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On cadenzas

§1
So far, the singer has been viewed only as a performer of a given piece; that is,
nothing more was expected of him than to sing exactly, with security of intona-
tion and steady tempo, what the composer has written down. In that case, only
small ornaments are permitted for better connection of the melody or to give it
more liveliness and lustre. Now, we still wish to acquaint the singer with those
opportunities where he is called upon to make free use of his own inventiveness
and taste. In this chapter the so-called fermata, where the accompanying instru-
ments make a small pause in order to allow the singer time to introduce some-
thing of his own, will be discussed in detail. The arbitrary variations, which
extend throughout an entire aria with continuous accompaniment, give the
singer another opportunity to show inventiveness and judgment. This will be
dealt with in the following and final chapter.
§2
Cadenzas are also included in the category of the fermata. In the tenth lesson
of Part I of the instruction, the essential meaning of cadences has already been
discussed.1 Each of the four voice parts has its own way of forming cadences
and introducing a trill on the penultimate note. Here the word cadenza
[Cadenz] has a somewhat different meaning and implies the improvised orna-
mentation which the singer introduces according to his own discretion when
the accompaniment pauses.2 Many years ago it was the custom to introduce
improvised ornaments without a pause in the accompaniment, as can be seen
from the examples in Musica Moderna practica* by Johann Andreas Herbst, the

* This little work was printed in German in Quarto on eleven sheets [of paper] in Frankfurt in 1658. The
German title reads: “A Short Introduction as to how Boys and Others Who Have a Special Desire and Love
to Sing in the Italian Manner Can be Taught Quite Thoroughly and with Little Effort. Everything is
Conveyed with Great Diligence, from the Outstanding Authorities, also Ornamented with many clausulae
[cadences] and Variations: especially for the Use of Instrumentalists who Play the Violin and the Cornetto,
Augmented with all Kinds of Cadences and Re-issued for the Third Time in Print.” From this small work
one can gain a fair understanding of the art of singing in the previous century.
1
Hiller, Anweisung zum musikalisch-richtigen Gesange, Lesson 10, §8, pp.143–144.
2
In German the word Cadenz, or Kadenz, can refer either to cadence or cadenza. In this chapter, Hiller is con-
cerned with cadenzas and the improvisations a singer can invent when he/she sees a fermata.

121
122 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

former Kapellmeister from Frankfurt-am-Main. To accommodate the singer

and also because the audience enjoyed his inventions, it became customary
after a while to have the instruments stop in order to give the singer time to
display his ideas.
§3
This concession toward the singer had several disadvantageous consequences.
Singers who lacked neither presence of mind nor ideas and technique misused
the opportunity since they did not set any limits either in mixing various figures
or in the time which is allowed for the duration of such improvised additions.
Tosi, who is absolutely no friend of cadenzas, makes fun of this: “The contem-
porary singer,” he said, “is inclined to make fireworks of improvised passages at
the end of the first part [of the da capo aria] and the orchestra has to wait. At
the end of the second part, he doubles the load in his throat causing the orches-
tra to become bored. When the halt finally comes at the third cadence, the whole
mine of divisions loaded with so much effort is blown up, and the orchestra feels
ready to curse out of impatience.”3 Now, if, to top it off, an ignorant audience
admired and applauded these little extravaganzas of the singer, as they are in the
habit of doing, then it would be easy to imagine how a singer could get the idea
into his head that the invention of a long and colorful cadenza should be empha-
sized more than a good performance. To a certain extent this error is excusable
since it is not infrequent that the best, most masterly performed arias are not
applauded, whereas the cadenzas of the most mediocre singers draw the loudest
applause. Thus, the singer has good reason, at least at the end of the aria, to
solicit applause from the audience, even if he has to force the occasion.4 In Der
Vollkommene Capellmeister Mattheson calls this cadenza a farewell bow which the
singer offers his listeners.5 Thus, it is quite appropriate that they thank him and
wish him luck on his journey.
Although this type of singer deserves to be recognized to some extent, there
are others, however, who would like to imitate them but cannot. Their heads are
either so dry that they do not know how to bring out anything like a new idea of
their own, and tire the listener with everyday trifles and unvarying monotony, or
3
In Tosi/Galliard, Observations, pp. 128f (see also Baird, Introduction, pp. 205f.), Tosi chides the virtuosi of his
time who have used cadenzas for primarily nonmusical reasons, i.e. fame, wealth, and vanity. While he shows
some understanding for the economic motivations of his colleagues, he rigorously defends the aesthetics of
music against such excesses. Tosi therefore restricts the use of extensive ornamentation and allows only small
elaborations. He is of the opinion that there should be absolutely no cadenzas that interrupt the time of the
bass at any of the section endings of the da capo aria. Thus, the singer should be permitted nothing more
than a small elaboration at the three main cadences of the aria.
4
Hiller shows understanding for the singer’s need to gain acknowledgment for his art, furthering the argu-
ment that Agricola presented in his refutation of Tosi’s restrictive instructions. Agricola defends the singer’s
need to show inventiveness, to highlight the affect of an aria, and to employ the element of surprise. He
favors a cadenza on the final cadence of the da capo aria and gives detailed rules that are designed to
prevent abusive ornamentation. In this context he refers to Quantz and his instructions outlined in Chapter
15. See Tosi/Agricola, Anleitung, pp. 203–206 (Baird, Introduction, pp. 210–213) and Quantz, On Playing the
Flute, pp. 179–181.
5
Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, Part II, Chapter 3, §39, p. 116; Harriss translation, p. 273.
 On cadenzas 123

their throats are so stiff and their intonation so insecure that the listener suffers
with them through the troubles they took to make their cadenzas. If one takes
everything into consideration it does not seem to be quite definite whether the
use of these improvised cadenzas is to be praised rather than criticized and
whether they are to be permitted or forbidden. No matter how much applause
they receive from most of the listeners, there have always been men of taste and
insight who declared themselves against cadenzas. Nevertheless, since music
requires variety throughout, since everything that pleasantly surprises the lis-
tener adds to the effect of the whole, since no opportunity should be taken away
from the singer to show his skill, the increased use of cadenzas might be justified
and therefore is worth a closer investigation.
§4
No matter how many ideas the singer has, he should not leave anything to
chance. Therefore he should pay attention to the following rules:6
1. Cadenzas must not appear too frequently and must also not be too long.
Actually, no breath should be taken in between; thus, as a result of this rule, it is
not permitted to last longer than the singer’s breath allows. This rule cannot be
kept without exception, simply because the very different strengths and weak-
nesses of the chest and other random circumstances allow sometimes more,
sometimes less, and at times all too little expansion. And yet an idea that is sup-
posed to be complete and of some importance needs such expansion. Thus, if
the singer has to breathe it can only be done with speed and on those notes which
do not disrupt the continuity.
2. At all times, the cadenza must be based upon the pervading character and
the chief affect of the aria. A cadenza consisting of numerous slurred notes
would be just as much out of place in a fiery aria as one put together of wild runs
would be in a slow aria. In order to make a cadenza suit the aria, a few beauti-
ful places from the aria itself should be utilized, and, if possible, inserted with
skill into the cadenza.
3. Identical figures should not be repeated too often. Rather, different figures
must be combined and interchanged so that they appear more similar to a skill-
ful combination of single independent phrases than to a regular arioso melody.
For this reason, one is not permitted to follow the meter strictly although one
takes the tempo of the aria somewhat as a measure and must not sing a cadenza
allegro in an adagio and vice versa – not sing an adagio cadenza in an allegro
movement.
4. The more unexpected material that can be introduced in a cadenza, the
more beautiful it is. All kinds of figures, runs, leaps, triplets, and so on may be
used there. We shall soon investigate more closely how they are introduced and
what they are based upon.
6
For the following rules, Hiller relies mainly upon Agricola’s instructions. See Tosi/Agricola, Anleitung, pp.
203f.; Baird, Introduction, pp. 210f.
124 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

§5
The entrance of the cadenza is always on the first of the three melodic notes with
which it is customary to form cadences in the upper voices. The harmonic
accompaniment is constructed so that the bass remains on the fifth [V] of the
key for the first [I 64] and second note, and afterwards returns to the tonic [I] with
the final note. The harmony that belongs to the first note is nothing other than
the tonic triad, major or minor, as the nature of the aria indicates. In the case
described above, since the bass has moved to the fifth of the key, this triad forms
a 64 chord, which is customarily followed by a 53 chord, because the trill which
appears at the end of the cadenza immediately before the final note is always
introduced on this chord. Everything the singer wants to perform from his imag-
ination must belong to the scale or the harmony of the tonic note. This then
would be one type of cadenza. Another type arises when one chooses the
harmony of the fifth instead of the harmony of the tonic, and only incidentally
touches upon the tonic. Finally, the third type occurs if one makes use of small
turns and modulations to distant keys. However, one must be aware of all too
foreign notes and must always make certain that all dissonances against the bass
receive a proper resolution.
§6
If the singer is guided by the demands of a cadenza, he must become familiar
with the various types of figures which form passaggi, insofar as cadenzas are
made up of runs. In this way, all kinds of ornaments, appoggiaturas, and trills
can also be put to use. In fact, the triad and the scale are the most secure foun-
dations upon which good cadenzas can be built. If one knows how to vary by
means of all kinds of figures and to enliven and beautify with various well-chosen
and well-performed ornaments, one has sufficient means at hand to invent
cadenzas. Since words are not specific enough to describe these things, examples
may say more about it:

   

(1) Upward
 On cadenzas 125

(2) Downward

These are not nearly all the variations which can be undertaken with a scale.
An intelligent singer will have the ability to invent many more variations like
these, and even if he cannot make a complete cadenza out of them, he at least
has a good beginning there. Let us imagine that the cadenza is in F; thus, it is
possible to form a fairly complete cadenza with a small addition from the closely
related harmony of the fifth. The relationship of certain figures also leads to that
point.
126 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

Cadenzas which for the most part belong to the harmony of the dominant
would look approximately like this:

The triad also permits some variations that are useful in cadenzas.
For example:

§7
Often singers introduce this manner of ornamenting cadenzas where instru-
ments cannot stop, but rather must continue. In an Adagio something may be
undertaken even if only a quarter of the measure is available; to be sure, half
a measure is better. In an Allegro at least half a measure is required; a
whole measure is better. I will write down the examples in only one way,
because one can easily arrange it according to the other way by augmenting the
meter.
 On cadenzas 127

§8
These examples do not imply that all cadenzas must always be put together from
colorful, running figures. No! A few well-sustained tones, some skillfully applied
and correctly resolved dissonances can often, without adding fast runs, bring
about a good effective cadenza. In Adagios one makes more use of the latter than
of the former. However, it is not necessary to do the same thing throughout and
either to drag a cadenza along in slow notes or to toss it away in fast runs. Because
one intends to surprise the listeners in this way, the best results will be by means
of a skillful mixture of fast and slow, the fiery and the tender, and the strong and
the weak. Some mixed-in dissonances or chromatic tones added at random con-
tribute to this result in the same manner.

The introduction of dissonances is the means of modulating to foreign keys.

However, the singer should not dare to go too far or remain there too long,
because of the danger of losing the tonic key and not being able to find the way
home again.

§9
Unexpected entrances of strange or remote intervals add an element of surprise.
Some singers carry this to extremes. The entrance of the cadence note in the
128 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

augmented fourth (a) is one of the most useful, because this fourth is the leading
tone of the fifth of the tonic and therefore is not at all foreign even though it takes
this form. Something can also be done with the augmented fifth (b) as the leading
tone to the sixth. Other dissonant entrances cause more havoc than good.
Therefore, it is better if they are not used too often. The resolution of the aug-
mented fourth can also be delayed for a while (c).

Intervals whose range is larger than that of an octave should not take place at
the beginning, but rather more in the middle. Some time ago, the descending
thirteenth and twelfth were very popular and can at times be used if the singer
is certain that they are in tune and secure.

All these unusual entrances and wide leaps must be undertaken with somewhat
long notes in order to arouse the attention of the listener and to make them com-
prehensible to him. Therefore, they demand steadiness and strength in perfor-
mance.
The singer who favors such leaps can also attempt to make these and others
in an ascending pattern. It would be too extensive to represent everything in
examples. One may attempt it oneself and be satisfied with an example of the
intervals of the tenth and eleventh.

§10
The text on which the cadenza occurs requires a light vowel or a diphthong
which the singer must sustain purely and distinctly. I and u are of no use in caden-
zas and if, in spite of that, one is demanded, the singer must look for a syllable
in the vicinity which will be comfortable and useful. He should, however, take
 On cadenzas 129

care, that if it is the next to the last syllable, that he does not come out with it
again at the end, and instead of saying “Ga-ben,” for example, pronouncing it
“Ga-Gaben” – or instead of “Le-ben,” “Le-Leben”; or, that if he found the
required syllable further on, not to leave out the following one. It would be ridic-
ulous if with “lasciami dubitar” after the cadenza on “ta,” the singer added “tar”
or “bitar.” In this case, a cadenza must be arranged so that a number of the syl-
lables are incorporated in it and the trill would fall on the third syllable from the
end, and the Nachschlag and the final note bring in the last two syllables, approx-
imately in the following manner:

§11
At times, holds occur in the middle of pieces which are not really cadenzas, but
rather caesuras; one calls them fermatas, and they are indicated with the usual
sign of the hold (). They appear above (a) harmonic and (b) dissonant tones. In
the latter, the last note must contain the resolution. Here, too, as in cadenzas, the
singer introduces a small improvised ornamentation. If, however, it is not to his
liking, he can replace this ornament by a mere trill without a Nachschlag or an
extended crescendo if the fermata is placed on the last note [at the end of the
piece].7 This last type of ornamentation is best if a second note, leaping down
an octave, follows the note marked with the . In this case, a long double mordent
can be attached to the note that is swelled. Generally, one handles the other
improvised ornaments in the following manner:

7
It is intriguing that Hiller, while describing how to handle fermatas in the middle of a piece, digresses here
to discuss final fermatas.
130 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

At other fermatas, the singer should concern himself not only with arbitrary
ornamentation, but much more with an appropriate (a) transition to the follow-
ing melody; on the other hand, others again demand (b) both at the same time.8

8
Here Hiller uses the word künstlich as a synonym for willkürlich.
 On cadenzas 131

In the rondos which are very fashionable nowadays, there are frequently oppor-
tunities for these transitions, and they give the singer the chance to show inven-
tion and taste. At times, even arias begin with a fermata, as the famous Parto from
the opera Ciro riconosciuto by Hasse, which Salimbeni sang so masterfully.9 The
singer should know how to handle this from the examples already given.
§12
The usual caesuras which are not fermatas also require, at times, a little ornamen-
tation, especially in slow movements, if they are not supposed to come out stiff
and dragging. An appoggiatura added to the penultimate note can help to relieve
the dullness and dragging quality of this situation. Therefore, the singer must help
himself with certain small figures put together partly from Doppelvorschläge and
Nachschläge in order to achieve his purpose better.

§13
A word must now be said about the double cadenza, because there is, at times,
an opportunity for this in duets and concert arias. Although there have been
occasional attempts with triple cadenzas, they do not deserve consideration on
their own, but rather they are bound to the rules of the double cadenzas.10
These demand (1) that both voices follow each other and may not do anything
that the other cannot support or imitate; (2) that both voices do not always
progress in thirds and sixths, but rather have ties and resolutions against one
another; they must also contain short imitations which may be at the same pitch
or at different ones; (3) that, to be sure, no definite meter is necessary, although
it is important that the tempo is strictly observed, especially in imitative places,

19
Ciro riconosciuto by Hasse (1699–1783), libretto by Metastasio, first performed in Dresden, January 20, 1757.
10
Hiller follows Agricola’s recommendations for the proper execution of double cadenzas. See Tosi/Agricola,
Anleitung, pp. 204f.; Baird, Introduction, pp. 211f.
132 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

so that both voices are in step with one another; (4) that passages which are
intended for imitation must be constructed so that the other could also imitate
comfortably with his voice as well as his instrument, as far as his skill and range
are concerned. Therefore, it is necessary that one singer should conform to the
other and that an instrumentalist should not perform what a vocalist cannot, if
the singer is supposed to imitate. Under these circumstances a double cadenza
is at times so long that it cannot easily be sung in one breath. Taking breaths is
therefore permitted in this type of cadenza and can happen so comfortably,
while the other continues to sing, that it is hardly noticeable. It is easy to under-
stand that such cadenzas should be written down; and if, at times, singers
undertake this on the spur of the moment, they can have no other purpose than
to throw sand into the eyes of the listeners, or to ridicule each other. The fol-
lowing two examples do not conform completely to the prescribed rules since
it is not necessary that all rules be observed closely. Thirds and sixths, ties (sus-
pensions) and resolutions, imitations in various forms and in different figures
appear to be too much for one and the same cadenza if it is not to be exces-
sively long. Thus, the singer should choose what serves his purpose best and
save the rest for another occasion. Yet another useful observation in the follow-
ing two cadenzas: one and the same idea, by means of inversion, can be used
twice.
 On cadenzas 133

§14
What has been said about cadenzas and fermatas up to this point can, neverthe-
less, give fruit for further thought as not everything that can be said about this
material has been given here. There is nothing as difficult to discuss with deter-
mination and thoroughness as what the performer’s taste adds to the embellish-
ment of music. Language is not rich enough to express in words what often is
alive in feeling. Notation is even less capable of representing, to the eye, all the
fine details of ornamentation: the gradual decrease from loud to soft and vice
versa, the joyful, joking, tender, lamenting tone of the affect. It is not possible to
give any other instruction about this except to listen to good singers and, some-
times, good instrumentalists. Nevertheless, cadenzas should not be overestimated
simply because there are those who look down upon them. A poorly performed
aria cannot be elevated by means of a cadenza. Hence, the main work should
not be neglected by the attention and care devoted to secondary matters.
However, if the singer cannot perform any well-chosen and extensive cadenzas,
he should compensate for the loss by performing the aria carefully, and by allow-
ing a few tones, well grounded in the harmony and followed by a trill, to take the
place of the cadenza. In general, it is seldom an error if the cadenza is too short;
however, very frequently it is too long. Only the double cadenza may be made
134 Treatise on vocal performance and ornamentation

somewhat longer. Also, the same type of idea is allowed to occur twice, as we
have seen. However, in the simple cadenza this would be offensive and a mistake.
To what extent the double trill is appropriate here has already been discussed in
the fourth chapter of this book. Thus, it would be superfluous to repeat it.11
11
See Chapter 4, §23, pp. 93f. above.