INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: THE ERA OF THE COLD WAR 1943-1991 GCSE Modern World History for Edexcel Steve Waugh John Wright endorsed for REVISED BY CHRISCULPIN @dexcel Se eta a ——INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: THE ERA OF THE COLD WAR 1943-1991 GCSE Modern World History for Edexcel Steve Waugh John Wright REVISED BY CHRIS CULPIN HODDER EDUCATION Reg aut ood oy)For Gary Boer, Mick Wright andthe 79ers, Avery special oup. 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Imscsand'T- Downing, Cld Wars anaed Hoon, 1945-1931, ‘Bantam Pres 1998.19 fom Goors Kenan, "The Sours of Sort ‘Conch (1947) reprinted ac machisonpideogfearopekemnan. ml 1.26 fom a epee to Caminform by Ancirs Zhan, xpocced 2 ‘wow enncom/SPECIAL So sr psa documenstominorm brs p26 rom “The Rae of Camecon", Time agains, July 190; 27,27 1.29 mr Mand 37 WT Lanenter and D Pape, Dic Med World Coueoray, 200, 33m 3 Hes 3 wane ering geld ‘adna/GUesL ian p39 fom the Now Adan Treaty Oxganiacon duster Apel 1949 44, 45,81, 85 ror 85 ora 86 oP Fer, Te Gaus Pace Conf, Baka 1985; pb. Shute, Shin Hon Hensmann, 1988p. 48 L Hardy, Speer Relais Sine 1945, Bll and Hyman, 1988.51 i 31a 512m 38.463, 98 mland 104 IT. MeAlay, Maden Worl Hiv, CUP, 19S p SL md W Tauboan, Raich, Fret re, 2005; p. 53 fom ‘Amarican Experenes' The Peden, om swe pbsone p56 B. Wah and W. Bk sn for Hise: CCSE Mido ‘World sry}. Muy, 1996.59 Richard J. Walton, Cold War and Cur Rewlcon The Ferien Fa of ob F. Kenedy, 1972p. 60, 62 75,89, 88 fand 91 J Eager, Sovendmeron Raa the Nile Aa Neen, 19K: p. 62 PP. Ser, Sh wy, esmemenn, 196% p69 and 70 ml. Sauvain, Rey Themes of te Temi Cay Neko Thoms, 1996; 80S Jules, Sigepaier Ria, Logan, 1984; pA) Lave, Sugeaion {tad Ronn, ak 1997; p91. Dewey and Ng Smith Sara and she USS OUP, 1996; p. 100 M.Goshscher, Marvin, Deeds lc, 1986, 10% adap oa saaton ofthe event wade "The nasa Deca’ 00 ‘woe wpa og p. 106 alae fom the pecan pec ofthe 1950 [Nobel Peace Pie, eo by Giese Andeson, Chiupason ofthe Norweian [Nobel Commis, to Mikhal Gorbaches ‘Evry fforchas boon made mace all copyright heldrs, bur fany have tie inaberteny cveonked the Publis il be pleted wo make te neces aangerents a he fist oppor Although every for has been made to caste hat website adeses ae comet time of poing to press Hodder Education cana be had ‘espouse for dhe conteat of any website mentioned i his book eis omstimes posable to Bnd selocatad web pags by typing in the ere of the home page foca web ia he URL window of yout bows ‘Oude plese contact Bookpoint Lu, 130 Milton Pak, Abingdon, Oxon (OX14 458. Taepnone: (6) 1235 827720. Fer (48) 01235 400854, Lines ‘4c opea 9.00 5.00, Monday o Saturday, vith «24-hour masage answer sevice, Vir out website at we oddereducadon oe (© John Wight, Stove Waugh 2006, 2009 ice publ in 2006 by Hodder Edueason, ‘Au Bache UK Company 4338 Fuson Rand Lodon NWI 3BHL “This second etion published 2009 Impression number 7 Yar te permitted under UK copyright In, ‘no pat of ts publcason may be reproduced or ansmiod in any form or byyany means, decoaic or mechanical, icding photocopying and ‘storing or bel within any information trae and vente stem, ‘wrthout permission in writing from the publi or under licenes fom the ‘Copyright Licensing Agency Limi. Fuher des ofsuch licences (oe "eprogaphic reproduction) may bs obraned fom the Copyright Lecniag ‘Aguicy Limiod,Saffon Hause, 6 10 Kuby Suet, London ECIN ST, (Cover photos © Betimann/CORBIS ~ Mikal Gorbachev ane Ronald Reagat© Bertmann/CORBIS ~ Marines with machine gu. ‘Types in Adobe Garamond 12 pt by White-Thomion Publishing Led Prited in Dubs ‘A catalogue recon! forthe ie i aviate mn the Bri Liber, ISBN: 975 0340 984.390,Contents Introduction Key Topic 1: How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56 Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945-47 Chapter 3 The Berlin Crisis and its aftermath Chapter 4 The Hungarian uprising Key Topic 2: Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69 Chapter 5 Berlin: a divided city Chapter 6 Cuba: the world on the brink of war Chapter 7 Czechoslovakia: the Prague Spring Key Topic 3: Why did the Cold War end? From détente (1972) to the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) Chapter 8 Détente and its collapse Chapter 9 Reagan and the ‘Second Cold War’ Chapter 10 Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War Revision activities Glossary IndexIntroduction About the course During this course you must study four units: * Unit 1 International Relations: The era of the Cold War 1943-1991 + Unit 2 Modern World Depth Study * Unit 3 Modern World Source Enquiry * Unit 4 Representations of History. “These units are assessed through three examination papers and one controlled assessment: + In Paper 1 you have one hour and 15 minutes to answer six questions on Unit 1. + In Paper 2 you have one hour and 15 minutes to answer six questions on Unit 2. + In Paper 3 you have one hour and 15 minutes to answer five questions on Unie 3. + In the controlled assessment you have to complete a task under controlled conditions in the classroom (Unie 4). International relations (Paper 1) ‘There are three key topics in the International Relations unit. Each key topic covers a different period. You have to study all three key topics. These are: + Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56 + Key Topic 2 Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69 + Key Topic 3 Why did the Cold War end? From désente (1972) to the collapse of the Sovier Union (1991) About the book The book is divided into the three key topics. Each, kkey topic is then divided into chapters which give you the key information you aced in order to ‘make judgements on the following issues: * Why the USA and Soviet Union, allies during the Second World War, became fierce rivals in 1945. + Why the USA and Britain were forced to airlift supplics into West Berlin, 1948-49, and what impact events in Beilin had on the development of the Cold War. * The impact of Soviet rule on Hungary and how wo rival alliance systems, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, emerged. * Why the Berlin Wail was built. * Why the crisis in Cuba brought the world to the brink of war. + Why Soviet tanks were sent into countries such as Hungary and Czechoslovakia to pur down uprisings. + Why the Sovict invasion of Afghanistan led to the collapse of eétente. + How the Superpowers became involved in an arms race, creating weapons of mass destruction capable of destroying the world. + Why the Cold War came to a sudden end in 1990. Each chapter in this book: + Contains activities ~ some develop the historical skills you will need, others give you the opportunity to practise exam skills * Gives step-by-step guidance, model answers and advice on how to answer particular question types in Paper 1. * Defines key terms and highlights glossary terms in bold the firse time they appear in each section. About Paper 1 Paper 1 is a test of your ability to remember important information about all the topics in this Unit. You will have to select from what you remember in order to show your knowledge and understanding in answer to brief questions, extended essay questions and questions to test your understanding of historical sources and how they are used.Below is a sct of specimen questions (without the sources). You will be given step-by-step guidance throughout the book on how best 10 approach and answer these type of questions. Question 1 is a brief 2emark question in EXAM which you have t0 read a source and find PAPER 1 two points from it. 1 Give two reasons from Source A why relations between the Allies continued ro worsen at the time of the Potsdam Conference. (Source A, line 1) Question 2 requires a (2 marks) slightly longer answer [> 2 Ourline two issues on which the Allies agreed at the Potsdam than question 1. You Conference. have to make two Ch tiarka) statements which 3 How useful are Sources B and C as evidence of the purpose of the answer the question : eer ee Marshall Plan? Explain your answer, using Sources B and C and your own knowledge. cach from your own knowledge. (10 marks) = ] 4 Desctibe the key features of the Cuban Missiles Crisis. (6 marks) 5 5. Explain the importance of thrce of the following in the Cold War: 3 ete ft The Berlin Aislifi, 1948-49 ‘have to analyse the ‘The Warsaw Pact, 1955 value and limitations + The Prague Spring, 1968 of two sources from * The Helsinki Agreements, 1975 the point of view of (15 masts) sbel content aoe 6 Explain why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union dead thes, vou beets changed in the years 1980-1985. (13 marks) males jaleemene You may use the following in your answ2 + The Sovier invasion of Afghanistan sae eo? | + The election of Ronald Reagan as President f the USA main ‘You must also include information of your own. oo (Total for spelling, punctuation and gramiber = 3 marks) (Total for question 6 \J6 marks) In the exam, you would have a choice of two In Question 5 you are given Question 6 is an essay question which guestionshere, 4@) and || fh custon 3 yo an gen asks you to explain reasons for 2 Alb). Having chosen from anywhere in the unit and change. You need to explain at least one, you need to write || ehich relate wo one of its big three reasons in demal, showing how at least two statements issues. You have to choose three, they linked together and which was the beepers deste each one in some detail | | most important The accuracy of our strengthening each one | and explain why it is imporcant | spelling, punctuation and grammar is with additional detail, in the history of that issue. also assessed in this question (3 of the eelsnyai marks are allocated to this)How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56 ‘An American and Soviet soldier shake hands in 1945 at the River Elbe, where the two allied armies met at the end What impression of relations between the USA and the Soviet Union do you get from this photograph? ‘This key topic examines the key developments in international relations from the Teheran Conference of 1943, «through the beginning of the Cold War, to the Hungarian Crisis of 1956. This was a period of great change in the relations between the ovo Superpowers ~ from being allies during the Second World War, to the build-up of rivalry and tension from as eatly as 1948-49 in the Berlin Crisis, By 1956 the USA and Soviet Union had formed two rival alliance systems and were competing with each other in nuclear ‘weapons development and the space race. Each chapter within this section explains a key issue and examines important lines of enquiry as outlined below. Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War (pages 7-20) ‘What was meant by the ‘Cold War’ and \perpowers’? + To what extent was there sivalry before 1945 + Why was there a widening gulf between the during the the peace conferences of 19: Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945-47 (pages 21-32) ‘+ How and why did the Sovier Union control Eastern Europe? ‘+ Whar was meant by the ‘iron curtain ‘+ How did the Cold War intensify in the years 1945-472 Chapter 3 The Berlin Crisis and its aftermath (pages 33-40) + Why was che Berlin Crisis of 1948-49 a significant event + Why were NATO and the Warsaw Pact important in the Cold War? + How and why did an arms race develop in these years? Chapter 4 The Hungarian uprising (pages 41~47) + Why did the Hungarian uprising rake place? + What were the key features of the uprising? + What were the results of the uprising?The origins of the Cold War Source A: Joseph Stalin speaking in 1945 about Churchill, the British Prime Minister, and Roosevelt, the US President. who were his allies Read Source A. Do you get the impression that Stalin trusted his allies? Porhaps you think that, because we are alles of the English, we have forgotten who they are and who Churchit is. They find nothing sweeter than to trick thir alias. And Churchill? Churchill i the kina) who, if you don't watch him, will sip a kopek out ‘of your pocket. And Roosevelt? Roosevelt is not {ke that. He dips his hand only for bigger coins. ‘The alliance between the USA, Britain and the Sovict Union during the Second World War (1939-45) was very much a marriage of convenience or necessity, the necessity being to defeat ‘Nazi Germany. Once Germany had been defeated, differences began to emerge between Stalin and the Soviet Union on one side, who wanted sceurity against future invasion by contoolling eastern Europe, and the USA and Britain on the other, who feared the spread of Soviet communism to western Europe. This chapter will answer the following questions: + Whar was meant by the ‘Cold War’ and ‘Superpowers? + To what extent was there Superpower rivalry before 19452 + Why did the peace conferences of 1945 intensify this rivalry? * Who was to blame for the Cold Wat? Exam skills ‘This chaprer gives guidance on the first question on Paper 1. This question, which is worth 2 marles, asks you to read and understand a source and extract two pieces of information from it.What was meant by the ‘Cold War’ and ‘Superpowers’? What was the Cold War? A hoc waris a conflict in which actual fighting takes place. A cold war is a war waged against an enemy by every means short of actually fighting, The expression ‘was first used to describe the frosty atmosphere that, developed berween the Superpowers in the years following the end of the Second Would War. “The Cold War started in 194546 and lasted for cover 40 years. At fist it was confined to Europe, bur during the 1950s and 1960s ir spread into Asia and then worldwide as the Superpowers competed Te had causes and consequences. + There were two sides — East v. West or the USA and its supporters v. the Soviet Union and its supporters. + There were two rival armed camps ~ NATO v. ‘Warsaw Pact (see pages 39-40) + The two sides competed for influence all over the world, often assisting rival sides in civil wars such as the conflicts in Korea (1950-53) and Vietnam (1960s). However, the wo Superpowers did not ever for influence or control over newly independent states, especially in Aftica. Indeed the Cold War had nearly ll the features of a hot war: directly fight each other. What were its main features? Spying Both sides spied on each other. This was mainly to find out any military developments. They even used epy planes which could fly at a great height and 2 take photographs. One example was the American U2 spy plane which could ty high enough to avoid being shot down by Soviet fighters. Spying increased the rivalry between the two sides. Both sides used propaganda to create the worst possible image of the other side and ensure that national public opinion supported the government, The Soviot Union even used success in sport, especially the Olympics, toilustrate the superiority of the communist system. ‘There was competition in conventional as well as nuclear weapons. Each side \wanted more weapons and newer technology than the other. By the 1960s, both, sides had enough nuclear weapons to destroy each othar many times over. This was called ‘Mutually Assured Destruction’ or MAD theory. In realty this acted as a S deterrent against war, although It did not stop each side from trying to develop even more advanced nuclear weapons. Propaganda ‘Arms race ‘Space race Each side competed for success in the space race. At firstit was to faunch the first os satellite, then the frst man in space and finally the first man on the Moon. Success. S inthis field again was very effective propaganda for both the USA and the Soviet Union. Loans and aid Each side competed to provide loans and aid to less developed and often newly Independent states in order to win their support in the Cold War. Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source A: A British cartoon from Punch magazine showing the Soviet Union represented by the bear Who were the Superpowers? Before the Second World War there were several ‘Great Powers’ including Britain, France, Germany, the USA, Japan and the Soviet Union. The Second ‘World War changed this situation: + Germany and Japan were defeated and seriously weakened. + France had been defeated and occupied by Germany during the war and lost its status as a great power. + Britain was victorious but almost bankrupt. Two countries, however, emerged cven stronger and were clearly far more economically and nlitarily powerful than the rest of the world. ‘These were the USA and the Sovier Union. 1. Draw a aiagram to show the differences between a hot war and a ‘cold war. 2..a) What do you think the bear is doing in the cartoon (Source A)? 1b) What message Is the cartoonist trying to get across? 3. a) Which of the four factors in the table below do you think is the most important in determining Superpower status? Explain your answer. b) How are the four factors linked? FACTORS USA ‘SOVIET UNION Geographical size (1980s) | Nine millon eq, acres 24 million aq. acres Population (1980s) £226 milion 226 millon Nuclear weapons (1980s) 2 milion 48 milion ‘$2100 milion GNP Economy (1984) '$ 1200 milion GNP Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War @)To what extent was there Superpower rivalry before 1945? Rivalry before 1941 Superpower rivalry was noc new. The differences back to the Bolshevik or communist Russia in 1917. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized conteol of the government and over the next few years established a communist government. They believed in world revolution. So, at the heart of the rivalry were the conflicting ideas of the owo sides — communism and capitalism, ‘Communism Capitalism Politics [Only one political | Several parties ~ party ~ the voters may choose Communist Pariy. No | and change their choice. Unable to | government. cchange their government. Economy | No private industry or | Most industry and businesses. No businesses privately private profit. all | owned. Industry and bbusinosses owned by the state for the benefit of everyone. Beliefs | Everyone equal. Bellet | Some will be In world revolution, | wealthior than others. that is, encouraging | Spread influence to communism in ather | other countries to countries, Censorship | encourage trade and of the media. investment, Very litle ‘censorship of media. The differences between communiam and capitalism Countries such as Britain, France and the USA, who believed in capitalism, feared the spread of communism. They intervened in the Russian Civil War, 1918-21, giving arms and supplies to the groups in Russia who were fighting to overthrow Lenin and the communists. Despite theie victory in the civil war, Lenin and other leading Bolsheviks were very suspicious of the West. Differences between Bolshevik Russia and the West can be seen in the following sources. Source A; Froma speech by Lenin in 1919 England, America and France are waging war against Russia. They are avenging themselves on the Soviet Union for having overthrown the landlords and capitalists. They are heloing the landlords with money and supplies. a] Source B: A Bolshevik propaganda poster. The three figures represent France, the USA and Britain arn RAE Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source C: From a speech by Winston Churchill. 1919. who was a member of the British government Of all the tyrannies in history, the Bolshevik tyranny is the worst, the most destructive and the most degrading. Lenin and his government are committing the worst atrocities possible. Such differences intensified in the years afier 1933 when Hitler became leader of Germany: Hider, who hated communism, wanted ro expand eastwards and destroy the Soviet Union. ‘Source D: From a speech by Hitler in 1933 Ifa single people in Western or Central Europe were to succumb to Bolshevism, this poison would spread farther and would destroy that which is: today the oldest and fairest cultural treasure in the world. By taking upon herself this struggle against Bolshevism, Germany és fullling a European mission. ee Stalin, who became leader of the Soviet Union in 1928 after Lenin's death, was especially fearful of an invasion from the West. Indeed he was convinced that Britain, France and the USA would ally with Nazi Germany in the 1930s and encourage Hitler to invade. Britain, France and the USA disliked Stalin even. more when he signed an alliance with Hitler in 1939 known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact. They feared, rightly, char Stalin wanted to seize part of neighbouring Poland. ‘Source E: An American cartoon from October’ 1939 about the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Hitler is shown on the left and Stalin on the right. 1.2) What message is the cartoonist trying to put across in Source B? b) How does the cartoonist get across this message? . Describe the key features of Superpower rivally before 1945. ‘Does Source C support the evidence of Source A about the Bolsheviks and their aims? What can you learn from Source D about Hitler's attitude towards Bolshevism? What is the purpose of Source E? . Odd one out: ‘Identify the odd word out in the following: communism one-party private industry Explain your choice. ‘Add a word that replaces the odd one out and links with the other two. Put together your own example of ‘odd one aut based on Superpower rivalry before 1945. Try it out on someone in your class. Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War @)Rivalry during the Second World War The Soviet Union allied with Britain and the USA during the Second World War in what became known as the Grand Alliance. Stalin was forced into this arrangement by the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. During the war the Grand Alliance held two conferences. The first mecting of the Big’Thice ~ President Franklin Roosevelt of the USA, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain and Stalin ~ was held in “Tehran, the capital of Iran, in 1943. The second was in Yalta, a Sovict resort on the Black Sea, in 1945 (see page 14) The Teheran Conference Roosevelt was keen to improve relations berween the three Allies and agreed to hold the mecting in ‘Teheran, Iran, near to the Soviet Union in November 1943. “The meeting was mainly a success for Stalin who achieved most of what he wanted. This was because Roosevelt was not well during the Conference and, in any case, tended to side with Stalin rather than Churchill. For example, Churchill's idea of an Allied invasion through the Balkans, thereby preventing the Red Army from taking over all of Eastern Europe, was rejected. “The main agreements were: * Britain and the USA agreed to open up a second front by invading France in May 1944. * The Sovict Union was to wage war against Japan, once Germany was defeated. + A United Nations organisation was to be set up after the war. + An area of eastern Poland was added to the Soviet Union. At the insistence of Stalin, the borders of post-war Poland were to be along the Oder and Neisse rivers (see map on page 22). (2) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Strains in the Grand Alliance Second Front Stalin was annoyed that Britain and the USA delayed opening a second front (they did so only in 4944 with the D-Day landings). Stalin was convinced thatthe Britsh and Americans were waiting until the Soviet Union had been seriously damaged by the Geman invaders. “The Big Three (fram lett to right, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill at the Teheran Conference, 1943. Churchill Winston Churchill had been a staunch opponent of the Bolshevik Revolution. As secretary of state for war, he had supported the Bolsheviks’ enemies in the Civil War of 1918-21 (see page 10). As British prime minister during the Second World War, he was suspicious of Staln’s motives in eastern Europe. He was convinced that Soviet troops would remain in countries they berated from the Germans. Poland Britain had gone to war in September 1939 to maintain the independence of Poland. However, Stalin believed that Soviet control of Poland was essential to prevent future invasions. Churchill became even more suspicious of Staln’s motives in Poland when, in April 1943, German troops discovered a mass grave in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk. This grave contained the bodies of 40,000 Polish officers murdered by the Soviets in 1939. Warsaw Uprising In August 1944 the Polish resistance organised an uprising in Warsaw against the German forces ‘occupying the city. The Soviet army, which had reached the outskirts ofthe city, halted its advance and stood by as the uprising was brutally crushed by the Germans. This defeat lft he Poles defenceless against a Soviet occupation. 1. Deseribe one way in which relations among the members of the Grand Alliance became strained during the years 1942-46. 2.In what ways df the Teheran Conference: ‘© strengthen the Grand Alliance ‘+ weaken the Grand Alliance? Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold WarWhy did the peace conferences of 1945 intensify this rivalry? Look at the two photographs of the allied leaders ‘on these pages and on pages 16-17. What changes have taken place between the two conferences? Suni ts i ocid Baty elk Wei h nges were to have profound effects on CA, oon ne Sealy Uefa ksDe.psaoe These changes were 0 have profound effects o ete relations between the Superpowers. The Yalta Conference, February 1945 By carly 1945 Allied armies were closing in on Bean, and Germany was close to defeat. The three Allied leaders met at Yalta in carly 1945 to consider shar to do with Germany and Europe once victory was achieved. The Big Thrce were still fearful of Hider and, for the most part, were able to reach agicement on key issues. Yer this was the last meeting of the Big Three. Within months, Roosevelt had died and Churchill had lost a general election. Stalin wanted the Germans to pay huge reparations, but Roosevelt and, Churchill agreed that it was nor sensible to punish Germany too harshly: Stalin and Roosevelt apparently enjoyed a warm relationship, and as a aval, Chureil fl oalated for mor of he Conference. They agreed: + The Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Germany had surrendered. + To divide Germany into four zones: US, British, French and Soviat. + To divide Berlin into four zones in the same way. + To hunt down and try Nazi war criminals in an intemational court of justice * To alow countries that had been liberated from occupation by the German army fo have free elections to choose the govemment they wanted, * To join the new United Nations Organisation in order to maintain peace once the war ended. + That eastern Europe would be a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’. (4) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source A: Stalin. proposing a toast at a dinner at the Yalta Conference. 1945 Source B: Milovan Djilas. vice-president of Yugoslavia. writing about Yalta in 1948 want to drink to our alliance, that it should not lose its intimacy, its free exoression of views. | know of no such close alliance of three Great Powers as this. May it be strong and stable, may we be as frank as possible. | in the hallway of Yalta we stopped before a map of the world on which the Soviet Union was coloured in red. Stalin waved his hand over the Soviet Union and exclaimed: ‘Roosevelt and Churchill will never accept the {dea that so great a space should be red, never, never!” | | Source C: Churchill writing to Roosevelt | shortly after the Yalta Conference The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world. A new front must be created against her ‘onward sweep. This front should be as far east as possible. A sattlement must be reached on all ‘major issues between West and East in Europe before the armies of democracies melt away. They disagreed: * On how much Germany was to pay in reparations. Stalin wanted a much higher figure than elther Roosevelt or Churchill. The decision was delayed untl the next conference. + About Poland ~ Stalin wanted the Polish/Gemman border to be much further tothe West than the western allies. He also wanted a ‘iendly’ Polish government so that his country would have some protection from Germany. The western powers feared that this would be a Soviet-controlled government. They persuaded Stalin to agree to allow ftee elections in Poland. 1. Does Source C support the evidence of ‘Sources A and B about relations between the Big Three (the USA, the Soviet Union and Britain)? Explain your answer. 2. Describe one decision made about Germany at the Yalta Conference. SSS Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War (s)The Potsdam Conference, July 1945 Changes between Yalta and Potsdam Tn the five months between the conferences, a number of changes took place that greatly affected relations and the outcome of the conference at Potsdam. * Soviet troops liberated counttics in castern Europe but did not remove theie milicary presence. By July they occupied Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania (sce map on page 22), * Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland, ignoring the wishes of the majority of Poles and the agreements made at Yalta. Stalin ignored protests from Britain and the USA. He insisted that his control of castern Europe was a defensive measure against possible furure attacks. They agreed: + To divide Germany and Bertin as previously agreed. Each of the four zones of Germany and four sectors of Berin was occupied and administered by one ofthe Alies. + To demlitarise Germany. + To re-establish democracy in Germany including free elections, a free press and freedom of speech '* That Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies in equipment and materials. Most of this would go to the Soviet Union, which had suffered most. The Soviet Union would be given a quarter of the industrial goods made in the western zones in return for food and coal from the Soviet zone. + To ban the Nazi Party. Nazis were removed from important positions and leading Nazis were put on trial for war crimes at Nuremberg in 1948. + To participate fully in the United Nations Organisation. + That Poland's frontier was to be moved westwards to the rivers Oder and Neisse (see map on page 22). * The Red Army was the biggest in the world, but Stalin refused to cut down his armed forces after the war. While there was demilitarisation in the West, the Soviet Union continued to expand its armed forces Source D: Stalin speaking about the takeover of eastern Europe, 1945 This war is not as in the past. Whoever occupies a territory also imposes on his own beliefs and social system. Everyone imposes his own system as far as his army has power to do so. It cannot be otherwise. Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56* In April 1945, Roosevelt died. His Viee-Pesident, Harry Truman, replaced him. Truman was toxally different from Roosevelt and distrusted Stalin, He was convinced that the Soviet Union The Russians had shown themselves even more intended to take over the whole of Europe and | dificult han anyone expected Afer Potsdam, one 5 é ‘couldn't be ver any longer. it was quit was determined to stand up to the Soviet leader. | SOWGT BS very Nopettl any longer. was oie * On 16 July 1945, the Americans successfully war had left them holding positions far into Europe, rested an atomic bomb at a desert site in the ‘much too far. | had no doubt they intended to use USA. At the start of the Potsdam Conference, _| them. Truman informed Stalin about this. The Sovier leader was furious that he had not been consulted beforehand. + Halfway through the Porsdam Conference, Churchill was defeated in the British general election and was replaced by Clement Attlee. Source E: Clement Attlee recalling the | Potsdam Conference in 1960 3. What can you learn from Source D about Stalin's aims in eastem Europe? 4. Source E gives Attiee’s views of Potsdam. What are his fears? 5. What do you think Truman would have said about Potsdam and Stalin? Put together a Source F — five or six lines from Truman about Potsdam. Remember that Truman was determined to prevent the spread of communism and ensure free elections. 6. Explain why relations between the USA and Soviet Union grew worse as a result of the peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam. They disagreed: = Over what to do about Germany. Twenty million Russians had died during the war and Stalin wanted massive compensation that would have. totally and permanently crippled Germany. ‘Truman refused. He saw a revived Germany as a possible barrier to future Soviet expansion. Stalin wanted to disable Germany completely to protect the Soviet Union against future threats. Truman did not want Germany to be punished the way it had been by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. * About free elections. Truman wanted free elections in the countries of eastern Europe ‘occupied by Soviet troops. Stalin refused to submit to US pressure believing it was unwelcome interference. Truman was furious and began a ‘Ato, Truman and Stalin (eft ight atthe peace ‘get tough’ policy against the Soviet Union conference at Potedam, July 1945 Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War @)Who was to blame for the Cold War? Soviet Union to blame ‘The Soviet Union was to blame because it was cold and harsh and was determined to spread the evil of communism as far as possible. It refused to allow fice clections and sct up Sovict-controlled communist governments in eastern Europe. This view however, ignores Sovict concerns in 1945: + Twice Russia had heen invaded by Germany and suffered enormous losses of people. Germany had to be punished severely to ensure thar it could not pose a future threat. * The goal of Sovier expansion in eastern Europe was (0 create a buffer between Germany and the USSR. Ir was nor to extend communism. * Stalin was genuinely upset by Truman's announcement at Potsdam that the USA had the atomic bomb. As a result, the Americans would have the upper hand in any furure arms race USA to blame Soviet historians, on the other hand, blame the USA. The Americans failed to understand the suffering of the Soviet people during the Second World War and used the atomic bomb as a ‘warning to the Soviet Union. The USA was concerned only about furthering its own interests jin Eastern Europe. This view, however, ignores US concerns: + The Americans were genuinely concerned about Stalin's motives in eastern Europe, especially after he refused to allow free clections in Poland in 1945. * The USA did not want to punish Germany severely. They remembered the lessons of 1919 and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Both to blame Te was due to a lack of mutual trust between the two Superpowers. Each side overreacted and made things worse by taking an aggressive stance, starting at Potsdam. ‘Source A: Vyacheslav Molotov, Soviet Commissar of Foreign Relations, writing abaut the Potsdam Conference of July 1945 Truman decided to surprise us at Potsdam. He took Stalin and me aside and - ooking secretive — informed us they had a secret weapon of a wholly new type, an extraordinary weapon. It’s difficult to say what he was thinking, but it sesmed to me that the wanted to throw us into consternation. Stalin, however, reacted to this quite calmly and Truman decided that he hadn't understood the words ‘atomic bomb’. a ET Source B: A British cartoon showing Stalin as the ‘master of ceremonies’ in front of ‘the curtain’ Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source C: A Soviet cartoon showing Europe being crushed by US capi Source D: George Kennan was a US official in Moscow. In 1946 he wrote a long telegram to Truman warning the American president about the Soviet Union's determination to expand It is clear that the United States cannot expect in the foreseeable future to be close to Soviet regime. Itmust continue to regard the Soviet Union as a rival, not a partner, in the poitical arena. it must continue to expect that Soviet policies wil reflect 1no abstract love of peace and stability, no real faith in the possibility of a permanent happy coexistence of the communist and capitalist worlds. Rather, Soviot policies will be a cautious, persistent pressure toward the disruption and, weakening of all rival influence and rival power. | 1. What can you lear from Source A about Stalin's reaction to being told about the atomic bomb? 2. Sources B and C are both examples of Cold War propaganda. What is the message of each cartoon? 3. Which sources * suggest that the USA was to blame ‘suggest that the Soviet Union was to blame? Give reasons for each choice. 4. What do you think, based on the evidence so far? Usinga scale of 1-5 (where 1 = iittle or no blame and 5 = strongly to blame), make a copy of the grid below and give your verdict with a brief explanation. Taina ts | Spansion ‘Soviet Union 5. You are a either a Soviet or an American Journalist. Use the appropriate heaaline below to write a brief article on the reasons for the Cold Wer (from the viewpoint of your country) US weapons threaten Soviet Union ‘Communism on the march in Eastern Europe Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War (19)Examination practice ‘This section provides guidance on how to answer Question 1 on Paper 1. Question 1 — two-mark question Study Source A. Give two reasons from Source A why relations beoween the Allies ‘continued ‘to worsen’ at the time of the Potsdam Conference. (Source A, line 1) How to answer ‘This question is designed to test whether you can extract information from a source. The source may be from a textbook: or it may be a picture or cartoon. The aim is not to display your knowledge 0, in this case itis a waste of your time co write all you know about Potsdam, the atom bomb or the names of the states that came under soviet control at that time. ‘Note that you arc asked to find two seasons. You get one mark for each. With only two marks available, write wo shore sentences and moye on. H : he wesk \nereased when he was hoa developed on atomic bomb. The: suspicious Of Soviet inbenkions huge amank of Lembory ishich akan over EERE tL rege Source A: Froma school textbook published in 2001. It is describing the situation between the Allies at the Potsdam Conference in July, 1945. Relations between the Allies continued to worsen. Stalin was told about the atom bomb, which increased his suspicions and fear of the West. At the same time, the Allies were worried about his take-over of eastern Europe. Soviet territory had expanded 480 kilometres westwards. They had taken over 22 miffon people who had not been in the USSR in 1938.The early Cold War 1945-47 Source A: Part of a speech made by Winston || Source B: A British cartoon of 1946 entitled Churchill at Fulton, Missouri, USA, March “A peep under the iron curtain’. The figure at 1946 From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended acrass the continent | F of Europe. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and eastem Europe. All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Soviet sphere and all are subject not} only to Soviet influence but to a very high measure | § of control from Moscow. ! 1. What can you learn from Source A about Europe by 1946? 2. What message is the cartoonist trying to put across in Source B? In the years immediately following the end of the Second World Wat, the Soviet Union tightened its grip on those states in eastern Europe that it had liberated. This was seen by Britain and the USA as the beginning of Soviet expansion into western Europe. The USA retaliated with a policy of containment championed by President Truman together with a programme of economic aid to Enrope known as the Marshall Plan. This chapter answers the following questions: + Why did the Sovier Union expand? + How was Sovict control carried out, 1945-472 + What were Cominform and Comecon? * Why did US actions increase the rivalry? Exam skills This chapter gives guidance on how to answer Question 3 on Paper 1, This question, worth 10 marks, asks you to evaluate the usefulness of two sources.Why did the Soviet Union expand? Ker [ae ttenby Set Un in 048 atten Pad 1968 ny — rote tons ar 148 |] © Divided cine cocpie by Aled forces EASTERN POLAND ROMANIA ‘Amap showing Soviet expansion into eastem Europe The Soviet Union expanded in 1945 for the Memory of what happened 1918-39 following reasons: During the interwar years most eastern European + Memory of what happened 1918-39 countries had been hostile to the Soviet Union. + Percentages deal Poland had signed a non-aggression pact with * Strategic importance of Poland France and dusing the Second World War * Sceurity Hungary and Romania fought on the side of ‘xpansionsim. Germany, against the Soviet Union. (2) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source A: Churchill describes making the percentages deal with Stalin in 1954 | said to Stelin: ‘Let us settle affairs in easter Europe. For example, how would it do for you to have 90 per cent influence in Romania and for us to have 90 per cent influence in Greece? While this was being translated, | wrote on a sheet of paper: Romania — Soviet Union 90 per cent, the others 10 per cent Greece ~ Great Britain 90 per cent, Soviet Union 10 percent Yugoslavia ~ 50 per cent-50 per cent Hungary ~ 50 per cent-50 per cent Bulgaria - Soviet Union 75 per cent, others 25 per cant | pushed this across to Stalin. He made a large tick and passed it back i Percentages deal ‘Towards the end of the war, Stalin and Churchill had reached an understanding known as the percentages deal (see Source A). Stalin believed that Churchill was accepting the influence of the Soviet Union in eastern Europe. Strategic importance of Poland ‘The Soviet Union's future security was dependent on a friendly Polish government. Indeed, in 1945, Stalin wanted to move the Polish fronticr so that most of Poland became part of the Soviet Union. He also wanted a communist government in what, would remain of Poland. As Stalin said: “or Russia it is not only a question of honour, but security ~ nor only because we are on Poland’s frontics, but also because throughout history, Poland has always been a corridor for attack on Russa.” Security ‘The Soviet Union had been invaded from the west by Germany on two occasions, in 1914 and 1941, and had suffered huge casualties during the ensuing world wars. Stalin wanted to create a zone of ‘friendly’ or, berrer still, Sovier-controlled states in eastern Europe asa buffer against future invasions. As Stalin wrote in the Soviet newspaper Pravda in March 1946: “The Soviet Union's loss of life has been several times greater than that of Britain and the United States put together. The Soviet Union cannot forget them. And so why is it surprising that the Soviet Union is anxious for its future safety and is ‘ying to ensure that governments loyal to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries?” Soviet expansionism ‘The USA, Britain and Prance believed that Stalin's motives were political ~ the expansion of the Soviet empire and communism throughout Europe. Source B: A British cartoon showing Stalin overseeing communism throughout eastern 1. Describe one factor that influenced Soviet expansion into eastern Europe. 2. What message is the British cartoonist trying to put across in Source B? 3. Did the ‘percentages deal’ (Source A) give the Soviet Union dominant influence throughout eastem Europe? Explain your answer. 4. In what way would Britain and the USA have questioned Stalin’s views about Poland? Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945~47 @)How was Soviet control carried out, 1945-47? Source A: A member of the Communist Party holding a gun threatens the Romanian opposition in Bucharest during the elections of 1946 Having frced much of eastern Europe from the Nazis, the Red Army remained in occupation and the Soviet Union established communist governments that were closely controlled from ‘Moscow. These became known as Soviet satellite states. The same pattem was followed in each country: * Coalition governments were set up in which the communists shared power wich other political partis. + Backed by Stalin, the communists took over the civil service, media, security and defence. + Opposition leaders were arrested o forced t0 fee + Elections were held, but were fixed to ensure support for the communists. + ‘People’s democracies’ were ser up. Poland In June 1945 a coalition government of several parties was set up. In January 1947 elections were rigged to ensure the clection of a totally communist government. The leader of the main opposition party, Stanislaw Milolzajcyke, fled to London. Romania As with Poland, a coalition government was sec up in carly 1945. Then in January 1945 the communists, encouraged by Stalin, took part in demonstrations to disrupr the government. Finally, in March 1945 the Soviet army intervened. It disarmed the Romanian army and forced the King to appoint a government dominated by the communists under Petru Groza. In November 1946 elections were held and the communists gained 80 per cent of the vores. In the following year the communist government abolished the monarchy. (%) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Hungary ‘The largest party in 1945 was the Smallholders' Party, ‘which won over 50 percent of the vote in the elections of August 1945, However the country began to experience an economic crisis, and the Communist Party was able to scize control of the Ministry of the Interior, which controlled the police. They used this control to great effect in 1947, arresting Bela Kovacs, the leader of the Smallholders’ Party. The Prime ‘Minister, Imre Nagy; was forced to resign. In the general election of August 1947, the communists secured a large share of the vote and took over the government. All other parties were then banned. Czechoslovakia The communists alseady had great support in Czechoslovakia. By 1947 they were the largest party in the coalition government and controlled the police and the armed forces. In 1948, supported by the Soviet Union, they used the army: to seize control. Many non-communists were arrested and the foreign secretary, Jan Masaryk, a ron-communist, was murdered. Rigged elections brought a communist victory. Soon afier, all other political parties were banned. Bulgaria Tn late 1944 a communist-dominated goverament ‘was set up. In November 1945 the communists Source B: A British cartoon of 1948 showing the Kremlin (government of the Soviet Union) in the background won rigged clections and, in the following year, banned all other parties Yugoslavia ‘The communist resistance fought bravely against the ‘Germans during the war. Its leader, Marshal Tito, was elected President. However, Tito had no intention of taking orders from Stalin. Yugoslavia was therefore expelled from the Communist International Bureau (Cominform) and other communist countries applied economic sanctions. To challenge Stalin further, Tito then accepted aid from the West. What were the effects of Soviet expansion? Britain and the USA were alarmed by Stalin’s actions in eastern Europe. Roosevelt and Churchill hhad agreed that eastern Europe should be a ‘Soviet sphere of influence’ (sce page 14) and that Stalin would heavily influence the region. However, they had not expected such complete Soviet domination. They were convinced that democratically elected governments, which would have also remained friendly to the Soviet Union, could have been set up in each country. This is when the major differences began to develop: * Stalin believed that he could only ensure the support of the countries of castern Europe by setting up Sovier-controlled communist governments. + US President’ Truman saw this as a blatane attempt by Stalin to spread communism throughout Europe. 1. Describe one way in which Soviet expansion into eastern Europe affected relations with the West. 2. What can you leam from Source A about the afections in Romania in 1946? 3. What is the message of Source B? How does the cartoonist get the message across? 4, Draw your own cartoon or diagram giving a similar message about events in one of the other countries taken over by Soviet-controlled communists. Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945~47 @)What were Cominform and Comecon? These two organisations were set up by the Soviet Union in the later 1940s in order to extend Soviet political and economic control over Eastern Europe. Cominform ‘Comecon ‘The Communist Information Bureau was set up in 1947 to enable the Soviet Union to co-ordinate ‘communist parties throughout Europe. It was the Soviet Union’s response to the Truman Doctrine (eee page 27). It was introduced to ensure that the states in Eastem Europe * followed Soviet aims in foreign policy introduced Soviet style economic policies, such ‘as collectivisation of agriculture and state control of industry. ‘The Soviet Union used the organisation to purge ‘any members who disagreed with Moscow. One notable example was Tito, whose refusal to follow the Soviet line led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from Cominform in 1948 (see page 25). ‘The Council for Mutual Assistance (Comecon), founded in 1849, was the Soviet response to Marshall Aid (see pages 28-30). Itwas supposed to be a means by which the Soviet Union could financially support countries in Eastern Europe. In reality, it was used by the Soviet Union to: + control the economies of these states * ive the Soviet Union access to their resources + encourage economic specialisation within the Soviet bloc, For example, Czechoslovakia and East Germany were encouraged to concentrate on heavy industry. Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria specialised in the production of food and raw materials. ‘Source A: A 1947 report by Andrei Zhdanov, the Leningrad Party boss, to the Cominform Source B: A view of Comecon from an issue of the US magazine Time published in 1960 The principal driving force of the imperialist camo is the USA. Aled with it are Great Britain and France. The cardinal purpose of the imperialist camp is to strengthen imperialism, to hatch a new imperialist war, to combat socialism and democracy, and to support reactionary and anti democratic pro-fascist regimes and movements ‘COMECON. Founded eleven years ago in Mascow as a crude Stalinist device for miking the satellites for Soviet benefit. Soviet Russia, as the all-powerful supplier of the satellites’ raw materials, calls all the COMECON tunes. All deals are bilateral, for there is no fee exchange of goods in Communism's uncommon market 2, What, according to Source A, are the aims of the West? Why would this report have been given to the first Cominform meeting? 3. What does Source B suggest is the purpose of Comecon? Js this is an accurate view of Comecon? (28) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Why did US actions increase the rivalry? “The rivalry berween the Superpowers intensified in 1947 due to the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, The Truman Doctrine In 1947 Truman began a US policy of containment. This was because: + The USA, and especially Truman, believed that the Soviet Union was trying to spread communism ~ first through castera Europe and then to the west and beyond. * The USA had the atom bomb and wanted to use this, together with their superior economic strength, to put pressure on the Sovict Union and prevent further expansion. + Events in Greece. Greece Ac Yalta, it was agreed that Britain would have influence in Greece. Since 1944 there had been a civil war in Greece, with Britain helping the royalist ent to fight communist forces. In the Greek election of 1946, the communists were heavily defeated by royalists but the communists refused to give up. They continued to fight a guerrilla war against the Greek government and were helped by neighbouring communist countries. Britain had 40,000 troops stationed in the councry and gave money to the Greek government, as wall as to Turkey, which was also under threat from communist rebels. By carly 1947, Britain cold the USA they could no longer afford to support the Greek and Turkish governments. The USA stepped in with the necessary financial aid fearing thae these ‘ovo countries would come under Soviet influence. Truman announced US support in an important speech in March 1947. The speech marked a turing point in US forcign policy. In che interwar years and the two years since Porsdam, the USA had played livde part in the affairs of Europe. Now ‘Truman was committing the USA to a policy of containment that became known as the Truman. Doctrine. In the first part of his speech, Truman argued that the world was becoming divided into ‘ovo armed camps ~ the capitalise camp, which he claimed was the free camp, and the communist, which was not. The USA would use its economic and military strength to protect the world. Source A; Part of a letter from Truman to James Byrne, Secretary of State, January 1946 There isn’t any doubt in my mind that Russia intends| an invasion of Turkey. Unless Fussia is faced with an iron fist and strong language, another war is in the making. I'm tired of babying the Soviats. Source B: The Truman Doctrine, 12 March 1947 | believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support peoples wio resist being enslaved by armed minorities or by outside pressure. | beliove that we must help free peoples to work out their own destiny in their own way. |S] 1. What does Source A reveal about Truman's attitude towards the Soviet Union? 2. Whet was meant by the ‘Truman Doctrine’? 8. Briefly explain the key features of the Truman Doctrine. 4, Which country do you think Truman is referring to in the first sentence in Source B? 5. What is the message of Source C on page 28? 6. Describe one reason why the Truman Doctrine worsened relations between the two superpowers. Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945~47 @)What were the consequences of the Truman Doctrine? + The Greek government was able to defeat the communists. + The rivalry between the USA and the Soviet Union increased. Truman had publicly stared that the world was divided between two ways of life: the free, non-communist and the unfree, communist. Within a year the first serious crisis of the Cald War would hegin over Berlin. * The USA became committed to the policy of containment and far more involved in European affairs. + The USA decided on the Marshall Plan. Although an extremely generous act by the American people, it was motivated by US self- interest. ‘The Americans wanted to create new markets for US goods. Source C: A cartoon published in the British satirical magazine, Punch, in June 1947. The passengers, who represent the countries of Europe, are being given a choice of two buses. One is driven by Stalin and the other by Truman * In 1947 Stalin set up the Communist Tnformation Bureau, Cominform, to link communist partics in eastern Europe and worldwide, in common action. The Marshall Plan Truman backed up his policy of containment with economic aid to Europe. This was known as the “Marshall Plar’. Why was it introduced? Truman did not want to commit the US military to the defence of western Europe against the spread of communism. He believed that communism generally won support in countries where there were economic problems, unemployment and poverty. Many European countries had suffered badly as a result of the Second World War and were struggling to deal with the damage caused. There were shortages of nearly everything, which led countries to implement rationing. Tf the USA could help these countries to recover economically and provide employment and reasonable prosperity; then there would be no need to turn to communism. The plan, officially called the European Recovery Plan but nicknamed the Marshall Plan, was announced by the US Secretary of State, General George Marshall, in June 1947. What aid was given? ‘The programme of aid was offered to all war-torn European counties to help them re-equip their ‘Source D: Marshall announces the plan, June 1947 Europe's requirements for the next three or four ‘years of foreign foods and other essential products = mainly from the USA ~ are so much greater than its present abiity to pay thet it must have ‘substantial additional help or face economic and, political disaster. itis logicel that the USA should do whatever it can to restore nonmal economic health to the world, without which there can be no political stability and peace. Our policy is directed not against any othar country or political doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and ‘chaos. its purpose should be the revival of a working economy so as to produce the conditions in which free institutions can exist. EERE Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56factories and revive agriculture and trade. The USA offered money, equipment and goods to states willing to work together towards their economic recovery. This aid was in the form of cash, machinery, food and technological assistance. Tn return, they would agree to buy US goods and allow US companies to invest capital in their industries, What were its results? + Marshall invited countries co meet together and decide how to use US aid. Sixteen of these set up the Organisation for European Economic Recovery (OEEC) to put the Plan into action. + By 1953 the USA had provided $17 billion to help them rebuild their economies and raise their standard of living. US machinery helped European factories to recover from the effects of the Second World War. US advisers helped to rebuild teansport systems. + Europe became more firmly divided between East and West. Stalin was initially involved but withdrew the Soviet Union from discussions because he did not trust the USA and did not want to show how weak the Soviet Union really was economically. He prevented eastern European countries, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, from becoming involved. * Stalin accused the USA of using the Plan for its own selfish interests ~ to dominare Europe and boost the US economy. Source E: A graph showing the distribution of Marshall Aid "| France 2708 Tilons [BelgumvLuxembourg $58 Countries Source F: From Dean Acheson, a US adviser, speaking in 1945 about US aims in Europe In the fist place, our own interest Is to maintain full ‘employment and expand It sufficiently to absorb the twelve milion or more men and women who will come back from the services. The greet thing which creates purchasing power is people. If the people can develop their own countries in Europe, they will become an increasing market for US goods. | Source G: A speech by A. Vyshinsky. the deputy Soviet Foreign Secretary, September 1947, to the United Nations General Assembly Itis becoming more and more evident to everyone that the Marshall Plan will mean placing European countries under the economic and political control of the USA. It will mean direct interference by the USA in the interna affairs of those countries. The lan is an attempt to split Europe into two camps and to complete the formation of a bloc of countries hostile to the Soviet Union. ‘Source H: A Soviet cartoon of 1949 ‘commenting on the Marshall Plan Chapter 2 The early Cold War 1945~47Source |: A view of the Marshall Plan by Soviet cartoonist Krokodil, 1947. European countries are on their knees before the USA. their paymaster KPOKOAMHKA Source J: A cartoon drawn by E. H. Shepard and published in Punch on 1 October 1947 aS i Source K: A photograph of Berliners using money from the Marshall Plan to help rebuild buildings destroyed during the war | [E . Describe one way in which the Marshall Plan helped the countries of westem Europe. 8. Briefly explain the key features of the Marshall Plan, 9. Does Source F support the evidence provided by Sources D and G about the aims of the Marshall Pian? 10. Churchill claimed that the Marshall Plan was ‘the most unselfish act in history’. Was the USA unselfishly trying to helo Europe or were their motives less genuine? '* Make @ copy of the grid below. + Examine Sources D-K and complete the grid using evidence from the sources. An example has been done for you. ‘© Use your grid to write a 200-word answer to the question. Refer to the sources in your answer. US motives for the Marshall Pian Selfish Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Examination practice ‘This section provides guidance on how to answer —_the topic, or not? Is it typical? Is theve Question 3 on Paper 1. This is worth 10 marks important information which ic does not and asks you to evaluate the usefulness of two mention? sources as evidence for a particular enquiry. b) Ies Nature, Origin and Purpose. You will find ‘There are two ways of judging the usefulness of che NOP in the provenance of the source. This a source, and for top marks you must do both for _is the important information included with the both sources. These are: source which tells you what kind of source itis, a) Its content. This is where you have to use your when it was ereated, and why. You should use own knowledge to show that you understand the NOP of the source to reach a judgement the context from which the source comes. For about its value and its limitations. An. example, does the source tell you a lot about annotated example is given below. Value Limitations Origin. Ie is useful because it was published in 1947, when Content. The cartoon is ‘di a the USA was deciding useful because ir includes a pee ey eeel lot of details about the i situation in 1947. Western iiaiadie European economies were economies to the USA. It was indeed still in a poor state in also very advantageous to the 1947, finding it difficult to Source B: A cartoon US cconomy which needed. recover from all the damage drawn by E. H. Shepard new markets for its own caused by the Second World | | and published in Punch’ industry and a more War. ‘Self-help’ is the lirele ‘fon 1 October 1947 y 4 prosperous Europe. . plank failing to prop up ~ - ‘western Europe. The much A bigger plank is being lifted at one end by General Marshall, but the USA was reluctant to suppor it. This is shown as “Uncle Sam — standing for the USA ~ sitting on the plank so it can't be moved. Content. The cartoon represents the Marshall Plan as rescuing western Europe. Bur it also tied European ‘Nature, This cartoon only. represents the view of onc person, E.H, Shepherd, Origin. The cartoon was B published in Punch. le may = _ | noce typical of the attitude of the British people, let a 4 alone everyone in western ‘Nature. This is a cartoon Pe my gor from a British magazine which cleverly includes a lot of derail about the situation 5 . ‘ es Purpose. E-H. Shepherd is gies rele Purpose. It is useful because it| | people ro pass Marshall Aid. shows how much Europeans |_| It docsn't say anything about wanted the Marshal Plan, opposition to the Plan, ‘Marshall Plan. This was that the whole of western Europe was collapsing and needed American aid.32 Question 3 — ten-mark question How useful are Sources B and C as evidence of the purpose of the Marshall Plan? Explain your answer, using Sources B and C and your own knowledge. (Source B is the cartoon on the previous page. Source C is below.) Source C: A speech by A. Vyshinsky, the deputy Soviet Foreign Secretary, September 1947, to the United Nations General Assembly It is becoming more and more evident to everyone that the Marshall Plan will mean placing European countries under the economic and political control of the USA. It will mean direct interference by the USA in the internal affairs of those countries. The Pian is an attempt to spit Europe into two camps and to complete the formation of a bloc of counties hostile to the Soviet Union. i How to answer Best answers deal systematically with both (a) the content and (b) the nature, origin and purpose (NOP) of both sources: ery best answers also have some of these features: + A brief opening sentence thar gives the ‘big picture’ of your answer. + Items of own knowledge carefully selected and used to support judgements about what the sources say ~ their content ~ and their NOP. * Statements about NOP to say whether they strengthen or weaken the evidence provided by the source, * A brief conclusion. ‘Make a copy of the planning grid below and use it to plan your answer. The writing frame below shows how to approach, writing your answer. Source B is useful because (contents) it suggests Moreover Source B is also useful because of (NOP) Source B has limitations/is unreliable because (contents) ... Source B is also of limited use/is unreliable OP) because Source C is useful because (contents) it suggests Moreover Source C is also useful because of (NOP) Source C has limitations/is unreliable because (contents) Source C is also of limited use/is unre because (NOP) asso In conclusion Sources B and C are useful because they Value Contents, Planning grid ‘What does the source tell you? ‘What view does the source tell you?| NOP Nature Orign Purpose Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56The Berlin crisis and its aftermath Source A: A letter from a US citizen to ‘Source B: A photograph of an Allied plane President Truman in the early stages of the || delivering coal supplies in 1948, during the Berlin Crisis Berlin Blockade Dear Sir, The so-called ‘Barlin Crisis’ is entirely due to your ‘own incredible stupidity when you allowed the Potsdam Conference to arrange final details for the ‘occupation of Germany. It was your duty to look out for American interests and insist upon the establishment of a corridor to the American zone in| F the city. This you failed to do. Possibly this was because you believed Joe Stalin to be a ‘good off chap’, as you said some time ago. But | am inclined to think that you were too dumb to know that such a corridor was necessary. In the meantime, you seem willing and even eager to force this country into a war with Russia merely for the purpose of ‘saving face’. 41. What can you leam from Source A about the reasons for the Bertin Crisis? 2. Write a brief reply to the letter from Truman. 3. Why do you think Source B was widely publicised by the Allies? ‘The build up of rivalry between East and West, in the years after 1945, culminated in the first major crisis of the Cold Was, the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49. This confirmed the differences between the two sides, especially over the future of Germany. Furthermore, it encouraged the formation of evo rival alliance systems, NATO for the West and the Warsaw Pact for the East. This chapter answers the following questions: + Why was there a crisis in Berlin in 1948-49 and whae were its effects? + How did developments in 1949-55 increase East-West rivalry?Why was there a crisis in Berlin in 1948-49 and what were its effects? In 1948 Stalin blockaded all routes by land and rail into West Berlin. This sparked the first major ctisis of the Cold War and worsened relations between the Superpowers even further. Long-term causes of the crisis During the peace conferences (pages 14-17) of 1945, the Allies had agreed to divide both Germany and Berlin into four zones of occupation. Germanys however, was supposed to be kept as one country and tw hold free elections. Almost immediately there were differences between the Soviet and western zones. * The Sovict Union ensuzed that the minority communist group took control of their eastern zone. They tried, unsuccessfully, to secure communist control of the Berlin city council but the socialist majority, supported by the western powers, resisted successfully, + The West wanted to speed up the economic recovery of Germany, which had been devastated by war and was now facing scrious shortages of food and fuel. The Soviet Union wanted quite the opposite to secure itself from a future attack. Ie wanted to keep Germany weak and refused ro allow its own zonc to trade with the other three zones. Berlin was in the heart of Soviet-controlled East Germany. The western Allies were allowed access to their sectors by road, ral, canal and air. However, Stalin did not want the Allies inside Berlin, which was well within the Soviet zone. He also realised that the affluent, capitalist way of life would be on show to people in the East. ‘Westem countries were determined to remain in Berlin where they could observe Soviet activities on the other side of the Iron Curtain. Short-term causes The western Allics forged ahead by encouraging the economic recovery of their zones, especially in providing a much-needed currency. The western zones received large quantities of Marshall Aid (pages 28-29). In addition they set up free clections to establish democracy. This was in sharp contrast with Soviet policies. Stalin feared a strong, democratic and reunited Germany on the borders of the Soviet Union. He feared that ‘western’ currency and democratic ideas would spread to the Sovict zone and undermine control of East Berlin, ‘A series of disagreements in the first half of 1948 brought about the crisis, as shown in the diagram below. 24Jume_ Stalin accused the West of interfering nthe ‘Soyiet one. He cUt of road, ral and canal trate in an ‘tempt to starve West erin. Stall was trying to force {he Alias to pl ut of har Sectors anc abandon plans {or separate development of their German zones. ‘June The wosiorn powers announced plas lo crosio a ‘West Gorman Slalo and niroduood & now currency, tho ‘western Deutschmark, for telr zones and West Beri. ‘The Sovet Union retaliated by nttaducing Is own, ‘arrency, the Osimark, Inthe Sovbt zone and East Beri. ‘April The Alled zones were included inthe Marshall Pian. ‘Soviet troops bogan fo hold up and soarch road and ral ‘tafe entering West Borin. ‘March Soviotropresentatives walkod out of tho Alllod ‘Control Commission complahing that Western attitudes ‘made it unworkable. The Commission ad been setup In 1945 fo administer ane zones. Jenuary ‘The US and Bittsn zones in Benin and Germany ‘merged into one economic unit known as Bron. 4 The stages of the Berlin Crisis (%) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-561 You are an adviser to the western powers and have been asked to weigh up the options {facing them to deal with the blockade. Which option would you advise on? * What are the advantages and disadvantages of each option? Use the following grid to help you: ‘Options: ‘Withdraw from Berlin ‘Supply Bern by air Advantages Disadvantages Drive through the blockade + Write a memo to the western powers giving your recommended action. * Give reasons for your choice. Chapter 3 The Berlin Crisis and its aftermath @)What were the key features of the Berlin airlift? ‘Truman was determined to stand up to the Soviet Union and show that he was serious about containment (sce page 27), He saw Berlin as a test case. If the western Allies gave in to Stalin on this issue, the western zones of Germany might be next. Truman wanted Berlin to be a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain, ‘The only way into Berlin was by air. So the Allies decided to airlift supplies from their bases in West Germany. Would the Soviet Union shoot down these planes? There were anxious moments as the firsc planes flew over Berlin buc no shots were fired. Source A: A British cartoon of July 1948. The man holding the gun is Stalin and the storks represent the planes carrying supplies ‘The aislift bogan on 28 June 1948 and lasted for ten months. The British codenamed ic ‘Operation Plainfare’. Ie was the start of the biggest airlift in history. Soon planes were flying day and night along the air corridors. Each was given an exact time to land at 90-second intervals. The pilots had a dangerous job as Soviet planes flew across the air corridors and weather balloons were placed in awkward positions. As a warning to the Soviet Union, Truman ordered B-29 bombers, capable of carrying atom bombs, to be sent to Britain. The Soviet Union was now within US bombing range. By September the planes were flying 4600 tons of supplies a day —although this was still not enough. The Sovict Union even tried to persuade people to move from West to East Berlin. Only three per cent took up the offer. Stalin hoped that severe winter conditions would paralyse the airlift. However it was a relatively mild winter that did not disrupe the Rights. The airlift continued into the spring and reached its peak on 16-17 April 1949 when 1398 lights landed nearly 13,000 tons of supplies in 24 hours. ‘Source B: Report by Arthur Henderson, the British Secretary for Air, May 1949 In the 318 days since the Airlift began, British and ‘American aircraft have made 195,350 flights to Berlin, canying 1,583,686 tonnes of supplias. British aircraft have made 63,612 flights carrying 369,347 tonnes - made up of 185,000 tonnes of food, 97,000 tonnes coal, 60,000 tonnes of fuel, 21,000 tonnes of miscellaneous goods and 15,000 tonnes of suppiles for the British services in Berlin. ET) During the airlife West Berliners were supplied with everything from food and clothing to oil and building materials, although there were still great shortages in the city and many decided co leave. During this period there was a total of 275,000 flights with an average of 4000 connes of supplies cach day. On 12 May 1949 Stalin called off the blockade. He had failed to starve the Allies out of Berlin That evening Berliners put on evening dress and danced in the streets Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source C: Lieutenant Gail Halvorsen fitting sweets to parachutes made of handkerchiefs. These were dropped to thousands of children in Berlin What were the results of the crisis? The crisis had three major effects: * Te greatly increased East-West rivalry. * Ir confirmed the divisions of Germany and Berlin, * Ie led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation or NATO (see page 39). East-West rivalry ‘Truman saw the crisis as a great victory (see Source D). West Berlin had survived and stood up to the Soviet Union. For Stalin it was a defeat and a humiliation, although this was not what the Soviet people were led to believe (sce Source E) ‘Source D: Truman speaking in 1949 We refused to be forced out of the city of Berlin. We demonstrated to the people of Europe that we would act and act resolutely, when their freedom was threatened. Politically it brought the people of western Europe closer to us. The Berlin blockade was @ move to test our ability and our will to resist. Source E: The Soviet version of the crisis written in 1977 The crisis was planned in Washington behind a smokescreen of anti-Soviet propaganda. In 1948 there was danger of war. The conduct of the western powers risked bloody incidents. The self-blockade of the western powers hit the West Berlin population with harshness. The people were freezing and starving. in the Spring of 1949 the USA was forced to yield. Their war plans had come to nothing, because of the conduct of the Soviet Union. a] Germany Germany was now clearly divided. Within a few days of the end of the Bedlin crisis, in May 1949, the western Allies announced thar their former ‘occupation zones, including west Berlin, would join together to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) (see map on page 35). Stalin’ response was rapid and in October 1949 the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR). 2. What can you learn from Source B about the Bonin airitt? 3.) What message is the cartoonist in Source A trying to get across? b) Why do you think Stalin decided not to shoot down the storks? 4. Source C fs a photograph which was shown in Allied newspapers. Devise a propaganda caption to go with the photograph. 5, Doss Source E support the evidence of Source D about the Berfin Crisis? Explain your answer. 6. What changes would you make to Source E to make it a more accurate version of the events of the crisis? 7. Put together contrasting newspaper headlines announcing the end of the airlift one from a Soviet and one from a US perspective). Chapter 3 The Berlin Crisis and its aftermath @)How did developments in 1949-55 increase East-West rivalry? The Cold War and East-West rivalry increased even ‘more in the years after the Berlin Crisis with the formation of rival alliance systems and the arms race. By the mid 1950s the USA and Soviet Union ‘were members of two rival alliance systems, NATO and the Warsaw Pact. ‘A map of Ametican and Soviet ‘spheres of Influsnce’ aorass Europe North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) ‘The Berlin Crisis had confirmed ‘Truman's commitment to containment in Europe an highlighted the Soviet threat to western Europe. vwestemn European states, even joined together, were no match for the Soviet Union and needed the formal support of the USA. In April 1949 the North Adantic Treaty Organisation was signed. Although a defensive alliance, NATO's main purpose was to prevent Soviet expansion. Key [Juaro HE versa pact [i commun tad “ ) LUXEMBOURG. mn raance hom Me | le oe Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source A: A Soviet cartoon showing the NATO generals goose-steppi Nazi methad of marching. The overall commander in the foreground is carrying a nuclear bomb and a portrait of Hitler This had been the 1. Here are some of the consequences of the setting up of NATO. + The USA was now committed to the defence of Western Europe. * Stalin did not believe it was @ defensive alliance. He believed it was aimed against the ‘Soviet Union It intensified the arms race between the two sides and the development of ever more Powerful weapons of destruction (see page #0). Within six years the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact. Eventually the USA set up its own missile bases in Western Europe, including the UK. Draw & mind map prioritising these consequences from most to least important by ‘completing the following steps: @) Central box ‘consequences of NATO" b) Place the consequences clockwise starting at 12.00 from the most important to least important ) Briefly explain your choices. fm 9 mS es Source B: Extracts from the NATO charter ‘Article 3: To achieve the aims of the Treaty, the Parties will keep up their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack. Atticle 5: The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them ail TY 2. What message is the cartoonist trying to get across In Source A? ‘3. What can you learn from Source B about the aims of NATO? The Warsaw Pact Stalin saw NATO as an ‘aggressive alliance’ aimed against the Soviet Union. Within six years, in 1955, the Soviet Union had set up its own rival organisation known as the Warsaw Pact. It was a military alliance of eight nations headed by the Soviet Union and was designed to counter the threat of NATO. Members were to support each other if attacked. A joint command structure was set up under the Soviet Supreme Commander. Chapter 3 The Berlin Crisis and its aftermath (39)Other developments, 1949-55 ‘As well as NATO and the Warsaw Pact there were other developments that caused the rivalry to worsen: + In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, successfully seized power in China. ‘The Cold War had moved on to Asia. The USA now developed the domino theory. This was the belief that if one nation fell to communism in Asia, it would be followed by many others. * This scemed to be confirmed by the Korean War of 1950-55. North Korea was ruled by communist forces, supported by the Soviet Union and China, South Korea had a US-supported democratic government. When North Korean forces invaded the South in 1950, Truman saw that his domino theory became a reality. + Anti-communist hysteria gradually emerged in the USA, and was encouraged by the actions of Senator Joe McCarthy, who began accusing US officials in high places of being communists and possible spies. Many government employees were found guilty of passing on secrets about the atom bomb. + In 1949, a few years caslicr than expected, the Soviet Union tested its first atom bomb. The arms race began in camest. The arms race Now that both countries had the atom bomb, they both began to pour money into projects to build more and bigger bombs and new delivery systems Each side suspected that the other aimed to build up enough weapons to be able to make a ‘frst strike’ which would prevent the other side firing back. Stalin had been shocked in 1945 by the news that the USA had tested its first atomic bomb (see page 17). The Soviet atomic research programme ‘was transformed over the next few years, and scientist’ pay trcbled. News of the frst Soviet atomic bomb also shocked the US public. Truman, ordered a new powerful weapon to be built — the hydrogen or H-bomb and defence spending was massively increased. “The Soviet Union retaliared by increasing irs own spending. The race was on. In 1953 the Soviet Union tested an H-bomb only a few months after the first American test. 135, 145 2: 6) 134 155 20.1 1900 1950. 1051 a8 496 219 255 1952 1953 ‘Chart showing Superpower arms spending (on) Stalin's death Stalin died in 1953. There was no real change in Sovict policy as no one figuse immediately emerged as his successor. After a two-year period, Nikita Khrushchev established himself as the new Soviet leader. Within a year he had denounced Stalin's policies and began a policy of peaceful co-existence with the West. 4, Describe one way in which the rivalry between the USA and Soviet Union worsened in the years 1949-55. 5. Which of the following was the greater threat to peace in the years 1948-55: the Berlin Crisis 1948-9, NATO, the ams race or the Warsaw Pact? Give reasons for your choice. 6. Explain why the NATO and Warsaw Pact alliance systems were set up by the Superpowers in the years after 1949. Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Source A: A Hungarian student explains the situation in Hungary in 1953 The Hungarian uprising Source B: Written by Laszl6, who was one of the leaders of the Hungarian uprising Living standards were dectining and yet the pepers kept saying that we have never had it so good. Why? Why these lies? Everybody knew that the state was spending the money on armaments. Why could they not admit that we were worse off because of the war effort and the need to build new factories? | realised that the system was wrong and stupid. Soviet Union? 1. What can you leam from Source A about the relationship between the USA and the 2. Does Source B support the evidence of Source A about Soviet rule in Hungary? We had litte freedom. Western clothes were considered dangerous. For example, my colleague John showed up for lectures one day wearing a new suit, strived shirt and necktie from the USA. After classes he was summoned to a Communist Party officer. He received a tongue-lashing and was expelled from the Party. By 1956, the development of two opposing armed groups was clear for the world to see. Put simply, it was seen as West versus East, communism against capitalism and, most importantly, the ‘USA versus the Soviet Union, Nevertheless, Stalin’s successor, Khrushchey, believed in peaceful co- existence. This was the belief that the two Superpowers could exist peacefully together, and for a time there seemed to be a thaw in the Cold War. However, this period proved to be a false dawn, ‘when the Soviet Union brutally pur down an uprising in Hungary in 1956. “This chaprer answers the following questions: * Why did the Hungarian uprising take place? # What were the key features of the uprising? *# Whar were che results of the uprising? Exam skills This chapter gives guidance on how to answer Question 2 on Paper 1. This question asks you to provide two picces of information from your own knowledge. ©)Why did the Hungarian uprising take place? Source A: From comments made by Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union. speaking in July 1956 about the growing problems in Hungary If the situation gets still worse, we here in Moscow have decided to use all means at our disposal to bring the crisis to an and. The Soviet Union cannot at any price allow a breach in the front of eastem Europe. 1. Look at Source A. What do you think that ‘Khrushchev meant when he stated: ‘the Sovict Union cannot ... allow a breach in the front of ‘eastem Europe’? Hungary after the Second World War ‘The Sovict Union invaded Hungary; one of Hider’ allies, in September 1944 as ic drove Nazi forces back towards Germany. Soviet troops occupied Hungary and continued to do so after the end of the war even though an Allied Control Commission for Hungary was set up to run the country, The Control Commission comprised the Soviet Union, the USA and the UK. However, the Soviet Union was the most influential of the powers and was able to determine events in ‘Hungary in the immediate post-war years. A new Provisional Government was set up near the end of the war and it agreed to pay the Sovict Union reparations of $300 million. Elections were held in November 1945, in which the independent Smallholders’ Party won 57 per cent of the vote, while the Hungarian Communist Party sccured only 17 per cent. The head of the occupying Soviet forces, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders’ Party to establish a government and he established a coalition that contained members of the Hungarian Communist Party. Laszlo Rajk, a member of the Communist Party, vas in charge of the security police. The impact of Soviet control In February 1947, some leaders of the Smallholders’ Party and National Peasant Party were arrested and others fled Hungary asa result of Soviet pressure and control. In the ensuing elections, che Communist Party became the largest single party but, because it did not have a majority, ic served in the coalition government. ‘A new constitution based on the Soviet Union system was drawn up, making Hungary a ‘republic cof workers and working peasants’. Matyas Rakosi ‘emerged from the Communist Party to lead Hungary; and he began to impose a dictatorial rule, calling himself a follower of Stalin. Hungary became a member of Cominform (see page 26) and the Hungarian Communist Party took its ‘orders from Moscow. The rule of Rakosi Rakosi used terror and brutality to keep control, Killing an estimated 2000 in the purges and imprisoning 200,000 political opponents. The secret police (AVH) became a hated and dreaded part of Hungarian life. To further Rakosi’ control, religious teaching in schools was attacked and removed from the education system. Cardinal Mindszenty, the leader of the Hungarian Catholic Church, was imprisoned for life in 1949. “The Hungarian economy was controlled by the Soviet Union through Comecon. This body prevented Hungary trading with western Europe and iccciving any Marshall Aid (sce pages 28-30). Therefore, like the other satelite states of eastern Europe, Hungary was forced to trade on uneven terms with the Soviet Union. This meant that Hungary did not always receive a fair price for its exports there, Rakosi put forward a Five-Year Plan to transform the economy of Hungary, but ie failed to (@) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56bring real progress. The plan was devoted to heavy induswy and the production of steel, bur Hungary had no iron ore or coking coal with which to produce steel. Living standards began to fall, and 2. Create a spider dlagram to show the ways in in 1952 Hungary experienced its lowest which Rakosi kept contro! of Hungary's people. ee ee eaten 5. Why were Comecon andl Cominform important ‘When Stalin died, the new leader of the Soviet for the Soviet Union in their contro! over Hungary? ‘Union, Malenkor, did not favour Rakosi, who was 4. Look at the table below. Explain which events: replaced by Imre Nagy. This shows the control that the Soviet Union had in Hungary. During the next three years there was much change in Hungary. The time chart below indicates key events. 4) encouraged the Hungarians to challenge the Soviet Union. ) concermed the Soviet Union about their control of eastern Europe. Death of Stalin Rakosi replaced by Imre Nagy as Prime Minister Nagy replaced by Rakosi ‘Warsaw pact set up (see page 40) February Khrushchev's ‘secret speech’ July Rakosi forced from power on the orders of Moscow and succeeded by his close friend Emo Gero October Victims of Rakosi's purges were re-burled 23 October Students demonstrated in Budapest, the capital of Hungary, demanding free elections, free press and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. Statue of Stalin was pulled down in Budapest and draoged through the streets. ‘Atable showing the key dates in the Hungarian uprising es, Stalin's statue is toppled in Budapest in 1956 Chapter 4 The Hungarian uprising ()What were the key features of the uprising? ‘Alter the demonstrations began in October 1956, Khrushchev sent troops and tanks to Budapest to uy to restore peace, and on 25 October the tanks opened fire killing ewelve and wounding more than a hundred people. On that day, Gero was forced to resign and Janos Kadar took over as remporaty prime minister. The following day Nagy vas re-instated as prime minister. ‘Nagy held talks with the Soviet Union and it was agreed that the tanks would be withdrawn. John Foster Dulles, the US Secretary of State, said: “You can count on us. The Hungarians interpreted this as asign that che USA would support chem against the Soviet Union if help were ever needed. However, President Eisenhower (who succeeded Truman in 1953) was careful about committing the USA because he had no wish to become involved in any dispute during the forthcoming presidential election. ‘Nagy released some political prisoners on 30 Ocrober, the most famous of these being Cardinal Mindszenty. The following day Nagy’s proposed reforms were published. His most controversial decision was his intention to withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. ‘Moreover, Nagy asked the United Nations (UN) ro consider Hungary’ disputes with the Sovier ‘Union. He hoped to win support at the UN and fele that the Sovier Union would be drawn into acgotiations. Political parties that had been banned under Rakosi now re-appeated, and Nagy announced a coalition government on 3 November. + An end to the one-party system + Freedom of the prese + Freedom of speech + Freedom of worship + Hungary to become a neutral state What the Hungariane were fighting for Khrushchev was anxious not to be seen as weak by other members of the Warsaw Pact. Furthermore, ‘Mao Zedong, the Chinese leader, was urging him to stand firm against any deviation from communism. Khrushchev decided chat Nagy had gone too far, and on 4 November 200,000 Sovier troops and 6000 tanks returned to Hungary. The Soviet army quickly captured airports, bridges and key road junctions but; in spite of this, the Hungarians fought on using guerrilla tactics. There was bitter fighting bur the rebels were no match for the Soviet forces. A cceascfire was agiced for 10 November but there was sporadic fighting uncil the middle of 1957. Source A: From a radio message sent by Hungarian rebels during the fighting, early November 1956 We have almost no weapons, no heavy guns of any| kind. The Hungarian people are not afraid of death. You can't let people attack tanks with their bare hands. What is the United Nations doing? ‘Source B: A radio broadcast made by the rebels in early November 1956 Civlised people of the world! Our ship is sinking. Light is fading. The shadows grow darker over the soll of Hungary. Help us! eS («) Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56‘As the crisis raged in Hungary, world attention was. Janos Kadar became Hungary's new leader. Nagy drawn away to events in the Middle East, where had been hiding in the Yugoslav embassy during British and French forces had landed at the Suez the fighting. Kadar offered him safe passage out of Canal and Israeli oops had invaded Egypt through the country. However, Kadar broke his word and the Sinai desert. The USA was keen to have Britain arrested Nagy, who was then taken to Romania and France remove their troops and the invasion and shot in. 1958. was a fortunate diversion for Khrushchev. Source C: Photograph of Hungarian rebels, 4 November 1956 ‘Source D: From ee se > Time magazine, a US ahi Nt political publication. 14 November 1956. It is describing Soviet actions in Hungary The steel covered Soviet boot trod on Hungary this week, stamping and grinding ‘ut the young democracy 1. Look at Sources A, Band C. What can you learn about the rebels from these sources? 2. Look at Source D. What is the attitude of the USA to the Soviet Union's action in Hungary? 3. Look at the aiagram to the left showing the reasons behind the Soviet invasion of Hungary. Put the reasons in order of importance and explain your decision carefully. Chapter 4 The Hungarian uprising ()What were the results of the uprising? Soviet troops were easily able to defeat the rebels, bur at a cost. About 7000 of them were killed, though the rebels lost at least 20,000. Khrushchev vas able to keep control, and a new Soviet-backed leader, Kadas, was installed. About 200,000 Hungarians fled the country during the uprising. Many came to Britain as political refugees. The Soviet Union had maintained its empire and sent our a warning to any satellite stare thinking of breaking away. Khrushchev’ policy of de-Stalinisation would only go as far as he wanted ito. Poland and Hungary made only slow and gradual reforms after 1956 but remained firmly under the yoke of the Soviet Union. The West saw Khrushchev’s recent messages of peace as a sham. Source A: A photograph showing Hungarian refugees fleeing to Austria in November 1956, after the Hungarian uprising Source B: The front page of the Daily Mail, an English newspaper, from 5 November 1956 Bail git Mails = @ ‘Source C: From Pravda, the Soviet state newspaper, 23rd November 1956 ‘A communist state could not remain a silent ‘observer to the bloody reign of Fascist reaction in People’s Democratic Hungary. When everything settles down in Hungary and le becomes normal again, the Hungarian working class, peasantry and intelligentsia wil undoubtedly understand our actions better and judge them right. We see our helo to the Hungarian working class in its struggle against counter-revolution as our intemational duty. TY 1. Imagine that the Soviet Union had published Source A. Devise a caption a Soviet wnter might have used. 2, What does Source B tell us about British attitudes to the Hungarian uprising? 3. Would the majority of Hungarian people agree with the views expressed in Source C? Explain your answer. 4, Re-read the text on the resuits of the uprising. Consider what the effects of it were and then copy this table and fill in the boxes. Effects for ‘Superpower Effects for the Key Topic 1 How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56Examination practice ‘This section gives guidance on how to answer Question 2 on Paper 1. Question 2 — four-mark question ‘Outline owo ways in which the Soviet Union controlled Hungary before 1956. How to answer + Notice that the question starts with the word ‘outline’: the examiners are not looking for an essay here, but for a simple, clear statement. * Then notice that this is a four-mark question. That means eo marks foreach of your evo statements ~ one for the main point, an another for good additional detail. A til mals response might be: ceckobor ley Falower oF Stalin, When SLokn coed in FASS, Rorost was replaced by Inve Nagy E00 years aber Now have a go yourself Outline two steps which Khrushchev took to lish sovier control of Hungary:Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia i Rehey ee ey] Source A: An extract from a speech made 1953 by John Foster Dulles, the US. Secretary of Stale. He was talking about the What can you learn from Source A about the Soviet threat ade b relationship between the USA and the Soviet We shall never have a secure peace or happy Union? world so tong as Soviet communism dominates One third of all the people of the world and continues to try to extend its rule to many others. Therefore, we must aways have in mind the INberation of these captive people. By 1956, the development of two opposing armed groups was clear forthe world to see. Put simply it was seen as ‘West versus East, communism against capitalism and, most importantly, the USA versus the Soviet Union. The thive studies in this chapter deine the Cold War ~ showing the brutality, callousness and brinkmanship of this period in history. The climax of che Cold War came with the Cuban Missiles Crisis in 1962, when the world stood at the very edge of nuclear wat. Each chapter within this scction explains a key issue and examines important lines of enquiry as outlined below. Chapter 5 Berlin: a divided city (pages 49-54) + What were the causes of the Berlin Crisis of 1961? + What were the key features of the crisis? + What were the result of the criss? + What were the key fearnres of the crisis? + What were the results of the crisis? Chapter 7 Czechoslovakia: the Prague Spring (pages 65-73) + Why was there opposition to Sovice control of Cuechoslovakia? Chapter 6 Cuba: the world on the brink of war (pages 55-64) ‘+ Whar were the causes of the Cuban Missiles Crisis of 19622 + Whar were the key features of the Soviet invasion? + What were the consequences of the Soviet invasion?Berlin: a divided city Source A: US tanks (foreground) facing —_| | Source B: Residents of West Berlin look over Soviet tanks (top of photograph) at the newly built Wall into East Berlin, August Checkpoint Charlie, Berlin 1961 1961 1. What can you leam about the Berlin crisis of 1961 from Source A? 2. What can you leam about Berlin in 1961 from Source 8? 3. Devise Soviet and US propaganda captions for Sources A and B. Chapter 3 explored how Berlin created problems for the wartime Allies. The Blockade and Airlift were indications of the huge gulf that had grown between the allies by 1949. fier the creation in 1949 of West Germany (the Federal Republic) and East Germany (the Democratic Republic), Beulin remained a divided and occupied city. The Soviet Union's desize to remove the Western Allies from Berlin created a crisis in 1961. ‘This crisis led to the construction of the Berlin Wall. ‘This chaprer answers the following questions: + Why did the Soviet Union wish to control Berlin? * What were the results of the crisis?What were the causes of the Berlin Crisis of 1961? Problems in East Germany You have already read in Chapters 2 and 3 abou the division of Berlin in 1945 and the Berlin aislift in 1948-49, Even after 1949, Berlin continued to pose a problem for the USA and Soviet Union. This was especially true for the Soviet Union, who wanted to remove the Allies from West Berlin because it was an area of capitalist prosperity and a symbol of the success of western Europe within communist territory. Between 1949 and 1961, about 4 million East Germans fled to the West through Berlin. Berlin was a gap in the Iron Curtain, and the Soviet Union was keen to block this gap up. Furthermore, the Soviet Union claimed that the USA and its Allics used West Berlin as a base for espionage. The Soviets argued that they needed to control movement and access into Berlin in order to combat Western espionage. East Germans fled to the West because they were dissatisfied with economic and political conditions at home. The forced collectivisation of agriculture and the end of private trading were not popular among the people of East Germany. ‘Moreover, there were shortages of consumer goods, schich could be bought cheaply in West Berlin. The views of Eisenhower and Khrushchev Tn 1958 Khrushchev issued the Berlin Ultimacum, He accused the Allies of breaking the Potsdam ‘Agreement, telling them that they should leave Belin within 6 months, and suggesting that it should become a neutral free city. President Eisenhower of the USA scemed prepared to negotiate. He did not want to risk a war over Beilin. Khrushchev's visit to the USA in 1959 scemed to be ‘successful, and a summit conference at Camp David ‘was agreed to discuss Berlin and nuclear weapons. Khrushchev and Eisenhower were set to meet in. Paris on 14 May 1960. Nine days before the summit conference was due to open, the Soviet Union announced that it had shot down an ‘merican U-2 spy plane near the city of Sverdlovsk. The pilot was captured and put on trial. Khrushchev demanded that all such fights stop and that the USA give an apology for spying. Eisenhower was prepared to stop the flights but would not apologise. There were bitter exchanges between Khrushchev and Eisenhower ata picliminary mecting, which ended with Khrushchev storming out of the first session. Bisenhower immediately cancelled his planned visit to the Soviet Union. Relations were growing very cold. How did Khrushchev challenge the USA? Several issues concerning West Germany created anxieties for Khrushchev. In 1955 West Germany had joined NATO (see pages 38-39), and in 1957, ithad joined the European Economic Community. Not only was West Germany economically strong and growing stronger, it was seen by Khrushchev as a military threat. The Soviet Union's fear of another German invasion would not go away. Hence Khrushchev was determined to solve the problem of Belin. For him, Berlin was ‘a fishbone stuck in his throar.. From January 1961, the umber of refugees leaving East Berlin for the ‘West increased rapidly to more than 20,000 a month. Large numbers of these refugees were professional people (on one day; for example, the entire Mathematics Department of the University of Leipzig defected), but there were also many skilled craftsmen among them. This drain of labour and economic ourput threatened to bring about the economic collapse of East Germany. Continuing to seek a solution, Khrushchev fixed another summit conference with the new president of the USA — John F. Kennedy. Khrushchev felt that he would be able to use his experience to push the young Kennedy around. However, he had failed to note that Kennedy had re-assested the ‘Truman Doctrine (see pages 27-28) in his inauguration specch on 20 January 1961. Acthe Vienna summit of June 1961, Khrushchev again demanded that western forces leave West Berlin. He said he would make a treaty Key Topic 2 Three Cold War Crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69with East Germany which would end all occupation rights, including Western access to Beilin, Kennedy refused to withdraw western forces and increased US defence spending by $3.5, billion the following month. Tn July, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet defence budget would be increased by more than 30 per cent. On 13 August 1961, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin, and East German police placed barbed wire along the $0-kilomeu line dividing the two sections. As the day progressed, construction of a concrete wall got under way, and it was completed by the next day. Eventually, the whole of West Berlin was encircled. The term ‘Iron Curtain’ was a metaphor, bur the Berlin Wall was real. The USA and its Allies did nothing to stop the building of the Wall. Source A: From a speech by President Eisenhower in September 1959 There must be some way to develop some kind of free city that might be part of West Germany. Perhaps the United Nations would guarantee the freedom, safety and security of the city... The time is coming, and perhaps soon, when we would simply have to get our forces out | ane Source B: Khrushchev speaking at the Paris press conference in May 1960. Khrushchev. who was hissed and booed, thought the noises came from the German press You fascist bastards are the kind we did not finish off at Stalingrad. We hit you so hard that we put you ten feet under right away. If you boo us and attack us again, look out! We will hit you so hard there won't be @ squeal out of you. TEER Source C: From a radio speech by Kennedy to the US people on 25 July 1961 We cannot and will not permit the communists to drive us out of Bertin, either gradually or by force. There i peace in Bertin today. The source of trouble and tension is Moscow, not Berlin. We seek peace but we shall not surrender. Source D: Khrushchev at the press conference which revealed the Paris Summit would not go ahead. Khrushchev was aggressive to the German reporters. On Khrushchev's left is the Defence Minister. Marshal Malinovsky ‘Source E: From a conversation between Khrushchev and a US diplomat at the end of July 1961 If your troops try to force their way to Berlin, we will oppose them by force. War is bound to go thermonuclear, and though you and I may survive, ail your European allies will be completely destroyed. 4. Re-read these pages and pages 34-37. Write a ‘newspaper article trom the Soviet point of view, explaining why Western Alles should leave Bertin. 2. What can you learn from Source A about Eisenhower's attitude to the problem of Berlin? 3. Describe one reason why the Soviet Union wanted the Allies to leave West Beriin, 4, What can you learn about Khrushchev as @ leader from Sources 8 and D? 5. Look at Sources C and E. What can you learn about the Cold War from these sources? Chapter 5 Berlin: a divided city @)Source F: Map showing the Berlin Wall encircling West Berlin 6. Explain why Khrushchev thought his case for N electhg the West from Berth was growing GERMAN. DEWOCRATIC stronger. 7. Describe one way in which relations between the USA and Soviet Union worsened in the period before the Berlin Wall was built. 8, What is meant by the term ‘tron Curtalr 8. Look at Sources E (page 51), F and G. Can you suggest reasons why the USA did not ‘oppose the building of the Wall? GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Source G: Photograph of East German workers building the Wall, August 1961. They are placing pieces of glass on top of the blocks (2) Key Topic 2 Three Cold War Crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69What were the results of the crisis? Peace was maintained, but at a price for the German people. Families were split, and travel restrictions made it very difficult for relatives to sce one another. Germans also felt et down because the Soviet Union had broken the 1949 agreement about the running of Belin, and for all his blustes, Kennedy had not gone to war. Source A: From a conversation between Kennedy and an aide after the Vienna Summit in 1961 It seems particularly stupid to risk killing a million ‘Americans over an argument about access rights ‘on an Autobahn [German motorway] or because Germans want Germany re-unified. If 'm going to threaten the Soviet Union with nuclear war, it will have to be for bigger and more important reasons than that. SSS Khrushchev interpreted the construction of the Wall in two ways. He felt thac he had beaten ‘Kennedy and was prepared for the next chance t0 out-manoeuvre his rival. The flow of refugees was stopped, and the economic ctisis East Germany was facing slowly evaporated. Khrushchev said that the ‘Wall was ‘guarding the gates of socialist paradise’. ‘Although Khrushchev had failed ro remove western forces from Berlin, the crisis ended and tension in Europe was cased. ‘The Wall became the symbol of the division in the world and, for Berliners, ie was a constant reminder that their country was still a tool of the Superpowers. President Kennedy visited West Germany in 1963. He made several speeches in some of its major cities, where he was met by huge, cheering crowds. When he moved on to ‘West Berlin, he embarked on a thirty-mile tour of the main streets, which were lined with an estimated 1.5 million people (out of a population of about 2.5 million). He spoke to a crowd of about 200,000 in the centre of the city, near the Wall. Some East Berliners listening to him on the other side of the Wall applauded him, too. ‘Source B: From President Kennedy's speech in West Berlin, 28 June 1963 While the wall is the most obvious and vivid demonstration of the failures of the Communist system, for ail the world to see, we take no Satisfaction in it. For itis, as your Mayor has said, an offence not only against history but an offence against humanity, separating families, dividing husbands and wives and brothers and sisters, and dividing a people who wish to be joined together... Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to ‘keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us. There are many people in the world who really don't understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue between the free world and the communist world. Let them come to Bertin. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boastis ‘Ich bin ein Beniiner’. (Although Kennedy meant this to meen: ‘I am a Berliner, he should have said in German: ‘ich bin Berliner’. Outside Berlin, a Berliner ~ ein Berliner ~ is a German pastry; some people joke that he actually said: I am a jelly doughnut’) sss Source C; Citizens of West Berlin lifting their children so that relatives in the East may see them. The photograph was taken in late 1961 Chapter 5 Berlin: a divided city ®)Source D: Cartoon about Khrushchev and the Berlin Wall. A possible caption might read: “See how many are staying on our side’ Source E: An unarmed Berlin teenager was shot and killed by East German guards as he tried to escape to West Berlin over the wall, ‘August 1962 4. Kennedy was accused of being tough on Cuba but soft on Bertin, Explain what was meant by this. (Read Chapter 6 to help you answer this question) 2. Imagine you are a West Berliner. White a letter to President Kennedy explaining why you think that the USA should intervene to reunite Bertin. 3. Create your own caption for Source D. 4. Using Sources A-E and the text on pages 53-54, copy and complete the table below about the effects of the Berlin Wal. An example has been done for you. Union Etfects for Superpower relations Etfects for the Soviet ‘Source D was bad publicity for the Soviet Union - showed their inhumanity to the wortd, (&) Key Topic 2 Three Cold War Crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69Cuba: the world on the brink of war || Source A; From an interview with a British history teacher in 2005 about the Cuban Missiles Crisis. The teacher was thirteen years old at the time of the crisis 1. What can you leam from Source A about the impact of the Cuban Missiles Crisis? We knew there was going to be war. The television news told us when the exact time the US and 2. Interview grandparents and other people Soviet fleets would meet. As soon as they met who lived through the Cuban Missiles Crisis. then we knew they would fire at each other and What do they remember of the crisis? thon the real war ~ nuclear war ~ would start. | was 's0 convinced that there would be a war, | didn’t do my French homework. What was the point? I'd be dead by the time of the test. OF course, the Soviet fleet tumed round and I had to do the fest and was given a detention for getting a poor mark. Chapter 5 explored the deterioration in relations between the USA and the Soviet Union as a result of the Berlin Crisis. President Kennedy had stated his belief that Berlin was not worth going to war over (sce Source A on page 53). However, the Cold War continued to grow colder with the development of the arms race and the hawkish attitude of Khrushchev. ‘The climax of the Cold ‘War came in October 1962, when the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba. “The Superpowers were on the brink of nuclear war, and for almost wo weeks the world held its breath. Fortunately, the USA and Soviet Union were able to find a solution to the crisis. The following years saw closer relations between them and eventually a period of détente. ‘This chapter answers the following questions: + In what ways did the arms race develop in the 1950s? + What were the causes of the Cuban Missiles Crisis? + What were the key features of the crisis? # What were che results of the erisis? Exam skills This chapter gives guidance on how to answer Question 4 on Paper 1. This question is worth six marks and asks you to provide a description from your own knowledge. ©In what ways did the arms race develop in the 1950s? The preceding chapters have shown how the USA. and the Soviet Union drifted away from each other aficr 1945. Following such events as the Berlin Blockade, the Korean War and the Hungarian uprising, the Superpowers became rivals. The formation of NATO (see page 38) and the Warsaw Pact (sce page 39) was an acknowledgement by the Superpowers that at some point in the future they zaight be involved in a war against cach other. By 1953 both the USA and the Soviet Union possessed hydrogen bombs. Both countries continued to develop more powerful nuclear weapons. On 1 March 1954, the USA tested its biggest ever hydrogen bomb. Its explosive power was the equivalent of fifteen million tons of INT (trinitroroluene). Winston Churchill described the global siruation as a ‘balance of terror’. ‘There was some hope that the swe Superpowers would slow down their arms development, but in 1957 the situation changed completely when a Soviet rocker launched Spurnif, a satellite which could orbit the earth in one and a half hours. The USA saw this launch as a military threat. During che years 1957-59, the USA increased is spending on missiles by 20 per cent, and President Dwight Eisenhower founded the National ‘Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Americans were concerned that the USSR was overtaking the USA in arms development. Therefore, the USA expanded its training programme for cengincers and scientists. In addition, the US Air Force increased the number of B-52 bombers, and, the US navy equipped some of irs submarines with nuclear weapons. The USA also placed missile bases in some European countries. Nevertheless, because of the technological developments in weaponry, both the Superpowers were able to reduce their conventional (non-nucleat) forces during the 1950s, Each Superpower expected the next war to be based on nuclear weapons. Source B shows how the armed forces of the USA and the Soviet Union had developed by 1961. Source A; US and Soviet weaponry by 1961 Weapon USA ‘Soviet Union Intercontinental bolle mise a Bae (CBM) ‘Submarine Taanched bolitie misoise % ° (SLBN) Machu’ ‘ntermadiat-range a0 2m Daliste maine (MPGMUREM) Long-range bombers 600 190 Bircralt carriers 24 ° Nuclear submarines a 2 ‘Conventional Canventon 174 428 ‘ese itary 2,608,000 8,800,000, ‘manpower By 1961, relations between the Superpowers were rather strained. The U-2 crisis (see page 50) and events in Berlin during 1961 (see chapter 5) had quashed any hopes of improvements, but it was events close to the USA which almost brought the world to nuclear war. 4. What did Churchill mean by the phrase ‘balance of terror’? 2, Describe one way in which the USA developed its arms programme after 1957. 3. Study Source A. Which Superpower would consider itself the weaker of the two? 4. Briefly explain the key features of the arms rece in the 1950s. Key Topic 2 Three Cold War Crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69What were the causes of the Cuban Missiles Crisis? Source A; This cartoon was published in the English satirical magazine Punch on 17 October 1962 ‘Map of Cuba Background to the crisis ‘The Cuban Missiles Crisis, which took place over a few days in October 1962, brought the Superpowers co the brink of nuclear war. Cuba had been a thom in the side of the USA since 1959, when a revolution had brough Fidel Castro to power. ‘Castro had ejected all US businesses and investment. In retaliation, the USA refused to buy ‘Cuba’s biggest export — sugas. The Sovict Union quickly saw a way to gain influence in the Caribbean. The Soviets offered to buy Cuban sugar and also to provide machinery, oil and technological assistance, Castro was now closely linked to the Soviet Union, and he professed that his political Jeanings were in the direction of communism. Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, was keen to challenge the USA. He had been unable to re-unite Berlin but was sure that he could out- manocuvre John F. Kennedy, the inexperienced new ‘American president. Moreover, Khrushchev needed some successes to deflect criticisms of his failures within the Soviet Union. oon Nandeds 4. Study Source A. What is its view of relations between the Superpowers? 2, Devise two captions for the cartoon - one from the viewpoint of Kennedy and one from that of Khrushchev. Chapter 6 Cuba: the world on the brink of war @)The Bay of Pigs, April 1961 would create a national uprising against Castro, . The exiles were trained by the US Central As a result of Soviet involvement with Castro, the Jyfigenece Agency (CIA) in Florida ood USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba in ‘a y : Guatemala. The whole operation had a budget of January 1961. Before the end of his presidency, pour $45m. The exiles called themselves La Eisenhower sanctioned a scheme under which rf oe Calan exiles living in che United Stas would be gn 1306 and by Oh cine Hey hag sore trained in preparation for an invasion of Cuba. When Kennedy succeeded Eisenhower in January 1961, he accepted this scheme. ‘The exiles were men who had left Cuba in 1959 when Castro had scized control from Batista. The aim of the planned invasion was to remove Castro. | 3, What can you learn about La Brigada 2606 ‘The fully equipped cxiles would land in Cuba and | from Source B? 4, Describe one reason why the Soviet Union Wished to increase its influence in the Caribbean area, Source B: Members of Assault Brigade 2506, after their capture at the Bay of Pigs, Cuba, in April 1961 5. Why did the USA wish to remove Castro as leader of Cuba? 6. Research the Central intelligence Agency (CIA). Find out, for example: ‘+ where it is based ‘© who works for it + what activities it was involved in during the Cold War. You could interview adults to discover what they know about the CIA, and then do further research using encyclopaedias or the internet. US planes bombed part of the Cuban airforce 16 Apri Planned second wave of bombings called off. The remnants of the Cuban airforoa were able to regroup and fight the next day 17 Apri La Brigada 2506 landed at Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) and encountered forces of about 20,000 men from Castro's army Fighting ended. About 100 of La Brigada were killed and 1,100 were imprisoned La Brigade prisoners released after $53million worth of food and medicines oiven to Cuba by organisations and ordinary people in the USA Timeline of the invasion Key Topic 2 Three Cold War Crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia 1957-69Why did the Bay of Pigs invasion fail? ‘The CIA had been convinced that when the exiles landed, the Cuban people would rise up and remove Castro. They were wrong. They had failed to understand that Castro was very popular. Most importantly, Castro was aware that an invasion was imminent because some of the exiles had been ovetheard discussing plans in Miami. ‘Air support was crucial in the initial stages, and the US decision not to attack the Cuban airforce on 16 April was critical to the outcome. La Brigada’s supply ships were sunk by Cuban planes. Furthermore, the Cuban ground forces, numbering What were the results of the invasion? Humiliation for the USA ‘and Kennedy 20,000, were superior in all respects ~ leadership, arms and organisation. La Brigada was no match for them. ‘Source C: Adapted from Cold War and Counter-Revolution: The Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, by Richard J. Walton Kennedy did not apologize about the Bay of Pigs, rather he Issued threats. And he repeated his amendment to the Monroe Doctrine; that Latin ‘American nations were free to choose their own governments, but only as long as they were not ‘communist. aT] Kennedy determined to resist growth of ‘communism in the Americas Castro's position strengthened in Cuba. Seen ‘as example by the developing world fo Castro pushed further towards, the Soviet Union ss Developing countries saw the USA ‘as an imperialist nation / USA begin Operation Mongoose — covert operations to remove Castro 7. Describe the key features of the Bay of Pigs. 8, Divide into groups, some representing the government of the USA and some the government of Cuba. Prepare speeches which elther defend or attack the actions of the USA over the Bay of Pigs invasion. ©. What can you learn from Source C about President Kennedy's likely reaction to any future problem in Latin America? 10. Using the diagram above, write an article for Cuban newspaper about the Bay of Pigs invasion. Write a headline and try to keep the article to around 100 words long. Chapter 6 Cuba: the world on the brink of war