Ultrasonic inspection

Ref: ASM HAND BOOK, VOL :17

Dr B N SARADA
 Ultrasonic inspection
• Introduction
• Basic equipment
• Characteristics of ultrasonic waves
• Variables inspection,
• Inspection methods
• Pulse echo A,B,C scans transmission
• Resonance techniques,
• Transducer elements couplets,
• Search units,
• Contact types and immersion types inspection standards-
• Standard reference blocks.
 Introduction
• ULTRASONIC INSPECTION is a nondestructive method in which
beams of high-frequency sound waves are introduced into
materials for the detection of surface and subsurface flaws in the
material.
• The sound waves travel through the material with some attendant
loss of energy (attenuation) and are reflected at interfaces.
• The reflected beam is displayed and then analyzed to define the
presence and location of flaws or discontinuities.
• Cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities,, flakes, pores, and other
discontinuities that produce reflective interfaces can be easily
detected.
• Inclusions and other in-homogeneities can also be detected by
causing partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves or
by producing some other detectable effect on the ultrasonic
waves.
 Introduction
Most ultrasonic inspection instruments detect flaws by
monitoring one or more of the following:
• Reflection of sound from interfaces consisting of
material boundaries or discontinuities within the metal
itself.
• Time of transit of a sound wave through the test piece
from the entrance point at the transducer to the exit
point at the transducer.
• Attenuation of sound waves by absorption and
scattering within the test piece.
• Features in the spectral response for either a
transmitted or a reflected signal.
 Basic Equipment
Most ultrasonic inspection systems include the following
basic equipment:
• An electronic signal generator that produces alternating
voltage (a negative spike or a square wave) when
electronically triggered.
• A transducer that emits a beam of ultrasonic waves when
bursts of alternating voltage are applied to it.
• A couplant to transfer energy in the beam of ultrasonic
waves to the test piece
• A couplant to transfer the output of ultrasonic waves
(acoustic energy) from the testpiece to the transducer
• A transducer to accept and convert the output of
ultrasonic waves from the testpiece to corresponding
bursts of alternating voltage. In most systems, a single
transducer alternately acts as sender and receiver.
 Basic Equipment
• An electronic device to amplify and, if necessary, demodulate
or otherwise modify the signals from the transducer.

• A display or indicating device to characterize or record the

output from the testpiece. The display device may be a CRT,
sometimes referred to as an oscilloscope; a chart or strip
recorder; a marker, indicator, or alarm device; or a computer
printout.

• An electronic clock, or timer, to control the operation of the

various components of the system, to serve as a primary
reference point, and to provide coordination for the entire
system.
 Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection
• The frequency of the ultrasonic waves used affects inspection
capability in several ways. It affects Sensitivity, Resolution,
Penetration, and Beam spread.
• Sensitivity, or the ability of an ultrasonic inspection system to
detect a very small discontinuity, is generally increased by using
relatively high frequencies (short wavelengths).
• Resolution, or the ability of the system to give simultaneous,
separate indications from discontinuities that are close together
both in depth below the front surface of the testpiece and in lateral
position. It is directly proportional to frequency and inversely
related to pulse length. Resolution generally improves with an
increase of frequency.
• Penetration, or the maximum depth (range) in a material from
which useful indications can be detected, is reduced by the use of
high frequencies.
• Beam spread, or the divergence of an ultrasonic beam from the
central axis of the beam, is also affected by frequency. As frequency
decreases, the shape of an ultrasonic beam increasingly departs
from the ideal of zero beam spread.
 Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection
• Acoustic Impedance.
• When ultrasonic waves traveling through one medium impinge on the
boundary of a second medium, a portion of the incident acoustic energy is
reflected back from the boundary while the remaining energy is
transmitted into the second medium.
• The characteristic that determines the amount of reflection is the acoustic
impedance of the two materials on either side of the boundary. If the
impedances of the two materials are equal, there will be no reflection;
• If the impedances differ greatly (as between a metal and air, for example),
there will be virtually complete reflection.
• This characteristic is used in the ultrasonic inspection of metals to
calculate the amounts of energy reflected and transmitted at impedance
discontinuities and to aid in the selection of suitable materials for the
effective transfer of acoustic energy between components in ultrasonic
inspection systems.
• The acoustic impedance for a longitudinal wave, Zl , given in grams per
square centimeter-second, is defined as the product of material density, ,
given in grams per cubic centimeter, and longitudinal wave velocity, Vl,
given in centimeters per second:
• Zl =ρ Vl
 Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection
• Angle of Incidence. Only when an ultrasonic wave is incident at
right angles on an interface between two materials (normal
incidence or angle of incidence = 0°) do transmission and
reflection occur at the interface without any change in beam
direction.

• At any other angle of incidence, the phenomena of mode

conversion (a change in the nature of the wave motion) and
refraction (a change in direction of wave propagation) must be
considered.

• The changes that occur at the interface depends on the angle of

incidence and the velocity of the ultrasonic waves leaving the
point of impingement on the interface.
 Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection
• Critical Angles. If the angle of incidence α , is small, sound waves
propagating in a given medium may undergo mode conversion (a
change in the nature of the wave motion) at a boundary, resulting in
the simultaneous propagation of longitudinal (β)and transverse(t
shear) waves in a second medium.
• If the angle is increased, the direction of the refracted longitudinal
wave will approach the plane of the boundary (90°). At some specific
value of α, refracted wave will exactly equal 90°, above which the
refracted longitudinal wave will no longer propagate in the material,
leaving only a refracted (mode-converted) shear wave to propagate
in the second medium. This value of α is known as the first critical
angle.
• If α is increased beyond the first critical angle, the direction of the
refracted shear wave will approach the plane of the boundary ( t=
90°). At a second specific value of α, t will exactly equal 90°, above
which the refracted transverse wave will no longer propagate in the
material. This second value of l is called the second critical angle.
The maximum angle of incidence at an interface between two
dissimilar materials which will permit the existence of a refracted
wave of a given mode and finite amplitude.
A critical angle is an angle of incidence at an interface between two
dissimilar materials beyond which a new mode appears in the
refracted beam and the existing one vanishes.
for Perspex on steel: angle of incidence 27-1/2 ° compressional
wave mode vanishes and is replaced by shear wave. Transition
from shear waves to surface waves, angle of incidence 58° approx.
(depending on characteristics of Perspex
 Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection
• Beam Intensity. The intensity of an ultrasonic beam is
related to the amplitude of particle vibrations.
• Acoustic pressure (sound pressure) is the term most
often used to denote the amplitude of alternating
stresses exerted on a material by a propagating
ultrasonic wave.
• Acoustic pressure is directly proportional to the
product of acoustic impedance and amplitude of
particle motion.
• Acoustic pressure is the most important property of an
ultrasonic wave, and its square determines the amount
of energy (acoustic power) in the wave.
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the form
of a wave.
• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the
particles that make up the material.
• The pitch of the sound
is determined by the
frequency of the wave
(vibrations or cycles
completed in a certain
period of time).
• Ultrasound is sound
with a pitch too high
to be detected by the
human ear.
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Ultras that consist of oscillations or vibrations
of the atomic or molecular particles of a
substance about the equilibrium positions of
these particles.
• Ultrasonic waves behave essentially the same
as audible sound waves.
• They can propagate in an elastic medium,
which can be solid, liquid, or gaseous, but not
in a vacuum.
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves and
similar to a beam of light; both are waves and
obey a general wave equation.
• Like beams of light, ultrasonic beams are
reflected from surfaces, refracted when they
cross a boundary between two substances that
have different characteristic sound velocities, and
diffracted at edges or around obstacles.
• Scattering by rough surfaces or particles reduces
the energy of an ultrasonic beam.
 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest
determines its wavelength (λ).
• The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one
complete wavelength is the same amount of time it takes
the source to execute one complete vibration.
• The sound wavelength
is inversely proportional
to its frequency. (λ = 1/f)
• Several wave modes of
vibration are used in
ultrasonic inspection.
The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and
Rayleigh (surface) waves.
 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves
in that they can be reflected, refracted, and
focused.
• Reflection and refraction occurs when sound
waves interact with interfaces of differing
acoustic properties.
• In solid materials, the vibrational energy can be
split into different wave modes when the wave
encounters an interface at an angle other than
90 degrees.
• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of
discontinuities or geometric features enables
detection and location.
• The velocity of sound in a given material is
constant and can only be altered by a change in
the mode of energy.
 Characteristics of Ultrasonic Waves
• Wave Propagation. Ultrasonic waves (and other sound waves) propagate
to some extent in any elastic material.
• When the atomic or molecular particles of an elastic material are
displaced from their equilibrium positions by any applied force, internal
stress acts to restore the particles to their original positions.
• Because of the interatomic forces between adjacent particles of material,
a displacement at one point induces displacements at neighboring points
and so on, thus propagating a stress-strain wave.
• The actual displacement of matter that occurs in ultrasonic waves is
extremely small.
• The amplitude, vibration mode, and velocity of the waves differ in solids,
liquids, and gases because of the large differences in the mean distance
between particles in these forms of matter.
• These differences influence the forces of attraction between particles and
the elastic behavior of the materials.
• The relation of velocity to frequency and wavelength is given by:

• where V is velocity (in meters per second), f is frequency (in hertz), and is
wavelength (in meters per cycle).
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• On the basis of the mode of particle displacement,
ultrasonic waves are classified as longitudinal waves,
transverse waves, surface waves, and Lamb waves.
• Longitudinal waves, sometimes called compression
waves, are the type of ultrasonic waves most widely
used in the inspection of materials.
• These waves travel through materials as a series of
alternate compressions and rarefactions in which the
particles transmitting the wave vibrate back and forth
in the direction of travel of the waves.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
The distance from one crest to
the next (which equals the
distance for one complete cycle
of rarefaction and compression)
is the wavelength.
The vertical axis in Fig. 1(b) could
represent pressure instead of
particle displacement.
The horizontal axis could
represent time instead of travel
distance because the speed of
sound is constant in a given
material and because this
relation is used in the
measurements made in
ultrasonic inspection.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• Transverse waves (shear waves) are also extensively used
in the ultrasonic inspection of materials.
• Transverse waves , in which each particle, rather than
vibrating parallel to the direction of wave motion as in the
longitudinal wave, vibrates up and down in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
• A transverse wave is illustrated schematically in Fig. which
shows particle oscillation, wave front, direction of wave
travel, and the wavelength, , corresponding to one cycle.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves

• Unlike longitudinal waves, transverse waves cannot be

supported by the elastic collision of adjacent molecular
or atomic particles.
• For the propagation of transverse waves, it is necessary
that each particle exhibit a strong force of attraction to
its neighbors so that as a particle moves back and forth
it pulls its neighbor with it, thus causing the sound to
move through the material .
• The velocity associated with transverse waves, is about
50% of the longitudinal wave velocity for the same
material.
• Air and water will not support transverse waves
because the forces of attraction between molecules are
so small that shear waves cannot be transmitted.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• Surface waves (Rayleigh waves) are another type of
ultrasonic wave used in the inspection of materials.
• These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of
relatively thick solid parts.
• For the propagation of waves of this type, the waves must
be traveling along an interface bounded on one side by the
strong elastic forces of a solid and on the other side by the
practically negligible elastic forces between gas molecules.
• Surface waves are subject to attenuation in a given
material, as are longitudinal or transverse waves.
• They have a velocity approximately 90% of the transverse
wave velocity in the same material.
• At greater depths, the wave energy is about 4% of the wave
energy at the surface, and the amplitude of oscillation
decreases sharply to a negligible value.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• Surface waves follow contoured surfaces. For example, surface waves
traveling on the top surface of a metal block are reflected from a sharp edge,
but if the edge is rounded off, the waves continue down the side face and are
reflected at the lower edge, returning to the sending point.
• Surface waves will travel completely around a cube if all edges of the cube
are rounded off.
• Surface waves can be used to inspect parts that have complex contours.
• In surface waves, particle oscillation generally follows an elliptical orbit, as
shown schematically in Fig. 3.
• The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface along which the
waves are traveling. The minor axis is parallel to the direction of propagation.
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
Lamb waves, also known as plate waves, are another type of ultrasonic
wave used in the nondestructive inspection of materials.
• Lamb waves are propagated in plates (made of composites or metals)
only a few wavelengths thick.
• A Lamb wave consists of a complex vibration that occurs throughout
the thickness of the material.
• The propagation characteristics of Lamb waves depend on the
density, elastic properties, and structure of the material as well as the
thickness of the test piece and the frequency.
• Their behavior in general resembles that observed in the transmission
of electromagnetic waves through waveguides.
There are two basic forms of Lamb waves:
• Symmetrical, or dilatational
• Asymmetrical, or bending
 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• In symmetrical (dilatational) Lamb waves, there is a
compressional (longitudinal) particle displacement along the
neutral axis of the plate and an elliptical particle displacement
on each surface (Fig.a).

Diagram of (a) symmetrical (dilatational) Lamb waves.

 Classification of Ultrasonic Waves
• In asymmetrical (bending) Lamb waves, there is a shear
(transverse) particle displacement along the neutral axis of
the plate and an elliptical particle displacement on each
surface (Fig. b). The ratio of the major to minor axes of the
ellipse is a function of the material in which the wave is being
propagated.

• Diagram of asymmetrical (bending) Lamb waves.

 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
• The intensity of an ultrasonic beam that is sensed by a
receiving transducer is considerably less than the intensity of
the initial transmission.
• The factors that are primarily responsible for the loss in beam
intensity can be classified as transmission losses (include
absorption, scattering, and acoustic impedance), interference
effects(include diffraction leading to wave fringes, phase shift,
or frequency shift), and beam spreading(mainly due to the
shape of the transducer element face).
 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
due to transmission losses
• The absorption of ultrasonic energy occurs mainly by the
conversion of mechanical energy into heat.
• Elastic motion within a substance as a sound wave propagates
through it alternately heats the substance during compression and
cools it during rare-faction.
• Thermal losses progressively reduce energy in the propagating
wave.
• In polycrystalline materials a thermo-elastic loss arises from heat
flow away from grains that have received more compression or
expansion in the course of wave motion than did adjacent grains.
• Energy losses in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials caused by
micro-hysteresis effect and vibrational stresses.
• Absorption losses increase directly with frequency.
 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
• Scattering of an ultrasonic wave occurs because most
materials are not truly homogeneous.
• Crystal discontinuities, such as grain boundaries, twin
boundaries, and minute nonmetallic inclusions, tend to
deflect small amounts of ultrasonic energy out of the
main ultrasonic beam.
• In addition, especially in mixed microstructures or
anisotropic materials, mode conversion at crystallite
boundaries tends to occur because of slight differences
in acoustic velocity and acoustic impedance across the
boundaries.
 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
• Acoustic Impedance: When ultrasonic waves traveling
through one medium impinge on the boundary of a
second medium, a portion of the incident acoustic
energy is reflected back from the boundary while the
remaining energy is transmitted into the second
medium.
• This characteristic is used in the ultrasonic inspection
of metals to calculate the amounts of energy reflected
and transmitted at impedance discontinuities and to
aid in the selection of suitable materials for the
effective transfer of acoustic energy between
components in ultrasonic inspection systems.
 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
• Diffraction: A sound beam propagating in a
homogeneous medium is coherent; that is, all particles
that lie along any given plane parallel to the wave front
vibrate in identical patterns.
• When a wave front passes the edge of a reflecting
surface, the front bends around the edge.
• When the reflector is very small, as a pore or an
inclusion, wave bending (forward scattering) around
the edges of the reflector produces an interference
pattern in a zone immediately behind the reflector
because of phase differences among different portions
of the forward-scattered beam.
 Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
• Beam Spreading. In the far field of an ultrasonic beam,
the wave front expands with distance from a radiator.
• The angle of divergence from the central axis of the
beam from a circular radiator is determined from
ultrasonic wavelength and radiator size.

• where γ is the angle of divergence in degrees, λ is the

ultrasonic wavelength, and D is the diameter of a circular
radiator
 Inspection methods
The two major methods of ultrasonic inspection
are the
• Transmission method
• Pulse-echo method.
The transmission method involves only the
measurement of signal attenuation, while the
pulse-echo method can be used to measure
both transit time and signal attenuation
 Test Techniques
• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and
inspections can be accomplished in a number of different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into
three primary classifications.
– Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
The transmission method involves only the measurement of
signal attenuation, while the pulse-echo method can be
used to measure both transit time and signal attenuation
– Normal Beam and Angle Beam
– (Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
– Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article)
 Inspection methods contd.
Through Transmission method
•Two transducers located on opposing sides of
the test specimen are used. One transducer
acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver.
•Discontinuities in the sound path will result in
a partial or total loss of sound being transmitted
and be indicated by a decrease in the received
signal amplitude.
•Through transmission is useful in detecting
discontinuities that are not good reflectors, and 11
when signal strength is weak. It does not
provide depth information
2

0 2 4 6 8 10
 Inspection methods contd
Pulse-Echo Methods

• In pulse-echo inspection, short bursts of ultrasonic energy (pulses) are

introduced into a testpiece at regular intervals of time.
• If the pulses encounter a reflecting surface, some or all of the energy is
reflected.
• The proportion of energy that is reflected is highly dependent on the size
of the reflecting surface in relation to the size of the incident ultrasonic
beam.
• Reflected energy is monitored;
• Both the amount of energy reflected in a specific direction and the time
delay between transmission of the initial pulse and receipt of the echo are
measured.
Principles of Pulse-Echo Methods
Most pulse-echo systems consist of:
• An electronic clock
• An electronic signal generator, or pulser
• A sending transducer
• A receiving transducer
• An echo-signal amplifier
• A display device
 Pulse-Echo Methods
• In the most widely used version of pulse-echo systems, a single
transducer acts alternately as a sending and receiving
transducer.

• The clock and signal generator are usually combined in a single

electronic unit.

• Frequently, circuits that amplify and demodulate echo signals

from the transducer are housed in the same unit.
 Operation of a pulse-echo system with a single
transducer.
• At regular intervals, the electronic clock triggers
the signal generator, which imposes a short
interval of high-frequency alternating voltage or a
unipolar (negative) spike on the transducer.
• The clock activates a time-measuring circuit
connected to the display device.
• The transducer then converts the pulse of voltage
into a pulse of mechanical vibration.
• The mechanical vibration (ultrasound) is
introduced into a testpiece through a couplant.
 Pulse-Echo Methods
• When the pulse of ultrasound encounters a reflecting surface
that is perpendicular to the direction of travel, ultrasonic energy
is reflected and returns to the transducer.
• The returning pulse travels along the same path and at the same
speed as the transmitted pulse, but in the opposite direction.
• The returning pulse causes the transducer element to vibrate,
which induces an alternating electrical voltage across the
transducer.
• The induced voltage is instantaneously amplified (or
demodulated), then fed into the display device.
• Pulse-echo inspection can be accomplished with longitudinal,
shear, surface, or Lamb waves.
• Data can be analyzed in terms of type, size, location, and
orientation of flaws, or any combination of these factors.
 Presentation of Pulse-Echo Data
Presentation of Pulse-Echo Data
Information from pulse-echo inspection can be
displayed in different forms. The basic data
formats include:
A-scans, B-scans, C-scans
A-scan and B-scan data are usually presented on
an oscilloscope screen; C-scan data are recorded
by an x-y plotter or displayed on a computer
monitor.
 Pulse-Echo Methods
• A-scans: This format provides a quantitative
display of signal amplitudes and time-of-flight
data obtained at a single point on the surface
of the test piece.
• The A-scan display, which is the most widely
used format, can be used to analyze the type,
size, and location (chiefly depth) of flaws.
 A-scan

• System Setup. A typical A-scan

setup includes:
• 1.Power supply, which may run on 6
alternating current or batteries
• 2.Electronic clock, or timing circuit, 1 7
to trigger pulser and display
circuits
2
• 3.Pulser circuit, or rate generator,
to control frequency, amplitude, 3
and pulse-repetition rate of pulses 7
that excite the search unit (4).
• 5.Receiver-amplifier circuit to
convert output signals from the
search unit into a form suitable for
oscilloscope display.
• 6. Sweep circuit to control (a) time 4
5
delay between search-unit
excitation and start of oscilloscope
trace and (b) rate at which
oscilloscope trace travels
horizontally across the screen
• 7·Oscilloscope screen,
 A-scan
• A-scan display is basically a plot of amplitude versus
time, in which a horizontal baseline on an oscilloscope
screen indicates elapsed time while the vertical
deflections (called indications or signals) represent
echoes .
• Flaw size can be estimated by comparing the amplitude
of a discontinuity signal with that of a signal from a
discontinuity of known size and shape;
• Flaw location (depth) is determined from the position
of the flaw echo on the oscilloscope screen.
• The zero point on this scale represents the entry
surface of the testpiece.
 A-scans
• Applications.
• Detection and characterization of flaws;
• Measuring thickness, sound velocities in materials of
known thickness, attenuation characteristics of specific
materials, and beam spread of ultrasonic beams.
• Detecting the small cracks, porosity, and inclusions that
are within the limits of resolution for the particular
instrument.
• A-scan display can be used with transmission or
reflection techniques that involve separate sending and
receiving transducers.
 B-scan
• B-scans: This format provides a quantitative
display of time-of-flight data obtained along a
line of the testpiece.
 B-scan
• B-scan display is a plot of time versus
distance, in which one orthogonal axis on the
display corresponds to elapsed time, while the
other axis represents the position of the
transducer along a line on the surface of the
test piece .
• It shows the position, orientation, and depth
of such interfaces along the imaginary cutting
plane.
• System Setup. A typical A-scan setup
includes: 6 B-scan
• 1.Power supply, which may run on
alternating current or batteries
• 2.Electronic clock, or timing circuit, to 1

trigger pulser and display circuits

• 3.Pulser circuit, or rate generator, to 7
control frequency, amplitude, and 2
3
pulse-repetition rate of pulses that
excite the search unit (4). 5
• 5.Receiver-amplifier circuit to convert
6
output signals from the search unit
into a form suitable for oscilloscope
display.
• 6. Sweep circuit to control (a) time
delay between search-unit excitation 4
and start of oscilloscope trace and (b)
rate at which oscilloscope trace
travels horizontally across the screen 7·Oscilloscope screen
 B-scan
• Signal Display.
• The oscilloscope screen in Fig.
illustrates the type of video-
mode display that is generated
by B scan equipment.
• On this screen, the internal flaw
in the testpiece shown at left is
shown only as a profile view of
its top reflecting surface.
• The flaw length in the direction
of search-unit travel is recorded,
but the width is not recorded
except as it affects echo
intensity and therefore echo-
image brightness.
 B-scan
• Applications. The chief value of B-scan presentations is
their ability to reveal the distribution of flaws in a part
on a cross section of that part.
• B-scan techniques have been more widely used in
medical applications than in industrial applications.
• B-scans can be used for the rapid screening of parts
and for the selection of certain parts, or portions of
certain parts.
• Optimum results from B-scan techniques are generally
obtained with small transducers and high frequencies.
 C-scan
• C-scan display records echoes from the internal
portions of test pieces as a function of the
position of each reflecting interface within an
area.
• Flaws are shown on a readout, superimposed on
a plan view of the testpiece, and both flaw size
(flaw area) and position within the plan view are
recorded.
• Flaw depth normally is not recorded, image
processing is used in the presentation of flaw
depth and the characterization of flaws.
 C-scan

• System Setup. In a basic C-

scan system, shown
schematically in Fig. , the
search unit is moved over
the surface of the testpiece
in a search pattern.
• The search pattern may take
many forms; for example, a
series of closely spaced
parallel lines, or a spiral
pattern (polar scan).
• Mechanical linkage connects
the search unit to x-axis and
y-axis position indicators,
which in turn feed position
data to the x-y plotter or
facsimile device.
 C-scan
• Interpretation of Pulse-Echo Data
• C-scan presentations are interpreted mainly
by comparing the x and y coordinates of any
flaw indication with the x and y coordinates of
either a predetermined reference point or a
known feature of the testpiece.
• The size of a flaw is estimated as a percentage
of the scanned area.
 Transducer Elements
• The generation and detection of ultrasonic waves
for inspection are accomplished by means of a
transducer element acting through a couplant.
• The transducer element is contained within a
device and referred to as a search unit or a probe.
• Transducers in ultrasonic inspection are
Piezoelectric elements, EMA transducers and
Magnetostriction transducers.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectricity is pressure-induced electricity; this
property is characteristic of certain naturally occurring
crystalline compounds and some man-made materials.
• An electrical charge is developed by the crystal when
pressure is applied to it.
• Conversely, when an electrical field is applied, the
crystal mechanically deforms (changes shape).
• Piezoelectric crystals exhibit various deformation
modes; thickness expansion is the principal mode used
in transducers for ultrasonic inspection.
• The most common types of piezoelectric materials
used for ultrasonic search units are quartz, lithium
sulfate, and polarized ceramics such as barium titanate,
lead zirconate titanate, and lead metaniobate.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• Quartz crystals were initially the only piezoelectric elements used. Principal
advantages of quartz-crystal transducer elements are electrical and thermal
stability, insolubility in most liquids, high mechanical strength, wear resistance,
excellent uniformity, and resistance to aging. A limitation of quartz is its
comparatively low electromechanical conversion efficiency.
• Lithium Sulfate. The principal advantages of lithium sulfate transducer elements
are ease of obtaining optimum acoustic damping for best resolution, optimum
receiving characteristics, intermediate conversion efficiency, and negligible mode
interaction. The disadvantages are fragility and a maximum service temperature of
about 75 °C (165 °F).
• Polarized ceramics generally have high electromechanical conversion efficiency,
which results in high loop gain and good search-unit sensitivity (eg:Lead zirconate,
Lead titanate Barium titanate).
 EMA Transducers
• Electromagnetic-acoustic (EMA) phenomena can be used to
generate ultrasonic waves directly into the surface of an electrically
conductive specimen without the need for an external vibrating
transducer and coupling.
• Similar probes can also be used for detection, so that a complete
non-contact transducer can be constructed.
• The principle of EMA transducers is ,a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet produces a steady magnetic field, while a coil of wire
carries an radio frequency current. This induces eddy currents in the
surface of the specimen, causes the specimen surface to vibrate in
sympathy with the applied radio frequency.
• The clearance between the transducer and the metal surface
affects the magnetic field strength and the strength of the eddy
currents generated, and the ultrasonic intensity.
 Magnetostriction Transducers
• Magnetostriction has advantages in the Lamb wave testing
of wire specimens .
• Magnetostrictive materials change their form under the
influence of a magnetic field, and the most useful
magnetostrictive material in practice is nickel.
• A nickel rod placed in a coil carrying a current experiences a
change in length as a function of the current through the
coil.
• A stack of plates of magnetostrictive material with a coil
through them can produce an ultrasonic beam at right
angles to the plate stack, and the frequency depends on
the thickness.
• Transducers of this type are useful for very low ultrasonic
frequencies (<200 kHz).
 Couplants
• Air is a poor transmitter of sound waves and to perform
satisfactory contact inspection with piezoelectric
transducers, it is necessary to eliminate air between the
transducer and the testpiece by the use of a couplant.
• Couplants normally used include water, oils, glycerin,
petroleum greases, silicone grease, wallpaper paste, and
various commercial pastelike substances.
The following should be considered in selecting a couplant:
• Surface finish of testpiece
• Temperature of test surface
• Possibility of chemical reactions between test surface and
couplant
• Cleaning requirements (some couplants are difficult to
remove)
 Couplants
• Water is a suitable couplant for use on a
relatively smooth surface with a wetting agent
• Heavy oil or grease should be used on hot or
vertical surfaces or on rough surfaces where
irregularities need to be filled.
• Wallpaper paste is especially useful on rough
surfaces.
 Search Units
• Search units with piezoelectric transducers are available in
many types and shapes.
• Variations in search-unit construction include transducer-
element material; transducer-element thickness, surface area,
and shape; and type of backing material and degree of
loading.
• A reference that is frequently used in determining search-unit
characteristics is ASTM specification E 1065.
The four basic types of search units are
• The straight-beam contact type,
• The angle-beam contact type,
• and the immersion type;
 Contact-Type Units
Contact-type search units are usually hand
held and manually scanned in direct contact
with the surface of a test piece. Can also be
adapted to automatic scanning.

A thin layer of an appropriate couplant is

required for transmission of sound energy
across the interface between the search unit
and the entry surface.
 Straight-Beam Units
• Straight-Beam Units. Figure illustrates a straight-beam
(longitudinal wave) contact-type search unit. In service, this
unit is hand held and manually scanned in direct contact with
the surface of the testpiece.
• It projects a beam of longitudinal waves into the material
being inspected and receives echoes reflected back to it from
the opposite surface and from flaws in the path of the beam.

Applications of the straight-beam (longitudinal wave) contact-type search unit illustrated in Fig. showing
reflection techniques with (a) single search unit
 Straight-Beam Units
• This type of search unit projects a beam of
ultrasonic vibrations perpendicular to the
entry surface. It can be used for either the
reflection (echo) method or the through
transmission method.
• Echo inspection can be performed with either
one or two search units.
• With the technique using a single search unit,
the search unit acts alternately as transmitter
and receiver.
• The contact face is subject to abrasion and in
most cases is required to couple efficiently to
metals having high acoustic impedances
 Angle-Beam Units.
• Angle-Beam Units. A plastic wedge between the piezoelectric
element and the contact surface establishes a fixed angle of
incidence for the search unit.
• The plastic wedge must be designed to reduce or eliminate
internal reflections within the wedge that could result in
undesired false echoes.
 Immersion-Type Units

• Immersion-Type Units
• The advantages of immersion inspection
Through transmission
include speed of inspection, ability to control inspection
and direct sound beams, and adaptability for
automated scanning.
• Angulation is used in immersion inspection to
identify more accurately the orientation of
flaws below the surface of the testpiece.
• Only a single search unit is required for
conventional immersion inspection, regardless
of incident angle. Straight-beam pulse-echo
inspection
 Inspection Standards
• The standardization of ultrasonic inspection allows the
same test procedure to be conducted at various times
and locations.
• Standardization also provides a basis for estimating the
sizes of any flaws that are found.
• Inspection or reference standards are used as a guide
for adjusting instrument controls to reveal the
presence of flaws that may be considered harmful .
• The inspection or reference standards for pulse-echo
testing include test blocks containing natural flaws, test
blocks containing artificial flaws.
• The technique of evaluating the percentage of back
reflection.
• Inspection standards for thickness testing can be plates
of various known thicknesses or can be stepped or
tapered wedges.
 Inspection Standards
• Test blocks containing natural flaws are metal sections
similar to those parts being inspected.
• But have only limited use as standards, for two
principal reasons:
• 1. It is difficult to obtain several test blocks that give
identical responses.
• 2. Natural flaws vary in shape, surface characteristics,
and orientation, and echoes from natural flaws vary
accordingly.
• It is often impossible to determine the exact nature of
a natural flaw existing in the test block without
destructive sectioning
 Inspection Standards
• Test blocks containing artificial flaws consist of metal
sections containing notches, slots, or drilled holes.
• These test blocks are more widely accepted as standards
than are test blocks that contain natural flaws.
• Test blocks containing drilled holes are widely used for
longitudinal wave, straight-beam inspection.
• The hole in the block can be positioned so that ultrasonic
energy from the search unit is reflected either from the
side of the hole or from the bottom of the hole.
• The flat-bottom hole is used most because the flat bottom
of the hole offers an optimum reflecting surface that is
reproducible than a conical-bottom hole. Figure shows a
typical design for a test block that contains a flat-bottom
hole.
 Inspection Standards

Test block with conical hole for

angle-beam inspection

Test block with flat-bottom hole

for straight-beam inspection.
 Standard Reference Blocks
Standard reference blocks, which can be prepared from various
alloys, may contain holes, slots, or notches of several sizes, and
may be of different sizes or shapes can be used for USM.
• The characteristics of an ultrasonic beam in a testpiece are
affected by the following variables
• Nature of the testpiece
• Alloy type
• Grain size
• Effects of thermal or mechanical processing
• Distance-amplitude effects (attenuation)
• Flaw size
• Direction of the ultrasonic beam
 Standard Reference Blocks

Area-amplitude blocks provide artificial flaws of

different sizes at the same depth.
Distance-amplitude blocks provide artificial flaws
of a given size at various depths.
ASTM blocks can be combined into various sets of
area-amplitude and distance-amplitude blocks
IIW blocks are mainly used to calibrate instruments
prior to contact inspection using an angle-beam
search unit
 Applicability
Applicability
• The ultrasonic inspection of metals is principally conducted
for the detection of discontinuities.
• This method can be used
• i]To detect internal flaws in most engineering metals and
alloys.
• ii]Bonds produced by welding, brazing, soldering, and
adhesive bonding.
• iii]For monitoring and classifying material as acceptable,
salvageable, or scrap and for process control.
• Iv]Permitting inspection in shop, laboratory, warehouse, or
field.
• V] Thickness measurement.
 Applicability
• Mill components: Rolls, shafts, drives, and press columns
• Power equipment: Turbine forgings, generator rotors,
pressure piping, weldments, pressure vessels, nuclear fuel
elements, and other reactor components
• Jet engine parts: Turbine and compressor forgings, and gear
blanks
• Aircraft components: Forging stock, frame sections, and
honeycomb sandwich assemblies
• Machinery materials: Die blocks, tool steels, and drill pipe
• Railroad parts: Axles, wheels, track, and welded rail
• Automotive parts: Forgings, ductile castings, and brazed
and/or welded components
• Thickness measurements are made on refinery and
chemical-processing equipment, shop plate, steel castings,
submarine hulls, aircraft sections, and pressure vessels.
 Detection of Flaws( Applications)
• Inspection of Castings
• Both contact inspection and immersion inspection are used to
detect in castings such flaws as porosity, tears and cracks,
shrinkage, voids, and inclusions.
• The choice of technique in a specific instance will depend mainly on
casting size and shape.
• Figure illustrates typical ultrasonic indications from four types of
flaws found in castings.

Ultrasonic indications from four types of flaws found in castings

 Detection of Flaws
Inspection of Primary-Mill Products
• Ultrasonic inspection is the most reliable method of
detecting internal flaws in forging, rolling, or extrusion.
• It is capable of detecting relatively small flaws deep
within a testpiece.
• By contrast, eddy current and magnetic particle
inspection become less sensitive to internal flaws as
the depth of the flaw below the surface increases;
• Radiography is the other volumetric method available
for inspecting these primary-mill products, but it is
slower, more costly, and less reliable than ultrasonic
inspection for these specifications.
 Detection of Flaws
Inspection of Forgings
• Forgings can be ultrasonically inspected for internal flaws
such as pipe, internal ruptures, flakes, and nonmetallic
inclusions.
• Inspection is usually done with frequencies of 1 to 5 MHz,
with the beam normal to the direction of maximum
working.
• This orientation is best for detecting most flaws in forgings.
• Angle-beam inspection employing shear waves is
sometimes used for rings or hollow forgings.
• Contact inspection is performed on most forgings that have
fairly uniform dimensions.
• Immersion inspection may be preferred for irregularly
shaped forgings.
 Detection of Flaws
• Inspection of Flat-Rolled Products
• Rolled strip, sheet, and plate can be ultrasonically inspected
by using either straight-beam or angle-beam pulse-echo
techniques for contact or immersion inspection;

• With straight-beam inspection from the top surface of a

testpiece, planar discontinuities to which flat-rolled
products are susceptible are readily detected, and their
locations and limits are easily and accurately determined.

• Straight beams cannot be used on strip or sheet too thin

and is usually performed with a Lamb wave angle-beam
technique
 Detection of Flaws
Inspection of Extrusions and Rolled Shapes
• Flaws in extrusions and in rolled shapes are
usually longitudinally oriented, that is, parallel to
the direction of working.
• Both contact and immersion inspection are used
to inspect for these flaws, usually employing their
longitudinal-beam or angle-beam techniques.
• In some cases, surface waves are used to detect
surface cracks or similar flaws
 Advantages of ultrasonic inspection
The principal advantages of ultrasonic inspection as compared to
other methods for nondestructive inspection of metal parts are:

• Superior penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws

deep in the part.

• Ultrasonic inspection is done routinely to thicknesses of a few

meters on many types of parts and to thicknesses of about 6 m

• High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws

• Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in

determining the position of internal flaws, estimating their size, and
characterizing their orientation, shape, and nature Only one surface
needs to be accessible

• Operation is electronic, which provides almost instantaneous

indications of flaws.
 Advantages of ultrasonic inspection
• With most systems, a permanent record of inspection
results can be made for future reference
• Volumetric scanning ability, enabling the inspection of
a volume of metal extending from front surface to back
surface of a part
• Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel
and has no effect on equipment and materials in the
• PortabilityThis process of alternately sending and
receiving pulses of ultrasonic energy is repeated for
each successive pulse, with the display device
recording any echoes each time.
 Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection include the following:
• Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced
technicians
• Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of
inspection procedures
• Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect
• Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer immediately
beneath the surface may not be detectable
• Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic
wave energy between transducers and parts being inspected
• Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment
and for characterizing flaws