
hand deflection angles as positive and left hand angles as negative.

3. Traverse by direct observation of bearings:

The fore bearing of the last line should be equal to its back bearing +- 180 degree
measured at the initial station.

• Checks in Open Traverse

A. Check for Linear Work:

For important work the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements
consists in chaining each survey line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on
different dates and by different parties.

B. Checks for Angular Work:

No direct check of angular measurement is available. However, indirect check can be made.

Plotting a Traverse Survey:

• There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:

1. Angle and Distance Method;

41
 a) By Protractor

b) By the tangent of the angle

c) By the chord of the angle

2. Co-ordinate Method

1. Angle and Distance Method

• In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale and angles (or bearing)
are plotted by one of the methods mentioned in previous slide.
• This method is suitable for the small surveys, and much inferior to the co-ordinate
method in respect of accuracy of plotting

2. Co-ordinate Method

• In this method, survey stations are plotted by calculating their co-ordinates.

• This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for plotting traverses or any
other extensive system of horizontal control.
• The biggest advantage in this method of plotting is that the closing error can be
eliminated by balancing, prior to plotting.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Methods of Plotting Traverses

The various methods of plotting a traverse have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Plotting a traverse by the method of included angles or directions with a protractor is the least
accurate but the fastest method.
The most accurate and the best method to layout a single angle precisely is by tangents.
If a traverse fails to close and if the error is due to drafting, the error may be adjusted simply by
rotating each line, except the first, slightly and progressively.
In the chord method of plotting a traverse, the erection of a perpendicular (in the tangent
method) is eliminated, but the determination of the chord length is more laborious than finding
perpendicular offsets.
The main disadvantage of the chord method is that an error in any of the traverse line is passed
through along to the succeeding line.
Plotting by independent coordinates is supposed to be a better method since the independent
coordinates of the stations do not affect the succeeding coordinates and thus the error, if any, is
42
localized to a particular point and therefore, correction usually involves the replotting of the
erroneous point only.
In plotting with consecutive coordinates, small errors of plotting are carried forward, and in a
closed traverse, the closing error due to inexact plotting can be located since the coordinates
used have already been balanced.
This may be considered to be an advantage, as the cause of discrepancy can be searched for and
eliminated.
Since errors are not accumulated when plotting with independent coordinates, they are preferred
for plotting an open traverse

43
Traverse Computations:

1. Calculation of Latitude and Departure of a survey line

A) Consecutive or dependent coordinates system

44
B) Independent coordinates system

2. Closing error
When a close traverse is plotted according to field measurements, the ends of the traverse
usually do not coincide owing to the error in the measurement of angles and distances.

Closing error (e)= AA‘ = √(ƩL)2 + (ƩD)2

• The direction of closing error is given by tanδ = ƩD/ƩL, The sign of ƩD and ƩL will thus

45
 define the quadrant in which the closing error lies. The relative error of closure, the term
sometimes used, is = error of closure/perimeter of traverse = e/p = 1/(p/e)

3. Balancing the Traverse

The term ‗balancing‘ is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to latitudes
and departures so that ƩL = 0 and ƩD = 0. This applies only when the survey forms a closed
polygon. The following are common methods of adjusting a Traverse:
• Bowditch‘s Method
• Transit Method
• Graphical Method
• Axis Method

Bowditch Method
• The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are
proportional to √l and
• That the errors in angular measurements are inversely proportional to √l, where l is the
length of any line
• The Bowditch‘s Rule, also termed as the Compass Rule, is mostly used to balance a
traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision.
• The total error in latitude , and in the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths
of the sides

The Bowditch‘s Rule is:

Correction to Latitude or Departure of any Side = (Total error in Latitude or Departure) x
Length of that Side / Perimeter of Traverse

Thus if CL = correction to latitude of any side

CD = correction to departure of any side

ƩL = total error in latitude

ƩD = total error in departure

Ʃl = length of the perimeter

l = length of any side

We have CL = ƩL. l/ Ʃl and CD = ƩD . l/ Ʃl

46
Transit Method
The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are more precise that the linear
measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is distributed
in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides. It is claimed that the angles are less
affected by corrections applied by the transit method than by those by Bowditch‘s method.

Graphical method:

as per above Figure 3.5(a), the polygon, ABCDEA‘ represents an unbalanced traverse having
closing error equal to e, AA‘ = e as the point A and last point A‘ are not coinciding.
The closing error AA‘ (e) is distributed linearly to all sides in proportion to their length by
graphical construction shown in as per above Figure (b) in which AB‘, B‘C, CD‘, LYE‘, E‘A‘
are the lengths of the sides of traverse AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA either to the same scale as per
above Figure Figure (a) or in reduced scale.
The ordinate A‘a is equal to the closing error AA‘ of Figure (a). Join Aa and drop
perpendiculars (or parallel lines of A‘a) E‘e, Lid, Cc, B‘b on line AA‘ as shown in as per above
Figure Figure (b).
Thus similar triangles are formed and corresponding error E‘e, D‘d, Cc, B‘b are obtained. as
per above Figure (c). EE‘, DD‘, CC and BB‘ are drawn a parallel of closing error AA‘. Then cut
EE‘ = E‘e, DD‘ = D‘d, CC = Cc and BB‘ = B‘b. Join AE, ED, DC, CB, and BA. The polygon

47
ABCDE so obtained in as per above Figure Figure (c) represents the adjusted traverse.

Figure 3.5

48
Degree of Accuracy in Traversing and errors of closure

49
 EXPERIMENT: 6

Name of the Experiment:

Study & sketch of various levelling instruments and carry out fly levelling by Rise & Fall method.

Levelling:
Levelling is a branch of surveying. The object of which is : (1) to find the elevations of given points
with respect to a given or assumed datum, and (2) to establish points at a given elevation or at
different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum. The first operation is required to enable
the works to be designed while the second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of
engineering works. Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

Terminology used in levelling:

Level Surface:
A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at the point. The surface of a still water is truly level surface.

Level Line:
A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the direction of gravity at all
points

Horizontal Plane:
Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at that point. It is, therefore,
perpendicular to the direction of gravity (plumb line) through the point.

Horizontal line:
50
It is straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also perpendicularto the plumb line.

Vertical Line:
It is a line perpendicular to the level line at a point. it is commonly considered to be the line defined by
a plumb line

Vertical angle:
Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane. Generally, one of these
lines is horizontal

Datum (Reference surface):

Elevation:
The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above or below the
assumed or given vertical datum. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical
distance between the two level surfaces in which the two pints lie.

Reduced level:
A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the assumed vertical datum.

An assumed datum:
Which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g. 0 or 100m) to which all levels
in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to assume a level which is close to the actual
MSL value, as it creates potential for confusion.

Mean Sea Level:

Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular place it is
derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19years.
51
Bench Mark:
Bench Mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some datum is
known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a pointupon which to close as a check.
Types of bench mark (refer fig 3)

Types of bench mark

Station:
In leveling, a station is that point where the levelling staff is held and not where level is set up. It is the
point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to be established at a given elevation.

Height of Instrument:
For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the elevation of line of sight with respect to the
assumed or given datum. it does not mean the height of the telescope above the ground where the level
stands.

Back Sight (B.S):

Back sight is the sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the
amount by which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of the instrument .
Back sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known elevation to the line of sight. It is
also known as a plus sight as the back sight reading is always added to the level of the bench mark to
get the height of the instrument. The object of the back sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the height of
the line of sight. Back sight is the first reading taken from given set up of the instrument

Fore Sight (F.S):

52
Fore sight is a sight taken on a levelling staff at a point of unknown elevation, to ascertain the
amount by which the point is below the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the
station. Fore sighting is equivalent to measuring down from line of the sight.It is also known as a
minus sight as the fore sight reading is always subtracted (except in special cases of tunnel survey)
from the height of the instrument to get the elevation of the point. The object of the sighting is,
therefore, to ascertain the elevation of the point. Fore sight is the last sight taken from a given set up
of the instrument.

Turning Point or Change Point (T.P or C.P):

Turning point or Change point is a point on which both minus sight and plus sight are taken on a line
of directl levels. The minus sight (fore sight) is taken on the point in one set of instrument to ascertain
the elevation of the point while the plus sight (back sight) is taken on the same point in the other set of
the instrument to establish the new height of the of instrument.

Intermediate sight: (I.S.):

Intermediate sight is the sight between back sight and fore sight or back sight and turning point or
between turning points in the same set up of the instrument.

Principle Methods of Levelling:

Barometric Levelling:
Barometric Levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation between two points is
proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be
used and the readings observed at the different points would yield a measure of the relative elevations
of those points. At a given point, the atmosphericpressure does not remain constant in the course of the

53
day, even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively in accurate and is little used in
surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory survey

Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect Levelling):

The difference in elevation between two points is determined by measuring distance (slope or
horizontal) and vertical angle.

V = S× sin α or V = H ×cot zΔelevation + r = hi + V

Δelevation = hi + V –r
HB = HA + hi + V -r

Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling):

In spirit levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances
between points are measured by taking difference of observed value on graduated rods place on the
points. The method is also known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining
elevations and one the mostcommonly used by engineers

Instrument used in Spirit (Direct Levelling):

54
Types of level used in spirit (direct) levelling:

55
Dumpy Level:

These are more basic levels often used in construction work. The telescope is rigidly attached to a
single bubble and the assembly is adjusted either by means of a screwed ball-joint or by foot screws
which are adjusted first in one direction, then at 90°.

Pictorial View with Parts Sectional View with Parts

Tilting Level:

This type of level is fitted with a circular bubble for preliminary approximate levelling and a main
bubble which is attached to the telescope. For each observation (not setup) the main bubble is viewed
through an eyepiece and the telescope tilted by a fine screw to bring the two ends of the bubble into
coincidence.

56
 Pictorial
view

Pictorial view with parts name

Auto Level:
This more modern type of level is now in general use. It has a optical compensator which consists of
an arrangement of three prisms. The two outer ones are attached to the barrel of the telescope. The
middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and reacts to gravity. The instrument is first levelled
approximately with a circular bubble; the compensator will then deviate the line of sight by the amount
that the telescope is out of level.

57
 • 1. Focusing screw
• 2. Eyepiece
• 3. Foot screw
• 4. Horizontal circle
• 5. Base plate
• 6. Tangent screw
• 7. Circular bubble
• 8. Collimator (sight)
• 9. Object lens

Optical compensator arrangements

Digital Level:
Digital levels are similar in appearance to automatic levels, a horizontal line is established by a
compensator and this is done by centralising a circular bubble with the foot screws. The main
difference between this and other levels is that the staff readings are taken and recorded automatically.
When levelling, a special bar-coded staff is sighted, and there is no need to sight this staff as the level
will do this automatically and display the measurement. It can also display the horizontal distance to
the staff. The advantages of digital levels are that observations are taken without the need to read a
58
staff or record anything by hand. Introducing this automation removes two of the most common errors
when levelling, reading the staff incorrectly and writing down the wrong value in the field book. The
on-board computer also calculates the heights required so that the possibility of making a mistake is
removed. This makes the digital level much faster to use.

General Features of the Receiving Units of digital level:

Optical layout:
Digital levels can be regarded as a fusion of a digital camera and automatic level. It has a telescope
with upright image and a compensator to stabilise the line-of-sight. Additionally a position sensor
coupled with the focus lens supplies rough distance information. This refers to the Leica instruments
only, the others operate without information of the focus position. A tilt sensor observes the
compensator position and a beam-splitter guides part of the light to the CCD sensor.

59
Basic optical design of today's digital levels Leica NA3003

Electronics:
The processor system is based on a microprocessor. For the complex computations needed for the
correlation and reference functions, it is supported by a gate array (LEICA). The detector-diode array
converts the bar-code image into an analog video signal of 256 intensity values

Signal Analysis and Image Processing Methods of Digital Levels:

The determination of the position by image processing is a combination of a radiometric processing
and the detection of the edges, i.e., the black-white transition of the code elements.

Data capture and processing:

Laser Level:
Laser levels contain a rotating laser which defines a visible horizontal plane from which distance to
the ground can be made and then the height can be determined.

60
Precise Level:
Precise level is the level to give precise reading. Precise reading means in the order of 1x10-4 or 10-5
m. Optical level converted into precise level by adding parallel plate micrometer. Digital level
converted into precise level by improving technology in bar coding pattern and digital camera.

Precise Optical Level:

61
Optical level is converted into precise optical level by adding parallel plate micrometer to read the
fractional part of staff reading in the order of 1x10-4 or 10-5 m. Auto level converted into precise auto
level by adding parallel plate micrometer. Parallel plate micrometer may be inbuilt with optical levels.

ParallelPlate Micrometer:
Optically flat glass with parallel faces which can rotate. Rotation of plate causes parallel shift of line
of collimation (5-10mm).Micrometer drum controlling rotation graduated evenly. Micrometer must be
compatible with staves.

62
Levelling Staff:

A leveling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff representing zero
reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of sight. The purpose of the levelling
staff is to determine the amount by which the station (i.e., foot of the staff) is above or below the line of
sight. Refer fig.7 for the Classification of levelling staff

Self-Reading Staff: A self-reading staff is the one which can be read directly by the instrumentman
through the telescope.

Solid Staff:

Solid or The one length staff is solid and made of seasoned

timber. It is 3 m long and graduated in the same way as
the telescopic staff.

63
Folded:

This staff is made of well-seasoned timber, and is of width

75mm, thickness 18mm, and length 4m. It is divided into
two parts of length 2m having a locking arrangement. It
can be folded or detached when required. It is graduated
like the telescopic staff.

Telescopic (Sopwith pattern):

Such a staff is arranged in three lengths placed one into the other. It can be
extended to its full length by pulling. The top portion is solid and of length
1.25m, the central box portion is hollow and of length 1.25m, and the bottom
box portion is hollow and 1.5m long. The total length of staff is 4.0m the top
portions are held in the vertical position by a brass spring catcher. The staff
is graduated in such a way that the smallest division is of 5mm. The values in
meters are marked in red on the left and those in decimeters are marked in
black on the right.

Invar:

The invar staff is also 3 m long. An invar band is fitted to

a wooden staff. The band is graduated in millimetres. It is
used for precise levelling work.

Bar coded staff:

This is a special type of staff, used with digital level.

64
Metric or non-metric invar special type of staff:

It is used with precise optical level for precise levelling. It

consists of two scalemain scale and check scale

Target Staff:
The target staff consists of a movabletarget. The target is
provided with a vernier to give precise reading, In target
staff level man directs the staff man to move the target up
and down until center line of the target coincides with the
collimation hair. The staff man observes the staff
reading. This staff is used for long sightings and high
precision work.

Booking and Reduction methods:

65
66
Different types of spirit levelling:
Longitudinal or Profile levelling:
Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured intervals
along a fixed line such as the center line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer. The fixed line
may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines or of a
series of straight lines connected by curves. It is also known as longitudinal sectioning
levelling. By means of such sections the engineer is enabled to study the relationship between
the existing ground surface and the levels of the proposed construction in the direction of its
length. The profile is usually plotted on specially prepared profile paper,
on which the vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal, and on this profile, various
studies relating to the fixing of grades and the estimating of costs are made.

Field procedure:

Field notes/observation and graph for Profile leveling:

Formation level based on profile leveling:
 EXPERIMENT: 7
Name of the Experiment:
Profile levelling for determination of gradient and cross section by Height of Instrument
method

Content available on the experiment no 6

 EXPERIMENT: 8
Name of the Experiment:
Study & sketch of Total Station and measurement of angle, distance & coordinates between
two stations
Total Station:
It is a light weight, compact and fully integrated electronic instrument combining the capability
of an EDM and an angular measuring instrument such as wild theodolite. It can perform the
following functions.

o Distance measurement
o Angular measurement
o Data processing
o Digital display of point details
o Storing data is an electronic field book

Parts of Total Station:

 Fig. 5.1: Parts of total station

Use of Total Station:

The instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling screws. Within a
small range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and
horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set required
units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement
mode like fine, coarse, single or repeated. When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles
as well as sloping distances are measured and by pressing appropriate keys they are recorded
along with point number. Heights of instrument and targets can be keyed in after measuring
them with tapes. Then processor computes various information about the point and displays on
screen. This information is also stored in the electronic note book. At the end of the day or
whenever electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to computers. The
point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There is software
like auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with Auto cad which can be used for plotting contours at
any specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.

Distance measurement:
When a distance is measured with a total station, am electromagnetic wave or pulse is used for
the measurement – this is propagated through the atmosphere from the instrument to reflector or
target and back during the measurement. Distances are measured using two methods.
  The phase shift method
 The pulsed laser method.

Phase shift method:

This technique uses continuous electromagnetic waves for distance measurement. Although
these are complex in nature, electromagnetic waves can be represented in their simplest from as
periodic waves. The wave completes a cycle when moving between identical points on the wave
and the number of times in one second the wave completes the cycle is called the frequency of
the wave. The speed of the wave is then used to estimate the distance.

Fig. 5.2: Phase shifting

Pulsed laser distance measurement:

In many total stations, distances are obtained by measuring the time taken for a pulse of laser
radiation to travel from the instrument to a prism (or target) and back. As in the phase shift
method, the pulses are derived an infrared or visible laser diode and they are transmitted
through the telescope towards the remote end of the distance being measured, where they are
reflected and returned to the instrument.
Since the velocity v of the pulses can be accurately determined, the distance D can be obtained
using 2D = vt, where t is the time taken for a single pulse to travel from instrument – target –
instrument. This is also known as the timed-pulse or time-of-flight measurement technique.

Slope and horizontal distances:

Both the phase shift and pulsed laser methods will measure a slope distance L from the total
station along the line of sight to a reflector or target. For most surveys the horizontal distance D
is required as well as the vertical component V of the slope distance.
Horizontal distance D = L cos_ = L sin z
Vertical distance = V = L sin_ = L cos z
Where _ is the vertical angle and z is the is the zenith angle. As far as the user is concerned,
these calculations are seldom done because the total station will either display D and V
automatically or will display L first and then D and V after pressing buttons.
 Fig. 58.3: Slope and horizontal distance measurement

Components Used in Total Station Surveying:

 Total Station Instrument

 Tripod Stand
 Electronic Notebook
 Prism P
 Prism pole
 Computer interface
 Batteries

Angle measurement with total station:

The angle measurement system of the total station in similar to that of an electronic theodolite,
the dynamic angle-measuring system used in the total station makes use of a large number of
graduation for each reading of the angle on Horizontal or Vertical circle of the instrument. This
helps to eliminate as for as possible the effects of graduation errors. And the other parameters
like horizontal distance, co-ordinates, levels etc. are also calculated automatically and
displayed digitally. The display may be alphanumeric and graphic as well. A number of
trigonometrical functions and setting out parameters can also be performed. Initial setting
parameters like bearing of a line, co-ordinates and height of the station occupied, the height of
instrument and that of the reflector height needs to be input in the instrument memory before
starting the actual measurement. It can also be used in trekking mode for continuous
measurement on a moving reflector for setting out points of interest.

Advantages of Using Total Stations:

The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional
surveying instruments:
  Field work is carried out very fast.
 Accuracy of measurement is high.
 Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
 Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature
and pressure are automatically made.
 Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections.
Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.
 Relatively quick collection of information
 Multiple surveys can be performed at one set-up location.
 Easy to perform distance and horizontal measurements with simultaneous calculation of
project coordinates (Northings, Eastings, and Elevations).
 Layout of construction site quickly and efficiently.
 Digital design data from CAD programs can be uploaded to data collector.
 Daily survey information can also be quickly downloaded into CAD which eliminates
data manipulation time required using conventional survey techniques.

Disadvantages of Total Station Surveying:

 Vertical elevation accuracy not as accurate as using conventional survey level and rod
technique.
 Horizontal coordinates are calculated on a rectangular grid system. However, the real
world should be based on a spheroid and rectangular coordinates must be transformed
to geographic coordinates if projects are large scale.
 Examples: highways, large buildings, etc.
 As with any computer-based application ―Garbage in equals Garbage out‖. However, in
the case of inaccurate construction surveys ―Garbage in equals lawsuits and contractors
claims for extras.‖

Aim: -Study of Total Station (TOPCON)

Instruments: - (1) Total Station (TOPCON)

Model No. GTS 211 D
Make – TOPCON
Made in Japan

Least Count: 1″ (Angular), 1 mm (Linear)

Accuracy: ± (3mm +2 ppm) Linear, 3″ Angular
Range: 1200 m with single prism, 1800 m with three prisms

Storage capacity: 2000 stations

Digital display on both the sides up to 9 digits

Theory: It is a combination of linear measuring instrument as EDM, Angular measuring

as Electronic Theodolite, programmed calculator for calculating coordinates (EN
& Z), Data storage device in its internal memory & data communication devices
 Fig. 5.4: TOPCON Total Station
Working Steps: -

(i) Centering & leveling of the instrument at known point

(ii) Switch on the power switch of the instrument (Topcon)
(iii) Initiate the instrument by rotating the telescope
(iv) Collimate the telescope toward the prism at known station.
(v) Input Instrument station data:

(a) Press co-ordinate mode key

(b) Press F4 to bring page 2
(c) Press F3 as OCC to input co-ordinate of instrument station.
As E:
N:
RL (Z):
(d) Press F4 as page 2
Press F2 asINS.HT to input Instrument station height.

(e) Press F4 as page 2

Press F1 as Reflector Ht and Input Ref Ht.

(vi)Press Ang to make the instrument normal mode working.

(vii)
Collimate Back-sight station
(viii)
Input the bearing of Instrument to back sight by pressing F3 as HSET and enter
required bearing by ( F1 as Input & select numerals to Input required bearing.)
To Get Output:-

(A) Press ( Distance meas. Key) to get HR - Bearing

 HD - (Horizontal Ditt.)
VD - Vertical Ditt.
(B) Press again to get V - Vertical Angle
HR - Bearing
SD - Slope Distance

(C) Press (Coordinate Meas. Key) to get E - Easting

N - Northing
Z - Reduced Level

(D) Press Ang for normal mode.

Collimate next station and change Reflector Height (If required)

and Repeat (A), (B), (C) & D to get output.

Working with Topcon in Internal Memory: -

Press Menu Key to get difference functions of Topcon as:-

Menu 1/3
F1 : Data Collect
F2 : Layout
F3 : Memory Manager
P

F1 F2 F3 F4

F4 as next page (2/3)

Menu 2/3
F1 : Program
F2 : Grid Factor
F3 : Illumination
P

F1 F2 F3 F4

F4 as next page (3/3)

Menu 3/3
F1: Parameters 1

F2: Contrast Adj

Data collect in internal memory: P

Press F1 as Data Collect and

 Data Collect 1/3 Input Station No.-
Pt. No. Identification of Stn.
ID. Instrument Height
Inst. Ht. OCNEZ by scroll keys and function keys.
F4

Press F4 and F3 as NEZ,

Input E –
N–
Z –
and Enter

ESC ESC

Press F2 as Back sight

Input BS No. –
P. Code No. –
Reflector Height –
and Enter

Press F4 as BS

Press F3 as NEZ/AZ
and Input N, E, Z or Bearing of Back sight station.

Press F3 as Measure and F2 as HD to get

HR:
HD:
VD:

If required Rec ? Yes to store the data

Press F3 as NEZ to get

Easting
Northing
& Reduced level

If required Rec ? Yes to store the data.

Collimate next station and

 Press F3 as FS/SS

Input Stn. No.

P. Code
& Reflector Ht.

Press F3 as Meas and F3 as NEZ to get co-ordinate

F2 as HD to get Distance & Bearing
Repeat the process for next station.

Working in Layout Parameter

In this parameter the instrument will help to locate the station on ground if Coordinate of
the stations are given.

Steps are as follow:-

Centring of the Instrument at known station.

Press Menu

Press F2 as layout

Press F1 as Instrument Station

and input the value of Inst. Station No. & E
N of Inst. station
Z

Collimate back sight station

Press F2 as back sight

Input back sight station No. and E

N of back sight station
Z
Press F3 as layout

Press F2 as list and explore station No. to be located using scroll key.

Press F1 as view to see & check the co-ordinates of required station.

Press Enter and Input Reflector height if required, we will get calculated bearing &
distance of the station to be located with respect to Instrument station.

Press Enter and Press F1 as Angle to get angular deviation as dHR of the line of
telescope. Make dHR as 0o 00′ 00″ and instruct the prism man to move the prism and keep it in
the line of telescope.
 Press F2 as Dist ,the instrument will measure the present distance and gives HD and
dHD as difference in distance. If dHD is ( - ) ve then instruct the prism man to move away to the
instrument depending upon the magnitude of ( - ve) distance. If dHD is (+) ve then instruct the
prism man to move towards the instrument but in same orientation.
If dHR and dHD both are 0 (zero) then fix that point as layed out.

Repeat the process as above by clicking Next for other stations.

Press F3 as NEZ to input the new coordinate of the station and its name to be layed out.

Working in Program Parameter:-

In this parameter the instrument will give Area, Remote Elevation, Missing Line and RL
of the remote points from the file data or new measurements.

Steps are as follow:

For Remote Elevation Measurements:-

Menu F4 as page2 F1 as program

Program
F1 : REM
F2 : MLM
F3 : Z Coordinate
P

Press F1 as REM

F1 as INPUT Ref. Height (Collimate the Ref. near the object whose
Elevation is required)
F2 as NO Ref. Height

Case I Enter prism Height and Press F1 as Measure.

Press F4 as Set then collimate the point whose Height is required and get the height on monitor.

Case II
Press F2 as NO Ref. Height
Press F1 as Measure
Collimate the bottom of the object and Press F4 as set then collimate Top
of the object and Press F4 as set.
Height of the object will be on the monitor.
For Missing Line Measurement:

Menu F4 as Page 2 F2 as MLM

Case I F1 : Use file

F2 : Don‘t use file

F1 as Use file

F1: as Use G.F

F2: Don‘t use F1: MLM – 1 ( A – B, A – C, A – D)

F2: MLM – 2 (A – B, B – C, C – D)

F1 as Meas. (After Collimation of first point as A) and Press

F4 as set

Collimate next station as B and Press F1 as Meas. then F4 as

Set to get
dHD :Horz. Dist between A & B

dVD :Level Diff between A & B.

Collimate next station as ‗C‘ and Press F3 as HD

Press F4 as set to get

dHD :Horz. Dist between A & C

dVD :Level Diff between A & C.

and Repeat as above for next station.

For Area Calculation:-

Case – I Menu F4 as page 2 F4 as page 2 F1 as Area

F1 : as File Data

F2 : as Measurement

INPUT File Name or explore from list (F2) and Enter

 Press Next (F4) by seeing the required points from list.

Area will be on Monitor after entry 3 points or more.

Case – II
Press F2 as Measurement
Press F1 as Meas. after collimation of first point.
Collimate the next points and
Press F1 as Meas.
Repeat the steps up to the total points of the Polygon.
Area will be displayed on Monitor when more than 3 points measured.

Instruments:- Total Station (Sokkia)

Model No. SET 550
Make – Sokkia, Made in Japan

Least Count. 1″ (Angular), 1 mm (Linear)

Accuracy: ± (3mm +2 ppm) Linear, 3″ Angular
Range: 5000 m with single prism
Storage capacity: 10000 stations
Digital display on both the sides up to 9 digits

Theory: It is a combination of linear measuring instrument as EDM, Angular measuring

as Electronic Theodolite, programmed calculator for calculating coordinates (EN
& Z), Data storage device in its internal memory & data communication devices

Fig. 5.5 SOKKIA Total station

Working Steps:-
 Centering & leveling of the instrument at known point
 Switch on the power switch of the instrument (Topcon)
 Initiate the instrument by rotating the telescope
  Collimate the telescope toward the prism at known station.
 Input Instrument station data:
Basic Key Function:

Main Manu:

Measurement of Target Height:

 Set the Target Height from ―MEAS‖ > ―Menu‖ >

 ―Coordinate‖ > ―Station Orientation‖ > ―Station Coordinate‖
  Set the target height to the measured height of the mirror target. You do not have to fill
out the other fields for a REM measurement
 Press ―ESC‖ to return to the ―MEAS‖ menu
 Select the ―MEAS‖ > ―Menu‖ > ―REM‖, sight the mirror target, press [OBS] to
measure ―S‖, then [STOP]
 Sight the object above the target for height measurement
 Select [REM] and then [STOP]
 To re-shoot the mirror target use the [OBS] on the REM screen

Measurement with Two Survey Known Points:

 From the ―MEAS‖ menu

 Select [COORD] and then ―Stn. Orientation‖.
 Set the instrument coordinates with ―Stn. Coordinate‖
 and then select [OK] and return to ―Back-sight‖
 Select ―Coord‖ and then enter the back-sight target coordinates (NBS,
 EBS, ZBS) and select [OK]
 Sight in the target and inspect the ―Azimuth‖ (it should be reasonable for
 Your coordinate system).
 Select [YES] to calibrate.

Data down load from TOPCON to PC

Connect Data transfer cable from Topcon port to COM 1 of PC

Switch on Topcon
Initiate Topcon
Press Menu
Press F3 as Memory Manager
Press F4 as Page 2
Press F4 as Page 3
Press F1 as Data transfer
Press F1 as send data
Press F1 as list to select required file name to be down loaded. Use scroll key ( ) to
select file name.
Press F4 as Enter for selected file
Open Topcon software on PC

Click on ‗COMN‘ as up tools

Click on download
Check for communication parameters as Boud rate, Charity/Parity on PC and Topcon.

Click on GO

Press F3 as yes on Topcon

Data will be down loaded to PC

Click on OK on text files as *. gt6

data will be saved on C drive by default.

Click on save and enter file name for the above data, as ABC

Open Micro soft Excel

Open file as ABC data will be saved in Excel.

Name of the Experiment: Detailed surveying and contouring with Total Station

Instrument: Leica Total Station (TS15)

Software: SURPAC 6.5

Total Station in the combination of an Electronic distance meter, electronic theodolite and a
programmed calculator and may be said to be an electronic tachometer theodolite.
 Fig 5.6: Leica Total Station

Specification: Accuracy Hz, V 1‘‘

Display resolution 0.1‘‘
Compensator setting accuracy 0.5‘‘
Range 5000m with Prism
Range 1000m Reflectorless

Salient Features:

 Dynamic angle Scanning System ensures highest measuring accuracy.

 With standard telescope.
 Two axis compensators automatically determine and corrects standing axis tilt.
 The data can be recorded and stored in a Card or Internal memory of the instrument, and can be
downloaded to or up loaded from a computer. The data is recorded in a format compatible to
Software programme and computer evaluation of the data, so that the output can be obtained in
desired usable form.
 Online control by computer
 Total Station can be operated with a multi-function Keyboard, which is associated with a display
screen which in some cases is giving a graphic display also.
 Built-in Co-ordinate geometry functions for ancillary calculation.
 For Special applications, compensator and corrective computations can be switched off.
Method: The Horizontal distance and horizontal & vertical angles to target are measured
automatically at a push of button. Conversion into rectangular coordinate as X, Y, Z i.e.
Easting, Northing and Reduced Level.

Observation:

A number of functions, settings and adjustments to set up the Total Station for specific tasks. Co-
ordinates, height, and horizontal direction (angle) of instrument stations can be stored in the theodolite
and are then available as station co-ordinates for the next traverse stations.

Procedure for observation by Total Station: -

(1) Data Collection for Reference Line and Occupied Station Point

Every Back-Sight Observation here required input data or Set Data in the Total Station at the
occupied instrument station or traverse survey started from any survey point or any point of
survey work are given below:

(1) HR = Reference Line Back Bearing or known Back Bearing of the Line BA = 3000 30‘
45‘‘

(2) Occupied Survey Point B

A C

E = 992.144 m

N = 2004.630 m

Z = RL =249.471 m

B E = 1000.000 m

N = 2000.000 m

Z = RL = 250.000 m

(3) Co-ordinate at the instrument station B

 Easting = E = 1000.000 m
 Northing = N = 2000.000 m
  Reduced level =RL= 250.000m

(4) Instrument Height = INSHT = 1.500 m

(5) Height of Reflector or Prism = R. HT = 1.450 m

(2) PREPARATION FOR MEASUREMENT:

By putting prism on standard pole and moving on the survey stations in that vicinity E, N, Z
determined in total station accordingly saved in the job created earlier.

Precaution:

1. Once the centering and leveling is complete the instrument should not be disturbed.

2. The instrument should be handled with care.

3. The telescope must be activated before feeding reading.

4. Before switching off the systems, all files opened must be closed.

5. The instrument should not be disturbed after collimation of the instrument with the prism is
completed.
 EXPERIMENT: 9
Name of the Experiment:

Traversing with Total Station

Content available on experiments no 5 & 8

 EXPERIMENT: 10
Name of the Experiment:

Setting out simple circular curve by Rankine’s method using Theodolite & Tape or
Total Station

Apparatus:
 Theodolite or Total Station
 Ranging pole
 Ranging rod
 10 pegs
 Fiber glass tape
 Mallet

Least count of instruments:

Least count of theodolite = 00°00‘01‘‘
Least count of fiber glass tape = 1mm

Related Theory
Simple circular curve:
A simple circular curve is defined as a Horizontal curve comprised of a single arc with a
constant radius connecting the two tangents. It is the most commonly used horizontal curve. Its
practical example is a simple arc provided in the road or railway track to impose a curve
between two straight lines.
Point of curvature:
The location of the curve‘s starting point is allocated as the point of curvature represented by
―P1―.

Point of tangency:
The location of the endpoint of the curve is allocated as the point of tangency represented by
―T2‖.
Point of intersection of the tangents:
The point of intersection of the tangents is the point where the two tangents intersect and this
point is also called the vertex.

Length of a tangent:
The length of a tangent starts from ―T1‖ to ―I‖ or from ―I‖ to ―T2‖.

Apex of a curve:
Apex is the distance from ―I‖ to the midpoint of the curve.

Versed sine of the curve:

Versed sine of the curve is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord.

Length of a chord:
The length of the chord is the displacement from ―T1‖ to ―T2―.

Length of curve:
The length of a curve is defined as the length from ―T1‖ to ―T2‖ is the curved distance between
the ends of the simple curve.
Degree of curve:
The central angle subtended by an arc or chord of one station is termed as the degree of curve.
It defines the sharpness of the curve i.e., the sharper the curve greater is the value of the degree
of the curve and vice versa.

Rankine’s Method:
Let AB and BC be two tangents intersecting at B having a deflection angle of φ. The tangent
lengths of AB and BC are calculated and points ―T1‖ and ―T2‖ are marked.

P1 = First point on the curve

T1P1 = l1 length of first chord (initial sub-chord)

δ1 = deflection angle of first chord

R = Radius of the curve

Δn = Total deflection for the chords

Here:

∠T1OP1 = 2 × ∠BT1P1 = 2 δ1

Chord T1P1 ~ Arc T1P1

∠T1OP1 / l1 = 360◦/(2πR)

2δ1 = 360◦/ (2π R)

2δ1 = (360◦× l1) / (2 × 2πR) degrees

δ1 = (360◦×60× l1) / (2 × 2πR) minutes

δ1 = (1718.9 × l1) /R minutes

Similarly:

δ2 = (1718.9 × l2) /R minutes

δ3 = (1718.9 × l3) /R minutes

Finally:

δn = (1718.9 × ln) /R minutes

When the degree of curve is given:

δ1 = (D × l1)/R degrees

δ2 = (D × l2)/R degrees

δn = (D × ln)/R degrees

Arithmetical check: δ1+ δ2+ δ3+……+ δn = Δ/2 =

Procedure:

 Insert a peg in the field with the help of a mallet.

 Center and level the theodolite over the peg.
 Take the distance from the peg (T1) to the last peg (T1) with the help of fiber glass tape.
 Insert the ranging rod at point T2.
 By bisecting the rod at T2, set the angle 00°00‘00‘‘ on the theodolite.
 Move the theodolite horizontally so that angle becomes φ/2.
 Set the tangent T1 at this angle with the help of fiber glass tape and insert the rod at this point
(I) and that point is called the intersection point.
 Set the theodolite angle 00°00‘00‖ at this point I and move the theodolite horizontally
according to the deflection angle of the initial sub-chord, in the direction towards T2.
 Place a peg at l1 distance from the T1 i.e., initial sub-chord at the deflection angle sighted by
the theodolite.
 After this, set full chords according to their deflection angle.
 The remaining distance from P8 to T2 is a final sub-chord.

Observations & Calculations:

Data:

R = (m)

φ = (degrees)

Chainage of I = (m)

Peg Interval = (m)

Design:

Length of initial sub chord = = (m)

Length of full chord = = (m)

Length of final sub chord = = (m)

Deflection angle of
Deflection angle of =

Deflection angle of

Curve Length = = (m)

Length of Chord = 2R Sin (φ/2) = (m)

Tangent Length = R Tan (φ/2) = (m)

Discussion & Results:

Applying arithmetic check:

Sum of all deflection angles = ∑δ = φ/2

Precautions:

 Theodolite should be adjusted and levelled properly and tightly clamped for precise
readings.
 Cover theodolite with umbrella to protect it from direct sunlight and rain.
 Helmet, closed-toe shoes and safety vests must be worn by all field workers.
 Pegs should be laid vertically by mallet into the ground.
 Experiment: 11
Name of the Experiment:

Study & sketch of GPS, DGPS & GNSS and field data collection Instruments:
1. GPS Base Sensor Model No. SR 510
2. GPS Rover Sensor Model No. SR 510
3. Antenna
4. Antenna Transfer Cable
5. Terminal
6. Battery
7. Tripod
8. Roving Pole
9. Base (Tribrach)
10. Antenna Pole Stud
11. Height Hook

Fig. 9.1 DGPS SR 510

Principle:

Global Positioning System gives the location of the GPS Base or GPS Rover Antenna point in term of
Geodetic Co-ordinates or Cartesian Co-ordinates with the help of satellites signals orbiting the earth in
different orbits.

The system works on three basic segments:

I. Space Segment
II. Control Segment
III. User Segment

I. Space – Segment: Space Segment contains 32 Satellites orbiting in 6 orbits with 12 hours orbit period.
All the Satellites are more than 22000 km far from earth surface. Satellites have atomic clocks which
measure the time very precisely in the fraction of 10- 9 sec; the atomic clocks control the GPS signals
which have frequency of 10.23 MHz very accurately. Frequencies are modulated in two codes: -
 (a) Precision code: - For defense purpose
(b) Coarse Acquisition code: - For Civilian

II. Control – Segment: The control segment has a Master control station located near

Colorado Springs in the US and a number of tracking stations around the world. The control system has
following functions: -

(a) Monitoring the satellite transmission continuously and accurately,

(b) Positioning the satellite for next 1 hour, based on extrapolation of their path,
(c) Updating the navigation message periodically, and
(d) Calibrating the satellite clocks.

III. User – Segment: The user segment comprises of the total user community who observe and record
the transmissions of the GPS satellite and obtain the receiver‘s antenna position, velocity and time by
using solution algorithms. The receiver receives the satellite signals and obtain its real time position for
navigation purpose or more accurate for geodetic surveying by observing over a certain time.

Thus, simultaneous working of all three segments, a coded messages (signals) transmitted by satellites
reach to the receiver with respect to time gapping.

The speed of the signal (radio waves) is constant as C i.e 3 x 108 m/s:

Distance is being measured by signal in between user receiver and satellite by following ways:-

Distance = time x speed

Or D= TC where T = Time taken by signal from satellite to Receiver.

C = speed of the signal as 3 x 108 m/s

By getting the distances with respect to minimum four nos. of satellite and intersecting all distance arc‘s,
an unique point will be determine on earth‘s surface that is receiver‘s station. Since all the bodies as
satellites and earth are moving the navigated data has some error. To minimize this error observation
time should be more as preferably 1 hour and the data should be processed with a processing software
(Ski Pro) to minimize the ambiguities.

Observation: There are two basic classification of GPS Data observation

 (i) GPS field work which gives navigated point position of receiver station.
(ii) GPS Data downloading and processing which gives the accurate position value in mm
accuracy.

Working steps for DGPS field work: -

(i) Set the tripod, tribrach, Antenna carrier, Antenna, Antenna cable, GPS Sensor, Terminal,
battery etc. at the survey station.
(ii) Switch on the Terminal (wait up to main menu)
(iii) Click on survey as F1
(iv) Press F1 as New Job.

Job Name :-

Creator :-

Description:-

(v) Press F1 as Cont

(vi) Press F1 as Survey

Enter Configuration set -

Job name -

Coordinate system -

(vii) Press F1 as Cont

Enter Point I D :

Antenna Height:

(viii) Wait upto GDOP < 8

(ix) Press F1 as Occupy

Data will be stored in sensor

Uses of other functions keys as:-

 F7: Satellite status: as example

Satellite No. Orientation Elevation Azimuth

21 72 27

18 48 324

07 38 110

15 32 327

22 38 298

06 28 186

F3: Sky Status

F4: Health Status

F8: Stop & go Indication

F9: Position Status: as Example

Lat: 230 48‘ 58.89493‘N

Long: 860 26‘25.70666‘ E

E Height: 195.008 m

F 2: Cartesian coordinate as

X= 362801.443m

Y= 5827169.694m

Z= 2559635.307m

HDOP = 1.4

VDOP = 2.2

F10: Battery and Memory Status

(ix) Press F1 : as stop

(x) Press F1 : as store
 (xi) Press ESC (To terminate the survey work)
(xii) Press OK
(xiii) Switch off From Terminal.
The above steps for both the sensors as Base Station and Rover Station. Firstly, the Base Station
sensor at known Station should be switched on and follow up to step No. IX

Data Collection will be made in Rover sensor in following ways: -

(i) Static: This process may be adopted to measure a longer baseline and time of observation
should be more than 1 hour for better accuracy.

(ii) Rapid Static This process may be adopted for base lines less than 20 km and observation
time may be half an hour.

(iii) Kinematics: This process may be adopted to get a path as Road, Railway line, River side etc.
For observation time at first station for few minutes and move continuously on the path

(iv) Stop & Go Method: This process may be adopted to know the surface features of the
surveyed area. During observation move on the path continuously and to plot the features
stay there for few seconds.

Finally switch off the Rover sensor first then the Base sensor.

Table: Satellite Status

Stn. Satellite Orientation Azimuth Bearing Noise Quality Time Remarks

No. No. Ratio Index

EXPERIMENT : 12
Name of the Experiment:

Downloading the field data from Total Station, GPS, DGPS & GNSS and preparation of plan
with field data.

Downloading the data from TOPCON GTS 211D to PC

Connect Data transfer cable from Topcon port to COM 1 of PC

Switch on Topcon
Initiate Topcon
Press Menu
Press F3 as Memory Manager
Press F4 as Page 2
Press F4 as Page 3
Press F1 as Data transfer
Press F1 as send data
Press F1 as list to select required file name to be down loaded. Use scroll key ( ) to
select file name.
Press F4 as Enter for selected file

Open Topcon software on PC

Click on ‗COMN‘ as up tools

Click on download
Check for communication parameters as Boud rate, Charity/Parity on PC and Topcon.

Click on GO

Press F3 as yes on Topcon

Data will be down loaded to PC

Click on OK on text files as *. gt6

data will be saved on C drive by default.

Click on save and enter file name for the above data, as ABC

Open Micro soft Excel

Open file as ABC data will be saved in Excel.

Downloading the data from SOKKIA SET X to Pen Drive:

 Switch on the instrument and fix the pen-drive or card.

 Press program bottom.
  Press function.
 Press COM
 Press COM
 Check the file should be Yes.
 Function control then enter.
 Data format in Delimited text.
 Click send.
 Select Job
 Choose Job and make it Yes.
 Press enter, after complete the download then click Ok.
 Double click in removal disk / storage card.
 Input the Job name, then .txt
 Now click OK
 Then the down lording is complete

Downloading the data from SOKKIA SET X to Computer:

 Open SOKKIA link

 New Project or exiting project
 Go to data.
 Total station
 Point N,E,Z code (coma)
 Open data.
 Choose down load file and open it
 Click on Drawing then OK
 File
 DXF file
 Save the DXF file then OK
 Choose the destination folder and input the file name then OK.
 Now close the SOKKIA link.

Preparation of grid and plotting the field data

Field Data Plotting with LIS CAD Software
Plotting of .sdr File:
 Go to file and click on New
 Browse the folder where data is stored
 Give the file name and click on ok
 Go to Task and Click on Field Transfer
 Go to Resolve and Click on Create Field File
 Select .sdr file and click on ok
 Select the Device (Sokkia SDR33) and click on ok
 Go to Resolve and click on Reduce Field File
 Select .fld file and click on ok
 Close lis CAD report window and click on yes
 Go to display and Select the parameter as required and click on ok

Plotting of .csv File:

 Go to File and click on New
 Browse the folder where data is stored
 Give the file name and click on ok
 Go to Task and Click on Field Transfer
 Go to Resolve Click on Create Field File
 Select .csv file and click on ok
 Select the Device (Custom csv) and click on ok
 Go to resolve and click on Reduce Field File then Select .fld file and click on ok
 Close lis CAD report window click on yes
 Again Close lis CAD report window
 Go to display and Select the parameter as required then click on ok.

Plotting of .str File:

 Go to File click on New

 Browse the folder where data is stored
 Give the file name and click on ok
 Go to Task click on Data Conversion
  Go to Import click on Add/Remove
 Select Surpac and click on Add
 Close the window
 Go to import click on Surpac
 Select .str file and click on ok.

Create Plot File and Preparation of Grid:

 Display the data
 Go to task click on CAD output
 Go to Setting click on Grid
 Give value of East & North interval
 Go to Setting click on CAD System
 Lis CAD CAD for Windows
 Go to output click on fit
 Give required Scale
 Select paper then click on option and
 Tick (√) on grid and then click on ok and ok.

Create DTM & Contour

 Plot the data
 Go to Task click on Terrain Modeling
 Go to Modeling click on Form Modeling
 Give model name and click on ok and ok
 Go to Display click on Feature
 Then click on Model and
 Tick (√) on Triangle, Contour, Values, & Display along contour and click on ok.