CHAPTER 1

DOMESTICATION AND UTILITY OF FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR

ROLE IN INDIAN ECONOMY
Origin of Livestock:
Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce
commodities such as food, fiber and labour. Livestock are generally raised for profit.
Animal Husbandry is a component of modern agriculture. It can be defined as an art
and science of keeping or raising the domesticated animals most profitably or economically.
It also includes handling and marketing of livestock and livestock products. It is said to be an
art because skill is required in sound application of basic principles of animal sciences, viz,
breeding, feeding, housing, management and health care of animals in a perfectly suitable
manner to a particular situation.
Mammals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, horse and camels.
Avian : Poultry
Mammals are the animals in which the females possess paired mammary glands
which secret milk for nourishment of their young ones. Mammals are viviparous as they give
birth to fully developed young ones whereas, Aves are the birds, which posses paired wings
for flying and are oviparous i.e. egg laying. Mammals and birds have originated from reptiles
by evolution. Evolution is defined as a gradual process of development of modern species of
plants and animals from their earlier primitive forms by:
(i) Hereditary transmission of slight variation in successive generation (from generation to
generation).
(ii) Mutation
(iii) Natural selection
All types of mammals and birds have originated/evolved from reptiles by evolution.
Evolution took place 7 crores years ago. Hoofed animals (ungulates) were evolved before 4.5
to 5 crores years. Mammals and Avian class animals are better suited to terrestrial life than
any of other class of vertebrates.
Domestication of Livestock:
Domestication: Making the animals to adopt their life in intimate contact with human
beings and that too for their benefit. The benefits men derive from animals include food,
fertilizer, fuel, cultivation, transport, protection, sports and games etc.
Advantages of Domestication:
(i) Nomadic life: Prior to domestication of animals, man was living nomadic life.
Domestication of animal helped man to live settled life. It leads to the establishment of small
villages which later on developed into towns and cities.
(ii) Land management: The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control
weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to
graze on dry scrub which removes combustible material and reduces the risk of fires.
(iii) Animal proteins and dairy products: It helped in easy and assured supply of animal
proteins. Animals convert grasses and fodders into milk and meat. Mammalian livestock can
also be used as a source of milk, which can in turn easily be processed into other dairy
products, such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumis.
(iv) Woolen clothes: In cold countries people started domestication of sheep and started
preparing clothes from wool. Livestock produce a range of fiber/textiles. For example, sheep
and goats produce wool and mohair; cows, deer, and sheep skins can be made into leather
and bones, hooves and horns of livestock can be used.
(v) Transport: Domestication of horses and camels helped in speedy movement of men.
(vi) Motive Power: Animals like bullock, horses and camels became the source of motive
power to perform various agricultural operations like transport, cultivation, irrigation etc.
(vii) Mastery over environment: Domestication also helped man in getting mastery over
environment and utilize the available resources.
(viii) Fertilizer: Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This is an important
reason why historically, plant and animal domestication have been intimately linked. Manure
is also used to make plaster for walls and floors and can be used as a fuel for fires. The blood
and bone of animals are also used as fertilizer.
India’s Mega Diversity of Livestock:
Several species of domesticated animals have originated here. The genetic diversity
within these species is astounding. Some examples are:

Cattle 26 breeds

Goats 22 breeds

Sheep 40 breeds

Poultry 18 breeds

Buffalo 8 breeds

The Beginning of Animal Husbandry:

Animal-rearing has its origins in the transition of cultures to settled farming
communities rather than hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are ‘domesticated’ when their
breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over time, the collective behaviour,
life cycle, and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Man in Old Stone Age
(10000-8000 B.C.) made no attempt to domesticate animals but used to eat those animals that
he was lucky to hunt. In the New Stone Age (8000-6000 B.C.) man changed from hunter to
husbandry man of animals by domestication. Domestication came after food cultivation.
Domestication of Animals:

When (Years Why

Species from present Where
time) (Reason for domestication)

Dog 8500-9000 East Asia Pet, Companion

Goat 8500-9000 Southwest Asia Food, Milk, Clothing

Pig 8000-9000 Eastern Anatolia Food & Sports

Sheep 6000-7000 Southwest Asia Food, Milk, Clothing

Cattle 6000-6500 Southwest Asia, India, Religious reasons

North Africa

Chickens 5000-5500 India, Sumatra Cockfight Shows, religion

Horse 4000-5000 Eurasian Steppes Transportation

Mountain

General Utility of Livestock and Poultry:

1. Cattle: For milk, meat (beef/veal) and motive/draft power for agriculture.
2. Buffaloes: For milk, meat (beef/veal) and motive/draft power for agriculture in
humid high rainfall areas.
3. Sheep: For wool, meat (mutton), skin and hide, manure/night folding.
4. Goat: For milk, meat (chevon), hair, skin and hide and manure.
5. Rabbit: For wool/fur, meat, lab animal and recreation.
6. Pigs: For meat (pork) and bristles.
7. Poultry: For eggs, meat (broiler), lab animal and for recreational purpose.
8. Horse/Donkey/Mule: For riding, transport of goods/men, sports/racing and novelty.
9. Camel: As motive power for transport of men/goods in arid zones, water lifting,
crushing oilseeds, sugarcane etc. Popularly called “Ship of desert”.
10. Yak: For milk, meat and as source of motive power for transport of goods/men in hilly
tracts and cold countries.
Present Status and Scope of Animal Husbandry in India:
India is an agricultural country. Animals are kept under mixed farming system.
Animal products are widely used in human diet, so development of animal husbandry is
recognized very well. A.H. is also recognized for animal power for farming and adoption of
better land use pattern. Animals utilize agricultural byproducts and agro-industry byproducts
and convert them into valuable products. A.H. also provides employment to rural people.
Large scale animal industry (dairy, leather, meat and animal feed industry) also provide
employment to people. The country has total land area of 328.8 million hectares, of which
143 million hectares is under cultivation and of this approximately 60 million hectares
(gross) is irrigated. Less than 5% of the irrigated area is under fodder crops.
In spite of largest livestock wealth as number, species, breeds in India, the level of
production of livestock products (milk, meat, wool, eggs) is most unsatisfactory. This may be
due to the poor feed resources availability, tropical diseases, as well as poor attention being
paid to organize breeding. The livestock provide protective food in the form of meat, milk,
eggs etc. They provide motive power to farmers and rural poor’s. They also provide valuable
by products in the form of skins, fibers, organic manures and other usable items (Feather,
bone, horns, hairs etc). Their contribution to rural employment is relatively large being 29%.
The majority (62%) of small and marginal farmers and landless labourers have livestock
specially cattle and buffaloes. Dairy development programmes taken up under the operation
flood benefited to these classes very much. A.H. thus offers a vast scope for application of
science and technology to the problems of food, hunger and rural employment.
Animal Husbandry is a supplementary occupation to agriculture in our country. It is a
part of life in rural people. It provides cash insurance in case of crop failure to the farmers.
A.H. provides better support in poverty elimination. Co-operative dairy activity provides
strong way of progress to rural economy. Overall 27.28% income to farmers generated from
dairy business. Our country stood first in milk production since 1998 in the world.
Our country has 16% cattle, 17% goat, 4% sheep and 57% buffaloes of the world. We
produce 7.11% milk of cattle. 61.95% milk of buffaloes, 21.52% milk of goat of the world.
Dairy development rate was 4.5% in last two decade as against 2.2% in agriculture. Most of
the nomadic tribes and people living on edges of villages depend on sheep and goat rearing.
Role of Animal Husbandry in National Economy:
• India is an agricultural country with agriculture based economy.
• Cattle and buffaloes are the backbones of Indian agriculture/dairying industry.
• It is densely populated and has limited land resources. More than 50% of the population
depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihood.
• Nearly 4% of the national GDP and 25% of the agricultural GDP is derived from animal
husbandry.
• Livestock, especially dairy cattle and buffaloes are useful to Indian economy in the
following ways:
1. Provide protective food in the form of milk and meat.
2. Provide motive power for agriculture.
3. Provide supplementary income to the farmers.
4. Provide valuable organic manure and fuel.
5. Utilize unproductive land.
6. Provide miscellaneous products-raw materials.
 Animal Husbandry and Dairying play an important role in development of India's
economy. Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries sectors play an important role in the
national economy and in the socio-economic development of the country. These sectors also
play a significant role in supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment
in the rural sector, particularly, among the landless laborers, small and marginal farmers and
women, besides providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people. Livestock are the best
insurance against the vagaries of nature like drought, famine and other natural calamities.
Highlighting the importance of the livestock sector in the Indian economy, the Annual Report
as per Central Statistical Organization (CSO) states that the value of output from livestock
sector at current prices was about Rs. 4,59,051 crore during 2011-12 which is about 25.6% of
the value of output from the agriculture and allied sector.
The present contribution of livestock to the national economy is estimated to be
Rs.18000 crores, mainly from milk and milk products (70 per cent); meat and meat products
(11.5 per cent); poultry (8.8 per cent) and dung for fuel (7.8 per cent). In addition, the value
of other animal products as eggs, wool, leather goods etc, makes the total of Rs.18000 crores.
Apart from above items, the value of draught power from 88 million bullocks including 8
million buffalo bullocks indispensable to agricultural operations is of the order of Rs. 5000
crores. In 2008-09, this sector contributed 108.5 million tonnes of milk, 55.6 billion eggs,
42.7 million kg wool and 3.8 million tones of meat. Several measures have been initiated by
the government to increase the productivity of milch animals, which has resulted in
increasing the milk production significantly from the level of 102.6 million tonnes at the end
of the tenth plan (2006-07) to 127.9 million tonnes at the end of the eleventh plan (2011-
12). Poultry development in the country has shown steady progress over the years. Egg
production was around 66.45 billion in 2011-12. The poultry meat production is estimated to
be about 2.47 million tonnes.
According to 2019 census, the livestock population is estimated at 535 million
comprised of 192.5 million cattles, 109.9 million buffaloes, 74.26 million sheep, 148.9
million goats and 9.06 million pigs and poultry birds 851 million.
India is
• World’s highest livestock owner at about 535.78 million
• First in the total buffalo population in the world - 109.85 million buffaloes
• Second in the population of goats - 148.88 million goats
• Second largest poultry market in the world
• Second largest producer of fish and also 2nd largest aquaculture nation in the world
• Third in the population of sheep (74.26 millions)
• Fifth in the population of ducks and chicken (851.81 million)
• Tenth in camel population in the world - 2.5 lakhs
Cattle and Buffaloes:
India has 14 per cent of the world’s cattle and 57 percent of the world’s buffalo
population. India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the world and India
produced 13.1 per cent of the total milk produced in the world. Hence, India has attained the
first rank in milk production in the world. At present the first five countries in the world
producing maximum milk are India, USA, Russia, Germany and France. At the beginning,
production of milk was only 17 million tonnes (MT) in 1950-51 in India. Now it is increased
to 108.5 million tonnes in 2008-09. World milk production is estimated at 693 million tonnes
during 2007-08 and Indian milk production stands at 104.8 million tonnes. Several measures
have been initiated by the government to increase the productivity of milch animals, which
has resulted in increasing the milk production significantly from the level of 102.6 million
tonnes at the end of the tenth plan (2006-07) to 127.9 million tonnes at the end of the
eleventh plan (2011-12). India, the largest producer of milk in the world, is set to produce
over 187.7 million tones milk during 2018-19. The per capita availability of milk in India is
394 grams per day (2020). Per capita milk availability is highest in Punjab (1181g) while in
Gujarat it is (626g). The average milk production of a milking cow is only 173 kg and that of
buffalo is about 500 kg milk per lactation in India which is far below than world average.
Some of the key outcomes of the 20th Livestock Census (2019)
• The total Livestock population is 535.78 million in the country showing an increase of
4.6% over Livestock Census2012
• Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 302.79 Million in 2019
which shows an increase of 1.0% over the previous census.
• The total number of cattle in the country is 192.49 million in 2019 showing an increase
of 0.8 % over previous Census.
• The Female Cattle (Cows population) is 145.12 million, increased by 18.0% over the
previous census (2012).
• The Exotic/Crossbred and Indigenous/Non-descript Cattle population in the country is
50.42 million and 142.11 million respectively.
• The Indigenous/Non-descript female cattle population has increased by 10% in 2019 as
compared to previous census.
• The population of the total Exotic/Crossbred Cattle has increased by 26.9 % in 2019 as
compared to previous census.
• There is a decline of 6 % in the total Indigenous (both descript and non-descript)
Cattle population over the previous census. However, the pace of decline of Indigenous
Cattle population during 2012-2019 is much lesser as compared to 2007-12 which was
about 9%.
• The total buffalo in the country is 109.85 Million showing an increase of about 1.0%
over previous Census.
• The total milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes are 125.34 Million, an
increase of 6.0 % over the previous census.
• The total sheep in the country is 74.26 Million in 2019, increased by 14.1% over
previous Census.
• The Goat population in the country in 2019 is 148.88 Million showing an increase of
10.1% over the previous census.
• The total Pigs in the country are 9.06 Million in the current Census, declined by 12.03%
over the previous Census.
• The total Yak in the country is Fifty Eight Thousand in 2019, decreased by 24.67%
over previous Census.
• The total Horses and Ponies in the country are 3.4 Lakhs in 2019, decreased by 45.6%
over previous Census.
• The total Camel population in the country is 2.5 Lakhs in 2019, decreased by 37.1%
over previous Census.
• The total Poultry in the country is 851.81 Million in 2019, increased by 16.8% over
previous Census.
• The total Backyard Poultry in the country is 317.07 Million in 2019, increased by 45.8%
over previous Census.
• The total Commercial Poultry in the country is 534.74 Million in 2019, increased by
4.5% over previous Census.
 CHAPTER 2
REPRODUCTION IN FARM ANIMALS

Efficient reproduction (i.e. regular calving at 12-14 months interval) is a key for
profitable dairy farming. The knowledge regarding anatomy and physiology of reproduction
is very essential to maximize fertility and minimize reproductive disorders.
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system has been shown in figure below. The primary organs of
reproduction in male are two testes, which are located outside the body in a sac like structure
called scrotum. Scrotum maintains the temperature of testes about 4-50C below body
temperature. The cooler temperature is required for the normal spermatogenesis (process of
formation of sperms in testes). The temperature is maintained by contraction and relaxation of
muscles of scrotal wall. During cold atmosphere testes are retracted towards body whereas in
warm weather they are relaxed.
The male reproductive tract consists of two parts –
1. Testicles (primary sex organ) including
 Seminiferous Tubules made of Leydig Cells and Sertoli Cells
2. Secondary sex organs, including…
 Epididymis
 Vas Deferens
 Urethra and Penis
 Seminal Vesicle
 Prostate Gland and
 Cowper’s Gland
Testes:
Two in numbers suspended vertically within sac known as scrotum, ovoid in shape. Length is
10 - 16 cm and 8 cm width. Each testes composed of several crypts enclosed in serous layer
called tunica vaginalis. Each crypt has several numbers of seminiferous tubules. The wall of
seminiferous tubules consists of basement membrane & multilayered sperm producing
epithelium having two types of cells i.e.
(i) Germ cells -Spermatozoa produced here.
(ii) Sertoli Cells - Sperms get matured. The space between seminiferous tubules occupied by
interstitial cells (Leydig's cells) produces male hormone.
 Figure – Reproductive tract of bull
Epididymis:
Is considered in three parts i.e.
(i) Caput (head),
(ii) Corpus (body),
(iii) Cauda (tail).
It arises from efferent ducts testes. Throughout of its length epididymal tube is lined with
secretary cells. Spermatozoa produced in testis accumulate and mature during their journey
through epididymis which is 30-35 meters in bull.
Transport:
Sperms transported from rete testes to efferent duct by the fluid pressure of testis and by
active beating of cilia. It lakes 7-9 days for any sperm to travel from germinal epithelium to
caudal epithelium.
Concentration:
Dilute sperm concentration originated in testes- water absorbed into epithelial cell of
epididymis mainly in caput & highly concentrated sperm left in cauda (tail).
Maturation:
In the course of migration of sperm cells get matured as; it result of secretion from
epididymal cells.
Storage:
Cauda (tail) is store depot for sperms where they remain viable up to 60 days.
Vas deferens:
It is slender tube with thick cord like wall originating from tail of epididymis ending into
urethra. It is paired and is with spermatic arteries, veins, nerves. It passes through the inguinal
ring and pelvic cavity. It is abundantly supplied with nerves & by voluntary contractions of
musculature/it is involved in ejaculation.
Urethra:
It is common passage way for product of testes, accessory glands and for excretion of
urine. It extends through penis to the glands penis.
Penis:
It is male organ of copulation arid composed of erectile tissue attached and held by
sigmoid flexure. It has function of ejaculation and excretion of urine.
Seminal Vesicles:
Two in number located on either side of ampulla which secrete a fluid high in sugars
(fructose) to nourish the spermatozoa – feels like a bag of grapes (palpation). The secretion
contains mainly fructose and citric acid contributes to seminal plasma which is rich in
carbohydrates, salt of citric acid, proteins, amino acids, enzymes, vitamins. This fluid also
dilutes sperm at ejaculation and serves to activate motility – the bulk of fluid production occurs
here. Secretes prostaglandins, causing uterine contractions.
Prostate Glands:
Consist two joined parts. It is surrounded by urethral muscles. Secretion is high in
mineral content.
Cowper's gland:
Are paired, round - compact of walnut size, located above urethra. Secretion is viscid &
mucus like.
Female Reproductive System
It consists of organs, namely
1. Ovaries : Reproductive glands
2. Fallopian Tubes: Coveys ova from ovary to uterus.
3. Uterus: In which fertilized ovum develops.
4. Vagina: Dilatable passage from uterus to Vulva.
5. Vulva : Terminal segment of system
Ovaries:
Two in number laying in the abdominal cavity sizes are 0.5 to 1.5 Inch diameter and 0.5
to 1.5 inch width & thickness. Dual purpose - production of eggs or ova and production of
female hormone i.e. estrogen.
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube):
Are slender, zigzag lubes attached to ligament 20-25 cm in length, close to ovaries in
such a way that eggs / ova released by ovary area cached through funnel shape wide end called
as "Infundibulum". The epithelial lining of oviduct is ciliated of which ciliary motion helps to
conduct ova from ovaries to uterus. The fertilization occurs in the ampullary region.
Uterus:
It consists of short medium body, pair of spirally twisted internally cavity connecting
two horns known as body of uterus. The uterus has three layers i.e. outer servosa, middle
muscular and inner is mucosa. In non-pregnancy period uterus lies in the pelvic cavity which
descends into abdomen during pregnancy. Fertilized ovum/embryo develops into uterus until
the time of birth. It nourishes the developing foetus through cotyledons of inner layer.

Figure – Reproductive system of cow

Cervix:
It is thick walled portion which lies between uterus and vagina having muscle layers
forming longitudinal folds forming spiral passage way through it. It is 4 inch long and 1 inch or
more thick. It is tightly closed during pregnancy and anoestrus period and reopens during estrus
and parturition.
Vagina:
It is between cervix to vulva in cow. It is 8-10 inch long highly elastic organ.
Responsible for secretion of mucus, serves as birth canal dung parturition & admits male organ
during copulation.
Vulva:
It is external vertical opening of genital tract just below anus. Diameter is larger than
that of vagina. Vulva walls supplied with glands which are active during excitement.
Oestrus Cycle
Definition:
1. The interval from the first signs of sexual receptivity at Oestrus (heat) to the next estrus
is called estrus cycle.
2. The chain of physiological events that begins at one Oestrus period and ends at next is
called as Oestrus cycle.
The cycle is of 20 + 2 days in cows for normal female in quite regular cycles. This cycle may be
studied in four distinct phases as designated by Marshall i.e. Proestrum, Estrum, Metestrum and
Diestrum.
Proestrum: (Pre-estrus)
This phase is indication of animal coming in heat. The ovary is surrounded by follicular
fluid containing high level of estradiol. The Graffian follicle within ovary grows. The increased
level of estradiol is absorbed into blood making effect to oviduct causing growth of cells lining
the tube & increasing in the number of cilia which are shortly helpful to transport ova to uterus.
Also, epithelial wall of vagina increases in thickness to accommodate smooth coitus this period
is of S hrs to 2 days.
Estrum: (Estrus)
This is period of sexual desire. The Graffian follicles are mature or ripe in this stage.
This phase period comes to close by rupture of follicle of ovulation i.e. release of Ovum. This
period lasts for 12-24 hours in cow while 1-2 days in ewe. The symptoms exhibited during this
period by cow are it bellows frequently, mounts other animals, excited, licking to other animals
and stands to be ridden by other animals. This period is called period of standing heat. The
proper period to breed is 8 to IS hrs, for getting high fertility rate.
Metestrum: (Met-estrus)
Period during which reproductive organs return to normal condition. The phase is of 1-5
days in which the cavity of the Graffian follicle from which ovum had been expelled becomes
reorganized and forms new structure known as corpus luteum (C.L.) which secretes
progesterone hormone having following functions:
1. Prevents maturation of further Graffian follicles which prevent occurrence of further
estrus period for a time.
2. It is essential for implementation of fertilized eggs.
3. It initiates the development of mammary gland.
Diestrum: (Di-estrus)
This is the longest phase of cycle. The corpus luteum is fully grown, making its effect on
uterine wall to accommodate the embryo. The muscles of uterus develop. The uterine milk is
produced to nourish embryo. If pregnancy succeeds, this stage is prolonged throughout
gestation remaining C.L. intact for the period. In absence of fertilized eggs, the C.L. undergoes
retrogressive changes the cell becomes vacuolated in the lipid droplets. Since the C.L. got
reabsorbed, the level of progesterone is .declined and the level of estradiol increases, bring the
animal in heat and the cycle is repeated in case of failure of fertilization.
Pregnancy
The period from the date of conception to the day of parturition is called "gestation
period" and the condition of the female of carrying the foetus during this period is called
"Pregnancy".
 OR
"The period of pregnancy is the duration of time which elapses between conception and
parturition".
Importance of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
Whether animal is pregnant or not is directly related to economy of dairy management
Pseudo-pregnancy may lead to loss of valuable time period in the life of animal. Pregnant
animals need to change their feeding schedule as well as the management from early stage. An
early detection of pregnancy becomes an indispensable job for herd owner.
Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
1. Signs of Pregnancy - exhibited and and detected externally.
2. Symptoms of Pregnancy - per rectum / vaginal examination.
3. Laboratory Tests - Presence of certain hormones tested in laboratory.
Signs of Pregnancy:
1. Cessation of Oestrus cycle.
2. Sluggish temperament
3. Tendency to fatten.
4. Gradual drop in milk yield.
5. Gradual increase in weight
6. Increase in size of udder.
7. Waxy - appearance of teats in last month of pregnancy
 CHAPTER 3
HOUSING PRINCIPLES, SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LIVESTOCK (RUMINANTS)

HOUSING FOR DAIRY CATTLE

An efficient management of cattle will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate
housing of cattle. Improper planning in the arrangement of animal housing may result in
additional labour charges and that curtail the profit of the owner. During erection of a house for
dairy cattle, care should be taken to provide comfortable accommodation for individual cattle.
Livestock is provided housing for following purposes/objectives:
Objectives
1. To protect the animals from extreme/harsh climatic conditions.
2. To protect them from the predators.
3. To increase the efficiency in the herd management in terms of feeding, cleaning, watering,
health control, handling etc.
4. To increase the efficiency of labour utilization in carrying out the farm work.
Location of Dairy Farm Buildings:
The points which should be considered before the erection of dairy buildings are as follows.
1. Topography and Drainage
A dairy building should be at a higher elevation than the surrounding ground to offer a good
slope for rainfall and drainage for the wastes of the dairy to avoid stagnation within. A levelled
area requires less site preparation and thus lesser cost of building. Low lands and depressions
and proximity to places of bad odour should be avoided.
2. Soil Type
Fertile soil should be spared for cultivation. Foundation soils as far as possible should not be too
dehydrated or desiccated. Such a soil is susceptible to considerable swelling during rainy season
and exhibit numerous cracks and fissures.
3. Exposure to the Sun and Protection from Wind
A dairy building should be located to a maximum exposure to the sun in the north and minimum
exposure to the sun in the south and protection from prevailing strong wind currents whether
hot or cold. Buildings should be placed so that direct sunlight can reach the platforms, gutters
and mangers in the cattle shed. As far as possible, the long axis of the dairy barns should be set
in the north-south direction to have the maximum benefit of the sun.
4. Accessibility
Easy accessibility to the buildings is always desirable. Situation of a cattle shed by the side of
the main road preferably at a distance of about 100 meters should be aimed at.
5. Durability and Attractiveness
It is always attractive when the buildings open up to a scenic view and add to the grandeur of
the scenery. Along with this, durability of the structure is obviously an important criterion in
building a dairy.
6. Water Supply
Abundant supply of fresh, clean and soft water should .be available at a cheap rate.
7. Surroundings
Areas infested with wild animals and dacoits should be avoided. Narrow gates, high manger
curbs, loose hinges, protruding nails, smooth finished floor in the areas where the cows move
and other such hazards should be eliminated.
8. Labour
Honest, economic and regular supply of labour is available.
9. Marketing
Dairy buildings should only be in those areas from where the owner can sell his products
profitably and regularly. He should be in a position to satisfy the needs of the farm within no
time and at reasonable price.
10. Electricity
Electricity is the most important sanitary method of lighting a dairy. Since a modem dairy
always handles electric equipments which are also economical, it is desirable to have an
adequate supply of electricity.
11. Facilities, Labour and Food
Cattle yards should be so constructed and situated in relation to feed storages, hay stacks, silo
and manure pits as to effect the most efficient utilization of labour. Sufficient space per cow and
well arranged feeding mangers and resting are contribute not only to greater milk yield of cows
and make the work of the operator easier also minimizes feed expenses. The relative position of
the feed stores should be quite adjacent to the cattle barn.
Noteworthy features of feed stores are given:
• Feed storages should be located at hand near the center of the cow barn.
• Milk-house should be located almost at the center of the barn.
• Centre cross-alley should be well designed with reference to feed storage, the stall area
and the milk house.
DAIRY CATTLE HOUSING:
Loose Housing System:-Loose housing may be defined as a system where animals are kept
loose except milking and at the time of treatment. The animals are provided with a shed for
feeding, watering and shelter during extreme climate. This system is more economical. The
system consists of various units for successfully layout as follows: The entire shed is
surrounded by boundary wall of 5 feet height. On one side of house, there is provision of
feeding area under covered shed having 2-2 ½ feet of feeding space per cow. A common water
tank is providing on one side of house. Concentrates are fed at the time of milking in hopper
bins, where cow stands in stanchion in milking area. The paved area is a place of house where
she gets fresh air and sunshine (100-150 square feet/cow). A box stall or calving box of 10’x10’
or 12’x18’ should b provided for calving and sick animals (1 per 15 animals). A calf pen of
10’x10’ will be sufficient for 4 calves.
There should be a provision of weight bridge, plateform balance for weighing animals
and bull pen 12’x18’ for housing and feeding a bull. There should be a manure pit located away
from barn. In nut shell, the loose house should have facility for feeding, watering, milking, rest,
calving box, calf pen and sick animal box.
Advantage of Loose Housing:
• It is economical as the cost of construction is significantly lower than conventional type.
• Animals get enough exercise and feel more comfort.
• Facilitates easy detection of animals in heat.
• Possibility to make further expansion without much change.
Disadvantage of Loose Housing:
• More space (10-20% extra) is required than conventional type of housing.
• Individual feeding attention is not possible.
• Herd cannot be displayed easily.
• The animal in heat is disturbed by fellow animals.

(Cattle Shed)
 Conventional Housing System: - They are standards stalls with facilities for feeding, watering
and housing of individual animals. The conventional dairy barns are comparatively costly but
animals are more protected from adverse climatic conditions. In this system, cow sheds can be
arranged in a ‘single row’ (if cattle number is more than 10 or up to 50). In double row system,
the cows can either be faced in (face to face system) or faced out (tail to tail system). The
system consists of various units for successfully layout for proper housing of different classes of
dairy cattle and buffaloes on the farm.
Cow Sheds:
Cow sheds can be arranged in a single row if the numbers of cows are small. Say less than 10 or
in a double row if the herd is a large one. Ordinarily, not more than 80 to 100 cows should be
placed in one building. In double row housing, the stable should be so arranged that the cows
face out (tail to tail system) or face in (head to head system) as preferred.

Advantages of Tail to Tail System:

• Under the average conditions, 125 to 150 man
hours of labour are required per cow per
year. Study of time: Time motion studies
in dairies showed that 40% of the
expended time is spent in front of the cow,
and 25% in other parts of the barn and the
milk house, and 60% of the time is spent
behind the cows. Time spent at the back
of the cows is 4 times more than the time
spent in front of them. Tail to Tail System
• In cleaning and milking the cows, the
wide middle alley is of great advantage.
 • Lesser danger of spread of diseases from
• animal to animal.
• Cows can always get more fresh air from
outside.
• The head gowala can inspect a greater
number of milkmen while milking. This is
possible because milkmen will be milking
on both sides of the gowala.
• Any sort of minor disease or any change
in the hind quarters of the animals can be
detected quickly and even automatically.

Advantages of Face to Face System:

• Cows make a better showing for visitors
when heads are together.
• The cows feel easier to get into their
stalls.
• Sun rays shine in the gutter where they are
needed most.
• Feeding of cows is easier; both rows can
be fed without back tracking. Face to Face System
• It is better for narrow barns.

Top View of Face to Face System/Barn

Floor:
The inside floor of the barn should be of some impervious material which can be easily kept
clean and dry and is not slippery. Paving with bricks can also serve ones purpose. Grooved
cement concrete floor is still better. The surface of the cow shed should be laid with a gradient
of 1" to 14" from manger to excreta channel. An overall floor space of 65 to 70 sq.ft. per adult
cow should be satisfactory.
Walls:
The inside of the walls should have a smooth hard finish of cement, which will not allow any
lodgement of dust and moisture. Comers should be round. For plains, dwarf walls about 4 to 5
feet in height and roofs supported by masonry work or iron pillars will be best or more suitable.
The open space in between supporting pillars will serve for light and air circulation.
Roof:
Roof of the barn may be of asbestos sheet or tiles. Corrugated iron sheets have the disadvantage
of making extreme fluctuations in the inside temperature of the barn in different seasons.
However, iron sheets with aluminium painted tops to reflect sunrays and bottoms provided with
wooden insulated ceilings can also achieve the objective. A height of 8 feet at the sides and 15
feet at the ridge will be sufficient to give the necessary air space to the cows. An adult cow
requires at least about 800 cubic feet of air space under tropical conditions. To make ventilation
more effective continuous ridge ventilation is considered most desirable.
Manger:
Cement concrete continuous manger with removable partitions is the best from the point of
view of durability and cleanliness. A height of 1'-4" for a high front manger and 6" to 9" for a
low front manger is considered sufficient. Low front mangers are more comfortable for cattle
but high front mangers prevent feed wastage. The height at the back of the manger should be
kept at 2'-6" to 3". An overall width of 2' to 2 1/2' is sufficient for a good manger.
Alleys:
The central walk should have a width of 5'-6' exclusive of gutters when cows face out, and 4'-5'
when they face in. The feed alley, in case of a face out system should be 4' wide, and the central
walk should show a slope of 1" from the center towards the two gutters running parallel to each
other, thus forming a crown at the center.
Manure Gutter:
The manure gutter should be wide enough to hold all dung without getting blocked, and be easy
to clean. Suitable dimensions are 2" width with a cross-fall of 1" away from standing. The
gutter should have a gradient of 1" for every 10' length. This will permit a free flow of liquid
excreta.
Doors:
The doors of a single range cow shed should be 5 feet wide with a height of 7 feet and for
double row shed the width should not be less than 8 to 9 feet. All doors of the barn should lie
flat against the external wall when fully open.
Calving Boxes:
Allowing cows to calve in the milking cow shed is highly undesirable and objectionable. It
leads to insanitary in milk production and spread of disease like contagious abortion in the herd.
Special accommodation in the form of loose-boxes enclosed from all sides with a door should
be furnished to all parturient cows. It should have an area of about 100 to 150 sq.ft. with ample
soft bedding, it should be provided with sufficient ventilation through windows and ridge vent.
Isolation Boxes:
Animals suffering from infectious disease must be segregated soon from the rest of the herd.
Loose boxes of about 150 sq.ft. are very suitable for this purpose. They should be situated at
some distance from the other barns. Every isolation box should be self contained and should
have separate connection to the drainage disposal system.
Sheds for Young Stocks:
Calves should never be accommodated with adults in the cow shed. The calf house must have
provision for daylight ventilation and proper drainage. Damp and ill-drained floors cause
respiratory trouble in calves to which they are susceptible. As far as possible the shed for the
young calves should be quite close to the cow shed. Each calf shed should have an open
paddock or exercise yard. An area of 100 square feet per head for a stock of 10 calves and an
increase of 50 square feet for every additional calf will make a good paddock. It is useful to
classify the calves below one year into three age groups, viz., calves below the age of 3 months,
3-6 months old calves and those over 6 months for a better allocation of the resting area. An
overall covered space of:
1. 20-25 square feet per calf below the age of 3 months,
2. 25 -30 square feet per calf from the age of 3-6 months,
3. 30-40 square feet per calf from the age of 6-12 months and over, and
4. 40-45 square feet for every calf above one year, should be made available for the
sheltering. A suitable interior lay-out of a calf shed will be to arrange the standing space
along each side of a 4 feet wide central passage having a shallow gutter along its length
on both sides. Provision of water troughs inside each calf shed and exercise yard should
never be neglected.
Bull or Bullock Shed:
Safety and ease in handling a comfortable shed protection from weather and a provision for
exercise are the key points while planning accommodation for bulls or bullocks. A bull should
never be kept in confinement particularly on hard floors. Such a confinement without adequate
exercise leads to overgrowth of the hoofs creating difficulty in mounting and loss in the
breeding power of the bull. A loose box with rough cement concrete floor about 15' by 10' in
dimensions having an adequate arrangement of light and ventilation and an entrance 4' in width
and 7' in height will make a comfortable housing for a bull. The shed should have a manger and
a water trough.
If possible, the arrangement should be such that water and feed can be served without actually
entering the bull house. The bull should have a free access to an exercise yard provided with a
strong fence or a boundary wall of about 2' in height, i.e., too high for the bull to jump over.
From the bull yard, the bull should be able to view the other animals of the herd so that it does
not feel isolated. The exercise yard should also communicate with a service crate via a swing
gate which saves the use of an attendant to bring the bull to the service crate.
Floor Space Requirement for Cattle and Buffalo:

Type of Floor space required (sq. Max. no. of Height of shed

animals met/animal) (cm)
animal/pen
Covered area Open paddock

Bulls 12.0 120.0 1 175 in medium

and heavy rainfall
Cows 3.5 7.0 50 area

Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50 and 220 in semi

arid and arid areas
Down calvers 12.0 12.0 1

Young calves 1.0 2.0 30

Older calves 2.0 4.0 30

HOUSING FOR SHEEP AND GOAT

Normally, sheep and goat do not require elaborate housing facilities but minimum provision
will definitely increase productivity by protecting the animals against bad weather conditions.
Shed should be provided with gunny bags or thatching material and bamboos. The roof of shed
should be made up of asbestos sheet and supported by angle iron.
Generally, loose housing is practiced which is having following sheds:
➢ General flock shed
➢ Shed for rams/bucks
➢ Lambing/kidding shed
➢ Lamb shed/kid shed
➢ Sick animal shed
HOUSING FOR SHEEP:
The sheep should be protected from adverse climatic conditions particularly during winter and
rainy weather. The sheep barn should be located on dry, well drained site with yard space and
paved area adjacent to it. A floor space of 12 square feet/ewe is sufficient in barn having the
facility for feeding and watering. The feeding pasture should be fenced to protect the sheep
from dogs and predators. Feed racks may be placed in zigzag fashion along the fence. The hay
racks 16’ long and 2 ½’ to 3’ height with and 8” opening at about 1’ from the bottom are
sufficient for a flock of 40 ewes. The grains are fed from separate trough which may be of
10”x12”x4” in size and may be kept at about 8-10” from the ground. A watering trough of
similar size may also be constructed.
 For lambs, a 12’ long water tank equipped with float valve may be constructed. Dipping
vat made up of cement concrete with a size of 16’ x 4’ x 10’-12’ inside width at bottom and 20-
24’ inside width at top is sufficient. The top of vat should be 8-12’ above the ground level. The
inclined ladder and a ramp for exit of sheep should be 6’-7’ long for a 3’ deep vat. At the exit
end, a drain plateform is built.
Shearing room should be made for shearing the sheep which should be well lighted and
ventilated. On either side of shearing room, there should be 2 simple fenced lofts for collection
of sheep before and after shearing with a passage of 1.5’ width leading to shearing room should
also be there. There should be provision for sheds for breeding rams and lambs and an isolation
box for sick animal. A lambing pen for pregnant ewe should be provided for safe lambing pen
for pregnant ewe should be provided for safe lambing. Other accessory units like store for wool,
feed and fodder, farm equipments, clinic, etc. should also be provided.
Sheep house should have the following sheds and facilities:

1 Sheep barn/general 6 Stores 11 Grain trough

flock shed

2 Ram shed 7 Shearing room 12 Watering tank

3 Lambing shed 8 Feed racks 13 Dipping vat

4 Lamb shed 9 Loft/yard

5 Isolation box 10 Grazing pasture area

HOUSING FOR GOAT:

Goat housing is somewhat similar to sheep housing. In close housing pen an area of 1.80 square
meter par animal with feeding and watering through is sufficient. In open house an area of 4.5
square meter/goat is sufficient. The milch goat shed may be partitioned with brick wall, stone
slab or iron tubing install for each done for individual milking and feeding. The kidding pen
should be of 6’x5.5’ dimensions enclosed with a fence of 4’-4.5’ height. Large flocks of goats are
usually kept in groups except adult male, pregnant doe, and heavy milkers which are housed
individually or in small groups. Kids may be housed in a loose box or in a large wooden box.
Sufficient hay racks and watering through should be provided in every shed.
Sheds and facilities under conventional housing:

1 Doe shed 4 Kid shed 7 Milk storage room

2 Buck shed 5 Weaned sheep 8 Stores

3 Kidding shed 6 Milking shed 9 Isolation box

Floor space, feeding and watering space for sheep and goat:

Sr. Types of animal Floor space Feeding space Watering space

No. per animal (m2) per animal per animal (cm)
(cm)

1. Kid/lamb ½-1 30 3

2. Adult female 1-1½ 40 4

3. Pregnant and lactating animals 2 50 5

4. Adult ram 2 50 5

Feeding/watering space requirements (cm) for different categories of livestock:

Type of Space Total manger Length of Manger/water trough (cm)

animal length in a pen water trough
per
in a pen/100 Width Depth Height of inner
animal / 100 animal
animal wall

Adult 60-75 6000-7500 600-750 60 40 50

cattle and
buffalo

Calves 40-50 4000-5000 400-500 40 15 20

Adult 40-50 4000-5000 400-500 50 30 35

sheep and
goat

Lambs 30-35 3000-3500 300-350 50 20 25

and kids
 CHAPTER 4
MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, GROWING HEIFERS, DRY
AND PREGNANT ANIMALS AND MILCH ANIMALS

(A) Importance of Calf Raising (as replacement stock)

In dairy herd, adult cows or buffaloes produce milk. Milk is the main source of income
to the dairyman. Every year some of these cows or buffaloes are to be sold/culled because of the
following causes/reasons.
a) Old age/senility,
b) Not breeding properly –repeat breeding,
c) Loss of teat/s & udder- mastitis,
d) Low production –uneconomic
e) Vices – self suckling, suckling others, bossism
f) Chronic contagious diseases – TB, JD, Brucellosis etc.
The proportion of such animals may be 20 to 30 per cent of the total cows. As these
uneconomic animals are removed from the herd, equal number of new animals should be added
every year to maintain the herd strength and the milk production. This new addition (or herd
replacement) can be done by two ways.
(i) By purchasing cows or buffaloes and
(ii) By raising the farm-bred heifers.
Replacing the uneconomic cows through purchases has following disadvantages.
a) Only unwanted animals are sold. So in most cases we purchase animals having low
production or some defects/vices.
b) Diseases are introduced in the herd along with purchased animals.
c) Consistent increase in level of production of the herd, every year or every generation,
cannot be done.
In view of the above disadvantages, raising heifers on the farm is advisable.
(B) Systems of Calf Raising: Calves can be raised by two methods. They are;
(i) Natural methods, and
(ii) Artificial method or weaning.
In natural method the calf is allowed to suckle the dam at the time of milking, morning and
evening. In ‘weaning’ or ‘artificial’ method the calf is not allowed to take milk directly from the
teats of the dam, but it is fed known quantity of whole milk or other substitute by the man in
bowl/pail.
 The advantages of weaning are as follows:
a) In natural method the calf suckles large quantity of milk; say 25-30% of the milk
received in the pail. This comes to 450-500 liters per lactation. In weaning method the
quantity of whole milk feeding can be very much reduced. So the calf can be raised
more economically.
b) We can know the real milk producing ability of cows.
c) In case of death of the calf, the milk yield of the dam is not lost. If dam dies, calf can
survive on milk of other cows.
d) Male calves and defective female calves can be sold at early age.
e) The cows become regular breeder. They come in heat earlier and conceive earlier than
the cows, suckling their calves.
The only disadvantage of weaning method is that if proper care is not taken and proper
sanitation is not observed, there is higher rate of mortality (death rate) among calves due to
pneumonia, enteritis, calf scour, septicemia etc.
(C) Care of the Calf right at Birth:
Care of the calf starts well before it is born. The dam should be housed in a clean well-
bedded calving pen. As soon as the cow shows signs of labour pain, one man should constantly
and quietly watch her. Uneasiness, kicking the floor, frequent getting up and sitting down, lying
down and straining, are the signs of initiation of parturition. Within two to three hours after
starting of labour pain, usually, the water bag appears at the vulva. This ruptures and the hooves
of the two fore legs appear. At each contraction/ straining by the cow the feet of the calf are
pushed out gradually. The head is presented- pressed on the knees, as the feet are out. This is
the normal presentation. If the calf is not in this position at the time of birth, it leads to
“Dystokia”- difficult birth. When there is dystokia, expert help should be called immediately. If
the position is normal, the calf may be pulled out, gently, when the cow is straining. The cow
generally does not need assistance for birth of the calf, if the presentation is normal.
As soon as the calf is out, we should see that the respiration is started. Clean the mouth
and the nostrils off the obstruction if any. If the respiration is not established a light jolt may be
given to the calf.
(D) Care of the Calf after the Birth:
a) Natural system: The newly born calf, if it is to be raised by natural method, should be
placed before the dam. The cow will immediately begin to lick and dry the calf. This will
stimulate respiration, improve the circulation and dry the calf. A vigorous calf will attempt
to get up in about 15 minutes. When the calf is dried and can stand on its legs, it may be
weighed. It may be noted that male calves are slightly heavier than the female calves. The
naval chord may be cut to about 3 to 6 cm size by sterilized scissors and disinfected with
30% solution of tincture of iodine or with solution of savlon.
b) Weaning system: The calf to be raised by weaning should be removed to the next room,
soon after it is born. It should be cleaned dry with a clean soft towel or cloth. The drying
should be done quickly to prevent the calf from chilling especially in winter. After drying
the calf, it may be weighed and the naval chord cut and disinfected as stated above.
 Soon after this, ear marking with tattooing fork or ear tagging should be done for definite
identification of the calf. Earlier application of identification marks is very important for
calves to be raised in groups by weaning.
Feeding Colostrums:
The first milk that a cow gives after dropping a calf is known as colostrum. It is thick,
sticky and yellow in colour. The colostrum from the dam is to be fed to the calves to be reared
by natural as well as weaning method for first 3-4 days.
The importance (advantages) of colostrum feeding is as follows.
a. Colostrum contains 3 to 5 times more protein than normal milk. It is also richer in
minerals (copper, iron, magnesium, manganese), carotene, vitamin A and other vitamins
of B complex group, than normal milk. These nutrients are very essential for a good start
of the growth of the calf.
b. The laxative property of colostrum helps to clean away the “muconium” - a solid
metabolic waste product collected in the intestines of the young one. This is sticky, foul
smelling and black in colour – first faeces passed out by calf.
c. The globulin fraction of the protein of colostrum carries antibodies. They enable the calf
to protect itself from many infections.
The colostrum from the mother should be fed to the calf preferably within 30
minutes and not later than 90 minutes of birth. This is because with passage of time the
permeability of intestinal wall to globulin (antibodies) decreases. If the colostrum from the
mother is not available, that from any other cow may be fed. If no colostrum is available, the
calf may be given the normal milk supplemented with 20 ml of cod liver oil, 60 ml of castor oil
and one egg yolk.
Teaching the Calf to Nurse/Suckle:
• Natural method:
By instinct the calf looks for the food at and above the level of its head, and tries to suck
anything it goes into touch with. Under natural conditions most of the calves will find out the
teats, within ½ to 1 hour after their birth, and begin to nurse themselves. However, there may be
calves, which need assistance in suckling for a period from one to several days. The calves have
difficulty in nursing because of tight, turgid, thick teats full of milk, so they should be allowed
to suckle after some milk is drawn from the udder.
• Weaning method:
In case of weaning system it is very necessary to teach the calf to drink milk. The calf
has the instinct to look for food at and above the level of its head. This comes in the way of
making the calf to understand that the food comes from below that level. Again, the calf knows
“suckling” instinctively, but not “drinking”. Therefore, the fingers should first be dipped into
colostrum and be given to the calf for suckling from above. As the calf sucks, the fingers should
be inverted and lowered down and dipped into the vessel containing colostrum. The mouth of
the calf will follow the fingers to the surface of the colostrum. As its mouth comes in contact
with the surface of the colostrum it will be induced to drink. By repeating the above action the
calf should be taught to drink milk. This operation requires a great deal of patience. For
convenience, the calf may be taken to one corner of the pen and the milk pan should be kept at
suitable height near the mouth of calf. Milk feeding pails with nipples attached are also
available. The vessel and hand of operator should be thoroughly washed and disinfected prior to
milk feeding, otherwise the calf may get infection leading to scour.
Feeding the Calves:
(a) Natural Method:
In this method, the calf is kept with the dam day and night for first 3-4 days. Then it is
transferred to the calf pen. The calves in the same pen should be of about the same age. The calf
should be taken for suckling twice to the dam. Ordinarily the calf should be allowed to suckle 1
kg of milk per 10 kg of its body (i.e. 10% of its body weight) per day for first 6 to 8 weeks of
age. This may then be gradually decreased. The calf should be given a handful of concentrate
mixture, moistened with milk after 1 week of age. This may gradually be increased to 0.5 kg
daily. Similarly the calf should be given excellent quality roughage – preferably green - after it
is about 2 weeks old. As the calf learns to eat the fodder, the quantity may be increased and fed
ad-libitum.
(b) Weaning Method:
Under weaning system, the calf may be reared by feeding.
1. Skim milk or butter milk or whey (Milk replacer/substitute).
2. Calf starter (Conc. mixture containing 22-24% CP & one animal origin ingredient)
3. Milk replacer and calf starter combined.
Feeding schedule for method-1 (milk replacer) is given in Table below

Age of calf Rate of feeding per day (kg)

Whole milk Skin milk Grain Hay

1 to 3 days colostrum - - -

4 to 14 days 3 to 5 - - -

2 to 3 weeks 5 to 6 ½ to 5 - -

3 to 4 weeks - 5 100g -

4 to 5 weeks - 5½ 200g Ad libitum

5 to 6 weeks - 6 300g “

6 to 8 weeks - 6 400g “

8 to 12 weeks - 6 1 kg “

12 to 16 weeks - 5 1½ kg “

16 to 24 weeks - - 1½ kg “
 It is thus estimated that the following amount of feeds will be required for raising the
calf up to six months of age by this method.
Whole milk: 45 to 75 liters. Grain: 175 kg
Skim milk: 500 to 700 liters. Hay: 300 kg
When skim milk, butter milk or whey are not available for feeding, method 2 or 3 may
be employed.
Precautions in Feeding Weaned Calves:
1. Care should be taken in maintaining sanitation and disinfection of milk feeding vessels,
calf pen etc. The mouth of calf is cleaned after milk feeding & common salt be applied.
2. The temperature of milk or milk substitute should be nearer to the body temperature.
3. Routine timing of feeding should be followed.
4. The calves are kept tied individually at and after milk feeding to avoid suckling body parts
of each other.
The calves should be taught to eat feed as early as possible. This will hasten rumen
development, so that they can digest and eat more of their natural, economical feeds, viz.
roughages and concentrates. Little milk may be sprinkled on concentrates initially when these
are offered first time at the age of 1 to 2 weeks. The calves like clean, green and leafy legume or
mixed fodders. The calves should have access to clean, fresh drinking water at all times.
Housing:
1. The calves should be kept in dry, clean and well-ventilated pens.
2. They may be provided clean bedding in winters.
3. They are kept individually until one month of age.
4. Then they are housed in groups according to age.
5. After 3 month of age, male & female calves are kept separately in similar age group.
6. The calf pen should have attached open yard for sufficient exercise.
Dehorning /Disbudding:
Advantages: Dehorned animals are safe to handle and require lesser floor and feeding
space. There is no danger of horn cancer or injury afterwards.
Methods and age: The dehorning is done by physical method using electric dehorner /
hot iron rod or by chemical method using KOH /AgNO3 crystals at 10 – 14 days of age.
Deworming:
The calves, especially buffalo calves, are prone to numerous roundworm infestations. So
regular deworming of calves is important to maintain their normal growth rate. They are
drenched with various broad spectrum anthelmentics periodically, such as Piperazine adipate,
Heltac, Mebendazole, Parbendazole, Vermax etc. Coccodiostats like DOT, Sulpha drugs and
Amprosol are also given to control coccidiosis.
Vaccination:
Calves are vaccinated for foot and mouth disease at 2 month of age and again booster
dose is given at 6 months of age.
Growth pattern (Test of efficient calf management)
1. At birth weight of Kankrej, Jersey X Kankrej crossbred, Holstein Friesian X Kankrej
crossbred and Mehsani buffaloes are 21–22 kg, 22-24 kg, 25-26 kg and 24-26 kg,
respectively.
2. Indigenous, crossbred and buffalo calves should grow at the rate of 300, 450 and 400 gm
daily.
3. Calf mortality should be within 10 %. Buffalo calves have little higher mortality rate
(<15%) than this.
MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY HEIFERS
(A) Management of Growing Heifers:
From the management point of view, growing female bovines after the milk feeding or
suckling stage (4 months of age) till first calving are called heifers. These are actively growing,
yet unproductive animals. Therefore, there is a general tendency to neglect these animals. They
should be managed as cheaply as possible, at the same time taking care that they grow at the
normal rate and start breeding at an early age.
(a) Early Post-Weaning Period:
For the period of about 4 to 6 months after milk feedings or suckling stage (i.e. from 4 to
8-10 months of age) the dairy heifers should be fed 1-2 kg concentrates of good quality. The
mixture, if possible, may contain some protein from animal origin. Concentrates mixture should
contain nearly 14- 16% protein, if legume roughage is fed, and if not, the protein percent in the
ration should be about 16-18%. Mineral mixture and common salt each should be fed daily @
20 to 25 g to each heifer. Since the rumen is not fully functional in the early post-weaning
period, good quality roughage should be fed to dairy heifers. Mixed (legume /non-legume)
succulent roughage is very good. If all roughage is only non-leguminous it is necessary to feed
about 25 g of steam-sterilized bone meal or any other calcium supplement to the heifers daily.
(b) Late Post-Weaning Period:
By about 4-6 months after weaning, i.e. after 8-10 months of age, heifers adjust
themselves to high roughage-low concentrates ration. The rumen is also fully developed and
functional by this age. In view of this, the heifers may not be fed concentrates mixture if good
quality leguminous or mixed roughage is available for feeding. If the roughage is all cereals and
is not of good quality, it is necessary to feed concentrates @ 1 to 2 kg. Mineral mixture and
common salt each be fed @ 25 to 35 g daily.
Measures to Economize Feeding of Dairy Heifers:
One can economize ration for growing heifers by feeding
1. Some unconventional concentrates: Babul pods, cassia torra, mango seed kernel etc.
2. Urea treated poor quality roughage: Urea @ 4% breaks lingo-cellulose complex.
3. Molumin (urea + molasses + mineral) blocks.
The growing heifers are more comfortable under loose housing system. Buffalo heifers
eat more and grow at faster rate when water is sprinkled/splashed on their body or are allowed
to wallow in pond during noon hours in summer. This also helps in reducing the problem of
anoestrus, silent estrus etc (summer sterility) by improving signs of estrus manifestation. They
should be protected from external and internal parasites for efficient growth. They are
vaccinated for HS, BQ, RP and FMD every year.
(B) Management of Breedable Heifers (Reproduction management):
The heifers should be fed, cared and managed in such a way that they attain optimum
body size at their breeding age. For onset of puberty, body growth and development are more
important than the age. They should not suffer in growth. Otherwise, (1) there will be delay in
age at first calving and (2) loss in life time milk production. Optimum age and body weight at
puberty, first breeding/maturity and calving for heifers are given below. There are species and
breed differences in these characters.

Reproductive trait Exotic Crossbred Zebu Buffalo

1. Age at first heat/puberty (month) 8-9 12-15 20-24 18-24

2. Age at first breeding/maturity(mths) 13-15 15-20 24-30 20-27

3. Weight at first breeding (kg) 240-260 240-260 260 230-240

4. Age at first calving (months 24-28 28-30 36-40 36-40

5. Weight at first calving (kg) 340-360 300-320 300-320 340-380

Pubertal/Mature heifers should be checked for heat at least two times daily, i.e.
morning and evening, so that animals in heat are not missed. If the herd size is large, a teaser
(vasectomised bull) is used for heat detection. Anoestrous heifers of breedable age and
having proper growth should be routinely examined every month and necessary action be
taken.
The heifer should be got bred depending on her breed/genetic group and the
breeding policy to be followed. In case of crossbred heifers the breed and exotic inheritance of
the sire to be used should be decided well in advance to carry on breeding according to a
planned program. It is desirable to maintain the exotic inheritance between 50 and 62.5% for
better heat & disease tolerance. Breeding heifers to bulls, known to produce small calves, helps
reducing trauma/dystocia at calving and subsequent reproductive problems. Purebred exotic
heifers and indigenous heifers of dairy breeds should preferably be bred with progeny tested
pure breed sires, and not for crossbreeding. Pregnancy diagnosis of the heifers should be a
routine on the farm.
Those heifers which are pregnant should be well looked after and cared for and be fed
slightly liberally. They may be accustomed to getting tied and be groomed.
(C) Management of Advanced Pregnant Heifers:
Gestation period:
Average gestation period of indigenous cows is about 280 to 285 days and that of
buffaloes 310 days. Average gestation period of exotic dairy cattle is about 283 days. But this
varies with breed from 278 to 288 days. Ordinarily, heifers have 1 to 2 days shorter gestation
period as compared to that of the cows. Similarly on average male calves are carried 1 to 3 days
longer than the female calves.
Management:
Up to about 7 ½ months of pregnancy, no much extra feeding or care is necessary to be
given to the heifers. They are housed, fed and managed along with other heifers. Then on
completion of about 7 to 7 ½ months, the heifers should be transferred to the milking herd. They
should be housed and fed along with milch cows. They should be brought to milking
byre/parlour, tied and fed concentrates along with milking cows. While feeding concentrates
they should be groomed. Their hind legs be tied, and udder and teats be manipulated as if
milking is done.
Feeding:
Advance pregnant heifers are growing animals. Not only is this, in their body the foetus
also actively growing. Hence they need especially extra energy, proteins and minerals in their
ration. Such heifers should be fed daily, about 1½ to 2 kg of concentrate mixture in addition to
their usual ration fed till now. In the concentrates mixture, they should be fed 25 to 30 g of
mineral mixture or steam sterilized bone meal.
Housing:
About a fortnight before the expected date of calving, the advance pregnant animals
should be housed in maternity pen/calving box at night time. The pen should thoroughly be
cleaned and disinfected and sufficiently bedded before the animals are housed in them. With
approaching parturition, they may be housed in the pen all day and night, and should be looked
for calving, every 2 to3 hours during the day and night. They should be given laxative ration.
(D) Care of Pregnant Heifers at Calving:
When the animal is observed to kick the floor, it is to be presumed that the labour pain
has already started and that parturition is expected within 2-4 hours. Arrangement should be
made to observe silently the progress of the process of parturition and readily assist the cow in
the process in case of need/dystocia. During this process of watching, we should ascertain
whether the calf is in normal position or not. If the presentation is normal, generally no
assistance is necessary. Yet, we may pull the calf out gently after the head and legs up to knees
are out. In case of abnormal presentation (Dystocia- difficult birth) expert aid should be called
for to assist the birth.
CARE & MANAGEMENT OF FRESHLY CALVED ANIMALS
The cow should be fed palatable feeds (calving mixture) like wheat bran 1 kg mixed
with high energy feeds like Jaggery 500 gm, Common oil 200 gm, cooked Bajra/Jowar 1 kg
plus Suva, Ashalio, Methi each 100 gm, after the birth of the calf. It is customary to feed to
parturient animals the calving mixture after cooking for a period of 10 to 15 days after calving.
This will provide to the cow readily available energy. It is also believed to induce the
milk flow and to aid cleansing the reproductive tract. It is not necessary to feed special calving
mixture, if the heifers were fed well during gestation.
After feeding calving mixture/concentrates, the cow should be given lukewarm drinking
water. This may be warmed up if it is very cool. Good quality dry roughage should then given
to the animal. The animal then be allowed to take rest and watched silently for passing out of
the placenta or fetal membranes. The placenta is expelled out normally within 6 to 8 hrs of
calving. It weighs between 2.5 to 3.0 kg. If placenta is not expelled out, there will be
decomposition in uterus and may impair general health and subsequent reproduction of the cow.
If the placenta does not get expelled within 24 hrs, arrangement should be made to remove the
same manually. The placenta, on expulsion, should be immediately removed away from the
animal and be buried. As the animal have a very strong urge of eating these membranes and
hence constant attendance is necessary to prevent the animal from eating the same and dispose it
away. It is believed; if the animals eat these membranes their milk production is decreased and
may develop troubles in digestion.
After the expelling of the fetal membranes the hind region of the cow should be washed
with warm water and dried with cloth. The soiled and wet bedding then be removed and
replaced by fresh dry bedding material. Freshly calved cow should be milked as early as
possible to remove colostrum. The colostrum is to be fed to the calf. For first few days, the cow
may not be milked completely to avoid problem of milk fever.
Freshly calved cow may be housed in the maternity pen for about 4 days. She should be
fed good quality roughage ad-libitum and calving mixture or concentrates mixture. The quantity
of concentrates mixture fed should be gradually increased and in the calving mixture normal
concentrates should be mixed in increasing proportion and finally cow to be taken to only the
normal milch ration.
For a period of about 10-15 days after calving, the cow should be protected from stormy
cold winds, rain or direct sun as the case may be. The cow also needs protection from dogs,
foxes, wolves, crows etc., during and just after calving.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILKING ANIMALS
Milking animals are the earning members of the dairy herd. These animals produce
milk, sale of which forms more than 80-85% of the income from the dairy farm. Any lapse in
the management of these animals is immediately reflected in lowered milk production and
hence the reduced income. That is why it is necessary to look after the milking animals very
carefully. Different body systems of the milking animals have to work very hard for producing
high quantity of milk. As a result of this, the milking animals are under a sort of stress. Hence,
even the slightest deviation from the normal routine makes them upset resulting into low milk
production.
 The salient 10 features of the management of the milking animals are
as follows:
(1) Regularity of routine operations:
Dairy animals are the creatures of habits. Repeating any action at appointed time in a
given sequence forms habit. Performing various daily operations in a sequential manner at a
particular time on a farm makes a routine. Hence, on a dairy farm any convenient sequence of
daily operations should be followed at conveniently fixed timings. However, having fixed the
routine according to our convenience, it should not be lightly changed; but be followed
regularly. Milking animals get very nervous to any change in the routine and react very badly
by producing less milk.
(2) Gentle and kind handling and behaviour:
Animals of all the categories of the herd should be treated with kindness. This is more so
with the milking animals. Ill-treating the animals, shouting very loudly, beating etc., should be
avoided with milking animals, as they are readily frightened and become nervous. This leads to
reduction in feed intake and milk yield. Milking animals should be called with gentle voice and
affection, and should be patted and groomed gently.
(3) Feeding:
(a) Concentrates:
From a very long-standing experience of keeping and feeding very large number of
animals, dairymen have evolved certain guidelines for feeding concentrates to animals. They are
known as thumb rules. In this method concentrates is fed for maintenance and for milk
production.
(i) Maintenance Allowance:
Ordinarily, mixed roughage of good quality fed to the milking animals, supply fully
their nutrients requirement for maintenance. In other words it is not necessary to feed any
concentrates to the milking animals for supplying nutrients for maintenance, if the roughage is
mixed and is of good quality. But if the milking animals are getting all cereal roughage, i.e. not
mixed, it is necessary to feed concentrates to them. This may be fed @1-2 kg daily/head
according to the roughage quality and condition of the animals.
(ii) Milk Production Allowance:
The concentrates for milk production are to be fed in addition to what is fed for
maintenance. The amount of concentrates to be fed for milk production depends principally on
the fat content of milk, i.e. whether the animal is cow or buffalo, and to some extent on type of
roughage fed.
With good quality mixed roughage feeding and if the fat content of milk is not
exceeding 5.0 %, i.e. for cow, the concentrates may be fed at the rate of 33% of milk
production. If roughage is all cereals and/or its quality is not good, the concentrates may be fed
@ 40 % of milk production. If the fat content of milk is 6.5 - 7.0 % or more, i.e. in case of
buffaloes, with good quality mixed roughage, the concentrates may be fed @ 40% of milk
production. With all cereal roughage or medium to poor quality roughage, the rate of
concentrates feeding should be 45 - 50% of milk production.
(A) Production allowance for Concentrate to be fed (as % of milk production), if fed
Fat % in milk
Good quality mix roughage All cereal roughage

(i) 4-5 % fat (cow) 33 % of milk 40 % of milk

(ii) 6-7 % fat (buffalo) 40 % of milk 45-50 % of milk

(B) Maintenance allowance nil 1-2 kg

(b) Feeding Minerals:

Ordinarily, except for the calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chloride all the other
minerals required by the milking animals are present in conventional feeds to meet with their
normal requirements. Hence they need not be supplemented. But there may be certain areas
where soil is deficient in one or more of the micro-minerals. In that case, the forages grown on
such soils are also deficient. Under normal conditions milking animals should be fed about 30 g
of common salt daily. This may be fed mixed with concentrates or in form of bricks or blocks of
salt as licks, or loose in saltboxes, or loose in mangers. If the animals do not get about 50 % of
roughage as legumes, they should be fed daily about 25 to 30 g of calcium supplement or steam
sterilized bone meal. It is advisable to feed minerals supplement to the high yielding animals
even if they are fed mixed roughage.
(4) Milking:
After parturition, the dairy animals are milked. The milk produced for first 3 to 5 days
may not be taken for sale or use as fluid milk as it is ‘colostrum’. It is very high in protein and
coagulates on heating.
After parturition, the dairy or weekly milk yield of the animal increase very rapidly up to
5 to 9 weeks and reaches the maximum level. This highest level reached, is called the peak
yield. In Kankrej animals, this peak is reached in the sixth week after calving. The peak
production then declines at the rate of 1.7 to 2.0 per cent per week. Persistency of high milk
production is important for getting higher lactation yield.
The lactation milk yield of the dairy animals is lowest in the first lactation. It then
increases up to 3rd to 4th lactation; after which it gradually decreases showing the effect of
advancing age.
The dairy animals are mostly milked two times daily. It is well known that milk
secretion is a continuous process and also that the rate of milk secretion is inversely
proportional to the intra-mammary pressure, hence cow should be milked at regular interval
of 12 hrs. In view of these facts, soon after milking, secretion rate is at its maximum and soon
before milking secretion is at its lowest. Therefore if animals are milked three times instead of
twice there will be an increase in production of milk by about 15 to 20%. The animals yielding
10 liters or more milk daily can be milked three times. Very high yielding animals may be
milked even four times daily.
Measures/Tips for Clean Milk Production:
It is desirable to milk the animals in a clean milking byre. Milking should be done in
clean sterilized utensils by healthy milkers, dressed in clean cloths. Udders and teats of these
animals should be washed with warm potassium permanganate solution and dried with a clean
piece of cloth. Strip cups should be routinely used to detect mastitis in early stage.
Precautions at milking time:
After the letdown of milk by action of hormone oxytocin released, the milking operation
should be swift, yet comfortable to the cows. At the time of milking the surrounding should be
clean, quiet and peaceful. Barking of dogs, shouting, beating the animals, presence of peculiarly
dressed strangers, visitors in large number should be avoided, since these results in release of
fright hormone adrenalin and withholding of milk/ reduction in milk production.
(5) Breeding:
After parturition, animals may come in heat within about a month’s time. However, it
takes about 2 months for complete uterine involution. Hence animals coming in heat within
two months of parturition may not be bred.
Exotic cows have a calving interval of about 13 to 14 months; crossbred cows about 14
to 16 months, indigenous cows about 17 to 19 months and buffaloes about 16 to 20 months. The
calving interval longer than 15 months leads to uneconomic production. Hence the milking
animals should be successfully bred between 3 to 5 months after calving. All the relevant
measures of heat detection, pregnancy diagnosis etc., as described under ‘to maintain the
reproductive efficiency’ under the managerial function on a dairy farm, should be taken for
maintaining optimum calving interval.
(6) Housing: (objectives of providing house)
Milking animals should be housed in such a way that-
(i) They are protected from extremes of climatic elements, wild life and ecto-parasites.
(ii) They are comfortable under sufficient ventilation and sanitation.
(iii) There is convenience in feeding and management of the cows.
(7) Drying:
It is necessary that dairy animals have adequately long (60 days) dry period. Because
during this period (i) the nutrients reserve that is lost during lactation is replenished in the body,
(ii) the mammary system makes good wear and tear of different tissues and gets ready for the
next lactation and (iii) the nutrients are diverted to the actively growing foetus. Dry period of
about 60 days in believed to be adequate for exotic/crossbred animals. With high yielding
indigenous animals the period of about 100 days is considered adequate. The dry advance
pregnant animals should be given extra allowance of nutrients called “steaming up” to meet the
above needs of the body.
Methods of Drying:
The animals which have had a lactation period of about 10 months and which carry the
foetus of 6 to 7 months may be dried. The animals to be dried should not be allowed to come in
contact with their calves. Their concentrate feeding is discontinued. They should not be fed any
 succulent roughage. Even dry fodder fed should be of poor quality and that to only 50-60% of
normal quantity. Water intake should also be reduced. These steps help in reducing the milk
secretion materially and hence drying the animal quickly. The animals can be dried by any one
of the following three ways/methods.
(i) Partial milking method:
In this method of drying, all the milk the cow gives is not removed, but some amount is
allowed to remain in the udder. Thus, the intra-mammary pressure in the udder is not
completely relieved. This results in reduced secretion of milk day by day, since milk secretion is
inversely proportional to i/ma pressure. When the milk yield is considerably reduced, milking
first on alternative days, then once in three days etc, dries the animals.
(ii) Intermittent milking method:
In this method animals are milked once daily, then once in 2 days, once in 3 days etc., thus
gradually extending the period between milking and then stopping the milking.
(iii) Abrupt stoppage of milking:
This is the most effective method of drying. Animals yielding even up to10 litres of milk
can be dried by this method without any trouble. As the milking is not done the intra-mammary
pressure is built up in the udder, hence milk secretion comes to stand still. As the formation of
fresh milk is stopped the milk already filled in the udder gets re-absorbed into the blood streams
and the cow gets dried up.
(8) Providing water:
Milking animals perform very hard work in secretion of milk. In addition, they lose
quite a lot of water from the body in form of milk. As a result of these, they need more water
than that needed by animals of any other category of the dairy herd.
The amount of water required by the milking animals is governed by the following
factors, viz. (i) Ambient temperature/season (ii) Moisture content of the feeds, (iii) Milk yield
(iv) Temperature of water and (v) The degree of cleanliness of the water.
Milking animals, in addition to 30-35 litres of water for maintenance, need 2 to 3 litres
of water for every one litre of milk production (total 55-60 lit). In summer, the water
requirement of milking animals increases by 100% over that in winter. In addition to drinking
water needs, about 40 to 70 litres of water per cow daily is also required for cleaning and
washing of animal/shed etc.
Milking animals should have free access to clean drinking water, all the time. If this is
not possible, they should be given water at least four times daily. In regions, where winters are
very chilly the drinking water for milking may be slightly warmed up. Providing water to the
milking animals through automatic drinking bowls is the most satisfactory way.
(9) Health Care Measures:
Sanitation, isolation of sick animals and timely treatment are important. Regular CMT
testing for mastitis helps control of disease. All the animals of the dairy farm, viz, calves,
heifers, cows, breeding bulls, bullocks etc should be kept free from infectious/ contagious
diseases. Therefore, as routine the herd should be got regularly tested annually once for
Tuberculosis, John’s disease & Brucellosis, and reactors/doubtful animals be
removed/slaughtered.
Timely vaccination for prevention of disease like Foot and Mouth disease, Rinderpest,
Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Black Quarter etc., should invariably be done. Regularly, as a routine
for control of endo-parasites, deworming of the dairy herd should be done at least once before
the onset of monsoon and once after the monsoon is over. This must scrupulously be observed
in case of crossbred and exotic animals as they are very badly affected by worm infestation. The
whole dairy herd should also be protected from ecto-parasites like the ticks, mites, lice, grubs
etc by periodical dipping.
A health calendar should be prepared, indicating the approximate dates and months of
the year and the prophylactic measures to be taken against diseases, worms, ecto-parasites etc.,
and this should be rigidly followed.
(10) Daily Routine Inspection:
It is very necessary that daily some responsible person should observe each milking
animal individually very closely. At the time of the observation the following points/ objectives
be kept in mind and be noted, viz. (i) general health and condition of the animal, whether there
is loss in condition or improvement, (2) whether the animal is cycling, is in heat, or has passed
the heat or has been bred and is pregnant etc., (3) whether there are ecto-parasites like ticks on
the body, especially underneath the root of the tail etc., (4) whether there is any injury to the teat
or udder, (5) the level of current milk production of the animal, whether increasing or
decreasing etc. The actions necessary to be taken as a result of the inspection should be decided
and promptly executed. The additional advantage of this routine inspection is that the
responsible man will know all the milking animals individually. The animals also feel familiar
with the person and do not get frightened or nervous when he moves in the herd or approaches
very closely to any of them.
CARE OF THE DRY COWS
In an efficiently managed dairy herd the dry cows are always pregnant, carrying the
foetus at least of five months or more, (mainly because of proper calving hygiene, timely post-
partum breeding, and sound care & management throughout lactation). As the foetii are
growing actively in the wombs of advanced pregnant animals, they require liberal supply of
energy, protein and minerals in their ration (steaming up). They have also to replenish the
reserve storage of nutrients already depleted during the lactation period through milk secretion,
and to have improved yield in ensuing lactation.
Therefore, after about 7 1/2 months of pregnancy, the dry cow should be fed 1.5 to 2.0
kg of concentrate as pregnancy allowance, over and above the maintenance need. If leguminous
roughage is lacking, daily about 25 to 35 gm of steam-sterilized bone meal or any other suitable
mineral supplement be fed. The other management of the dry pregnant cows should be similar
to that described for advance pregnant heifers.
 CHAPTER 5

SHEEP PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Text books:
1. Farm animal management by N.S.R. Sastry and C.K.Thomas
2. Text book of Animal husbandry by G.C. Banerji
3. ICAR. 2002. Handbook of Animal Husbandry 3rd Ed. ICAR.
Sheep production is one of the oldest and most important agricultural enterprises.
Usefulness of sheep is known by their early domestication (6 to 8 thousands years ago). Sheep
with its multifaceted utility (for wool, meat, skins. manure and to some extent for milk) plays an
important role in national and especially in arid and semiarid areas (with marginal and sub-
marginal lands) unsuitable for agricultural production. Sheep is perhaps the most appropriate
livestock species for utilizing the sparse vegetation. Sheep can survive on poor and low-set
vegetation because of their existence to their ability to survive prolonged periods of drought and
semi-starvation and to travel long distance for obtaining sufficient forage and water to subsist.
They are less prone to hazards of tropical heat and are more resistant to parasitism and other
sheep diseases. Sheep in tropics are non-seasonal breeders; whereas other sheep are seasonal
breeders.
Sheep provide two sources of revenue annually. The first and the most important are the market
lambs. The percentage of lambs raised is an important factor in determining profit. Under
average conditions a lamb may be marketed at 9 months after birth. The second source of
income is the fleece (Wool).
Sheep have a permanent place in any sound system of agricultural production. They are the
most adaptable feed consumers on the farm. They stand first as weed consumers and destroyers.
The ability of sheep to maintain the fertility of the soil and to restore productivity; is the cause
for their common name golden-hoofed animals.
Place of Sheep in Animal Kingdom:
Class : Mammalia
1) Hairy coat
2) Mammary glands
3) Full developed foetus-birth
4) Warm blooded
Sub class :Eutherid- Placenta
Order :Ungulata- Hoofed
Sub order :Artiodactyla-Even toed
Family :Ovidae –Two claws
Species :Ovis aries – Domesticated sheep
Regionalization of Sheep:
On the basis of geophysiographic and climatic conditions and the type of sheep, the
country can be divided four regions.

Sr. Region Comprising of Important/Principal breeds Contribution

no. states/part of India

1 Northern Jammu and Gurez, Bhakarwal (imp wool Sheep population

temperate-Kashmir, producing breed of India), : 7.6%
Himalayan Himachal Pradesh Rampur Bhushair (outstanding
and hilly districts breed of this region) Karnah, Wool production
region
of U.P. Gaddi. : 6.0%

2 North Rajasthan, Punjab, Bikaneri (Chokla, Magra and Sheep Population

Western Haryana, Gujarat, Nali), Lohi, (Jaiselmeri, Malpura, : 32.4%
Region MP, and Western Sonadi), Marwari, Patanwadi etc.
U.P. Wool production.
:64%

The wool from this region is considered suitable for carpet manufacture
and is exported in large quantities. Joria Region : Arid region of Kutchh,
Saurashtra, North-Gujarat and Rajasthan,

3 Penninsula Maharashtra, Deccani/Bellary (Wooly type Sheep population

region Andhra Pradesh, breed), Nellore, Mandya (Mutton : 52%
Karnataka and type), Nilgiri, Coimbatore etc.,
Tamil Nadu Either Coarse, Hairy and Colored Wool production
fleece or no wool. = 28 % of
IndiaWool
production : :
28%

4 Southern Bihar, West Mostly for Meat. Sheep population

Region Bengal, Orissa and Mostly Non-descript breeds. Two : 8%
Assam. well known breeds-Shahbadi and Wool production
Chhottanagapuri in Bihar.
:2%

In foreign countries there is a considerable demand of the white carpet wool produced in
the north-western India for clipped in India is exported annually. Sheep meat is an important
nutritious item in the diet of non-vegetarian section of people. In India, special class of people
rear sheep. They move with their flock from place to place according to the changes in the
seasons and availability of grazing. Shepherds have adjusted the sheep rearing practices to
routine agricultural operation and practices prevalent in different tracts. When lands are sown
with food crops in the rainy season, the shepherds move to the hills, avoiding damage to the
crops and also providing dry, healthy autumn when the kharif crops are harvested, the sheep
return to the plains and get their quota of straws and grass, helping the farmers to fertilize the
land when they fold the flock of 50 to 60 sheep as the minimum economic unit. Small flock of
20 to 30 ewes is found as side occupation to farming. Very large flocks of 500 to 1000 sheep are
also found in west arid areas.
Advantages of sheep Production:
1. Sheep utilize the more arid type of waste land and pastures.
2. They can utilize and destroy weeds.
3. As compared to cattle, they are more efficient in conversion of feed to products viz.,
Meat, Milk and Wool.
4. They give income three times in year viz., once from sale of lams and two times from
sale of wool. There may also be daily small income from milk.
5. In comparison to cattle the return on investment on sheep starts earlier e.g., lambs may
be marketed 8 to 9 months after ewes are bred.
6. Sheep manure is twice as rich in potassium and phosphorus compared to that from
bovines.
Plant nutrients in one tone of different manures:

N (lbs.) P2O5 (lbs.) K2O (lbs.)

Cow 11.4 3.1 9.9

Sheep 15.8 6.7 18.0

Horse 13.2 5.1 12.1

7. Wool clip is easy to store and transport therefore marketing of wool is relatively easy.
8. Labor and housing requirement minimum.
Factor unfavorable for sheep production:
1. Price of wool varies too much from place to place, lot to lot and grade to grade. It is also
influenced by political situations.
2. In India demand of lambs for meat is limited.
3. Sheep are attacked by predatory animals including dogs.
4. Sheep are less resistant to diseases and parasites. A number of external and internal
parasite infestations occur in sheep.
5. Keeping sheep is not an attractive profession.
6. Wool has to complete with synthetic fibers.
Because of the above facts, the sheep rearing industry is developed only in certain regions and
countries of the world. New Zealand has the maximum development the mutton type sheep.
Whereas, Australia has the largest sheep population in the world, mainly fine wool sheep. Wool
producing and exporting countries are mostly in the southern hemisphere viz., Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, Argentina etc. Wool consuming countries are situated in the northern
hemisphere are USA, England, France, Germany and Belgium etc.
Systems of sheep production:
In USA, Australia, New Zealand etc. sheep are maintained mainly by any one or combination of
more than one of the three systems.
a) Ranching system b) Semi-ranching system and c) Stall feeding system
Sheep raising system in India:
In India there is no any definite system of sheep rising. The shepherds have made their own
adjustment to suit the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in different regions and tracts.
Hilly areas:-
When lands are sown with food crops in rainy season, the shepherds move to the hilly areas
having low rainfall to avid damage to food crops and protect the animals from parasitic
infestation. They return to the foot of the hills as the winter sets on favoring food grazing in
harvested field and protecting animals from cold.
Plains:-
The migration of sheep flocks (is similar to that of hilly areas). Instead of going on hills in rainy
season, (they move) to the arid regions/desert. Sheep require dry climate and this is the way to
provide it. Shepherds move to heavy rainfall areas after monsoon and fold their animals in fields
from which kharif crop are harvested.
Classes of sheep:-
The most common classification of sheep is based upon the type of wool they produce.
1. Fine wool type :
This type of sheep produces a fine, wavy wool. Fibers and the fleece are dense and contain a
large amount of grease. They produce more wool of good quality. Fiber diameter of wool is less
than 22 microns. The breeds of this type are primarily developed for their wool production.
They possess a strong banding instinct and the ability to graze on poor quality range. E.g.,
Merino, Rambouillet.
2. Medium wool type :
The medium wool breeds have wool fibers with medium fitness (22 to 33 microns) and are
primarily developed for mutton production. They are low-set, blocky and compact in type. They
are best in mutton conformation. They do well on semi-range or farm condition e.g., Dorset,
Suffolk, Southdown, Cheviot, Hampshire, etc.
3. Long wool type :
They have wool fibers of 15 to 30 cm. long, but coarser in quality. They are large in size
compared to the other classes of sheep. Now they are not so popular because of their poor
quality carcasses with extra muscular layer of fat. However, they are extensively and
successfully used in crossbreeding for market lamb production and evolving new dual purpose
breed of sheep. e.g., Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, Romney marsh.
4. Crossbred wool type :
They produce wool similar to medium wool in quality. These breeds have been produced by
crossbreeding between fine wool and long wool breeds of sheep. The crossbred sheep have also
retained banding instinct but lost some fitness of wool. The crossbred breed are often classified
as medium wool rather than placed in a separate class e.g., Corriedale, Pollworth, Panama
Columbia, Hissardale, Avikalin, Bharat Merino etc.
5. Carpet wool type :
These breed of sheep produce coarser, wiry and tough fleece. Most of the sheep of north
western Indian origin produce wool suitable for carpet manufacturing. Carpet wool is produced
in Argentina, Pakistan, India, New Zealand, Syria and Iraq. The fiber diameter of this type of
wool is more than 33 microns. e.g., Bikaneri, Patanwadi, Marwari, Scottish black face etc.
6. Fur type sheep :
These types of sheep (Karakul) are kept for producing lambs. The lambs are sacrificed for
producing pelts. ‘Pelts’ are sheep skins with fur but little or no wool. Pelts are of 3 main
classes. There are several grades of pelts within each class, depending upon color, quality and
general appearance.
The 3 classes of pelts are as follows:-

Broad tail pelt Persian lamb pelt Karakul pelt

It is most valuable pelt, produced It is produced by killing It is the least valuable pelt
from stillborn or premature lambs the lambs when they are 3 with opened curls and
or lambs killed after birth. The to 10 days old, after hair taken from the lambs when
reflection of light gives it watery has formed a tight, lustrous are two weeks or more of
appearance. curl. age.

EXOTIC BREEDS OF SHEEPS:

MERINO
It is the most popular fine wool breed of sheep in the world, originated in Spain. They are
distributed all over the world. In different countries the Merino strains have been developed by
selection viz., Russian Merino, Australian Merino, French Merino (known as Rambouillet),
American Merino etc. The wool produced by merino is very fine without hairy fibers. More
than 40% of the wool produced in the world comes from merino and their derivatives. They
nave been proved to be an extremely adaptable sheep under the rough range conditions. They
are active and good grazers and thrive well on scant pastures.
Characteristics: Merino is white with skin folds around neck. They are wool type sheep with
angular form. Rams are horned but ewes are hornless or polled. The face and head are covered
with wool. Sometimes wool blindness is observed. Sheep with open face are desired. They are
having weak back, short and drooping rump, long straight legs and narrow chest. Depth of the
body is not adequate i.e., they are having poor mutton conformation.
Prolificacy in the breeds is only fair i.e. about 110 %. (100 ewes will produce 110 lambs in a
lambing season). Rams weigh 64 to 80 kg. Ewes weigh 40 to 57 kg. Annual greasy fleece yield
is about 5 to 9 kg. Quality of wool is about 64’s – 80’s.
RAMBOULLET
Merinos from Spain were imported (in 1786-1801) to France and kept at Rambouillet
farm (near Paris), hence the named Rambouillet. They were pure breed on the farm and selected
for large size, better mutton conformation and acceptable fleeces. They do not thrive well on
very severe range condition i.e., they are less hardy than Merinos.
Characteristics: Rambouillet sheep produce a fair market lamb and produce an excellent fine
wool fleece. The rams may have horns or be polled, but the ewes are polled. They are large
sized animals with straight top and deep body. The average weight of mature ram is around 110
to 125 kg and that of mature ewe is 70 kg. They are uniform in depth and width. They have
thick quarter. Fleece is dense. They produce 9 to 10 kg of fine quality wool in a year with 64’s
to 70’s. Prolificacy of this breed is 125 %. Rambouillet sheep are best adapted to ranches with
less severe condition and used for producing crossbred lambs using any medium wool- mutton
type ram. Rambouillet ewes are good feeders and produce top quality fat lambs. Recently polled
strain of Rambouillet is becoming more popular. Hornless animals are free from fear of injuries
and trouble of flies.
SOUTHDOWN
They are originated in south down hills of South-eastern England. Southdown is the ideal
and model mutton breed. It has the best mutton type/carcass conformation. Southdown sheep
are characterized by short legs, wide chests, straight tops, deep twists and bulging rear quarters
(LOW-SET appearance). Face color ranges between dark gray and light brown. Similar color is
observed on legs.
Characteristics: Southdown is smaller breed of sheep. Rams usually weigh 90 kg, and ewes
weight 60-62 kg. Rams are more ‘prepotent’ than those of any other breed. (Prepotency means
the ability of the ram to produce his own characters in the progeny). It is fairly prolific breed,
producing 135 to 140 lambs in a year per 100 ewes. This breed is not so hardy and can thrive
well on semi ranching system. The animals are attractive and stylish.
They produce medium wool having 56’s to 58’s. Annual greasy fleece weight is 3 to 4
kg/sheep. Staple length is below 5 cm.
DORSET:
Dorset or Dorsethorn is the native of Dorset County in Southern England. Dorset is
famous for early lamb production.
Characteristics: It is a medium sized sheep with medium low-set body. Average weight of the
mature ram and ewe is the 110 kg and 85 kg respectively. Dorset ewes have good mutton
conformation. Both males and females have of corkscrew triangular horn which curve backward
and around in a close spiral. Naturally polled animals are preferred. Dorset is open faced. The
face is covered with short, white hair and is principal covering below the knees and hocks.
Dorset is lighter shearing breed producing annually about 3.5 to 4 kg., fleece of 54’s to 58’s.
The staple length is about 7 to 8 cms. The fleece has low shrinkage. Dorset is highly
prolific having lambing % of 150. Triplets are more common. Ewes are excellent milk
producers. The rams when crossed with any ewe producing good quantity of milk, produce fast
growing lambs which make very desirable milk lamb at an early age.
SUFFOLK
Suffolk is native of South-eastern England. It has originated from the crossing of improved
Southdown rams and the indigenous/local Norfolk Sheep.
Characteristics: Suffolk is an attractive and useful breed of sheep. They have black head, ears
and legs. They have open face having black hairs on face, black hairs are also found below the
knees and hocks. Both sexes are polled. Suffolk is medium low-set. Adult rams weight about
125-136 kg and adult ewes around 80-80 kg. The wooling along the underline is sparce. This
gives the animals a shallow appearance. They are very alert and thrifty animals. Annually
greasy fleece yield is 3 kg with low grease content. The fleece grades 50’s to 58’s.
Suffolk is having a relatively small head and fine bones. Because of this Suffolk can be
used successfully in crossbreeding. Suffolk ewes are one of the most prolific-lambing % is 150.
Ewes are good milker and good mother. Lambs are fast growing and good feeders.
LEICESTER
Leicester is a longwool breed, originated in Leicester county in central England. Robert
Backwell improved it in the form and quality. There are two distinct types of Leicester’s in
England viz., England Leicester and Border Leicester.
Characteristics: It is smaller in size as compared to other long wool breed. Adult rams weigh
114 kg and adult ewes 82 kg. The fleece of the Leicester grades excellent for coarse wool and is
carried in fine spiral locks. The wool is long measuring from 15 to 25 cm. Annual fleece yield is
4 kg with 40’s to 48’s. Leicester sheep are fair in prolificacy (110-120 lambing %.) They mature
slowly and produce poor quality carcasses with thick layer of extra muscular fat. The animals
are valued for crossbreeding and evolving new breeds.
LINCOLN
Lincoln breed of sheep is native to Lincoln County in eastern England. The large size and
hardiness of the Lincoln together with its heavy fleece of lustrous wool has made it the most
widely distributed breed in the world, excepting only the Merino.
Characteristics: It is the largest sized sheep in the world. Adult rams weight 148 kg and adult
ewes 98 kg. Lincoln is rather rectangular in form, is deep bodied and show great width. Fleece
of Lincoln is carried in heavy, twisted, spiral locks. Wool is very long 25 to 37 cm. It is of
coarser quality with 36’s to 40’s. Annual wool production is 10 kg/sheep.
Lincoln carcasses are heavy and long. They have thicker external layer of fat. Hence
Lincoln is not preferred for lamb production. The carcasses also have coarser grains of mutton.
The Lincoln breed has been extensively used in crossbreeding. It has played important role in
evolving new crossbreeds.
 Crossbred evolved Males of Breed Used to breed Females of Breed

Corriedale Lincoln Rams X Merino Ewes

Columbia Lincoln Rams X Rambouillet Ewes

Panama Rambouillet Rams X Lincoln Ewes

CORRIEDALE
It is originated in New Zealand (in latter part of 18th century) by crossbreeding with large
framed Merino ewes with good Lincoln rams. Careful selection of crossbred ewe and ram lambs
for further mating accompanied by close culling, this Corriedale sheep was developed. Later on
some Leicester rams had also played some role in establishment of this breed.
Corriedale sheep were exported to Australia, U.S.A., South Africa, Canada and many
other countries. India has imported Corriedale sheep from Australia and Started a Breeding
Farm near Hissar.
Characteristics: Corriedale is a hardy, dual purpose breed of sheep. It is a good producer of
both, wool and mutton. Mature rams weigh 90 to 125 kg and ewes 60 to 90 kg. They have open
faces. Both rams and ewes are polled. Corriedale are relatively early maturing and have good
mutton conformation but usually have little longer legs than desired for mutton breed. They are
well adapted to range condition. Corriedale rams are remarkably prepotent in cross breeding.
Corriedale wool is of medium fineness, with about 50’s to 58’s. Corriedale sheep
produce on average 5 kg wool in a year per head. Wool of Corriedale has low shrinkage and
good fiber length.
KARAKUL
Karakul breed of sheep is famous throughout the world for pelt production. It is native of
Bokhara in Central Asia, but large number of Karakul sheep are found in U.S.S.R. India has
imported some animals in from U.S.S.R. for crossbreeding with native sheep and increasing pelt
production. They are kept near Bikaner in Rajasthan.
Characteristics: They are hardly animals. Medium in size, the weight of mature rams is 90 kg
and that of ewe is 65 kg. The rams are generally horned and the ewes polled. Karakul sheep
have long and narrow faces with Roman nose. Ears are long and drooping. The color of the face
and legs is black or brown. They have broad, fat tails. Fat tail serves a useful purpose in the
desert country as a nutrient reserve. The Karakul sheep have poor mutton conformation. They
produce a light weight fleece of low grade annual wool yield is 23 kg. Wool quality is coarser
carpet quality. Te outer coat is usually grey, brown or black and the under coat is much shorter
and dark brown or black.
The karakul lambs are having fur bearing skin pelt. Lambs are killed immediately after
birth of after some days for collection of pelts. The quality of fur on pelt varies depending on
the time interval of slaughter. Major types of Karakul pelt are Broad tail, Persian lamb and
Karakul.
 INDIAN BREEDS OF SHEEP
I) Temperate Himalayan Region :
GUREZ
Gurez is an important wool (long stapled and lustrous predominantly white and less hairy)
producing breed in India. Gurez is bred in Gurez Tahsil situated in the high elevated zone of
Kashmir state. In summer small sprouts of grasses come up, which provide grazing to the sheep.
In cooler months, when snow-fall begins, they come to valleys. Animal are stall fed in winter
with stored hay, barley straw or maize straw.
Characteristics: Gurez is the largest sheep found in Jammu and Kashmir region. They are two
strains of Gurez sheep. One which is the major strain is polled and the other is horned. They
have short but broad tail. Ears are short. Fleece of Gurez is without any defective fibers –kempy
fibre. Average greasy fleece yield is 1350 to 1800 grams per year. Quality of wool is 40’s wool
with 26 % shrinkage i.e., more grease content. Fiber length is about 15 cm. shearing is done
twice or thrice in a year. Gurez sheep are active. Twins are common. Ewes produce good
amount of milk.
BHAKARWAL
Bhakarwal is the name of the nomadic community which raises this breed in Jammu-Kashmir.
They carry their sheep on Pirpanjal mountain ranges in summer. They keep their animals on
nutritious grasses and shrubs. In winter they migrate towards southern parts of Jammu and
Kashmir which is warmer. Bhakarwal sheep are hardy can thrive without any shelter.
Characteristics: Though the size of the animals is large, they are good climbers. Average weight
of mature sheep is 38 kg. Rams are generally horned and ewes polled. Some times Bhakarwal
sheep have heavy and thick tail. They have long, broad and pendulous ears. Bhakarwal sheep
have white or coloured fleece. Shearing is done thrice in year. Average 1380 to 1800 gms. Wool
quality is coarser (40’s) with 15 cm fibre length. Wool is suitable for rough blankets and carpet
production.
GADDI
Gaddi is an impotent breed of Kister and Bhadarwan Tahsil in Jammu. They are also reared in
the Kulu and Kangra valleys of Himachal Pradesh. Gaddi sheep are continuously migrating
from place to place. In summer, they are grazed on mountains and in winter they are brought to
the valleys.
Characteristics: Gaddi sheep are medium sized and sturdy climbers. Head of the animals is of
brown color. The rams are horned and the ewes hornless. The average body weight is 32 kg.
Fleece of the Gaddi sheep is of white color and the quality is fine. Average wool in a year is 900
to 1350 Gms. Shearing is done twice or thrice in a year.
RAMPUR-BHUSHIAR
This is an outstanding breed of Himalayan region. The home tract of this breed is Mahasu and
Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. These sheep have brown coloured fleece and a soft
undercoat. Annual fleece yield is 1.36 to 1.81 kg. Wool is suitable for tweeds. Rampur-Bhushiar
breed has prominent horn curling backward and downwards. They are grazed in Tibet border in
summer and brought to low valley of Jammu and Sutlej in winter.
(II) Dry western region:
LOHI
This breed originally belongs to Lyallpur Montgomery districts of West Pakistan. These sheep
are also reared in Punjab. The breed has 3 verities/strains viz., Jaisalmeri, Malpuri and Sonadi
reared in Rajasthan.
Characteristics: Lohi breed has long ears, brown head and thick- short tail. They have large
head, free from wool and Roman nose. They yield coarse, long stapled wool. Average wool
yield is 1350 gms/Ewe/year and 2250 gms/Ram/year. Fibre length as about 7 to 10 cm. They
have large compact body. The average weight is 70 kg. Quality of mutton is good. They
produce good amount of milk. Twins are common in this breed. Lohi is thus highly sited to
mixed farming.
BIKANERI
This is an outstanding breed of Rajasthan producing carpet type wool. Bikaneri sheep is of
Bikaner district. It is reared in Punjab and Haryana state in pure or non-descript form. In their
native home they are reared by true ranching system. They are hardy. They can tide ranching
system in the period of Bikaner or Famine. There are three district strains of Bikaneri breed viz.,
Chokla, Magra and Nali. Chokla produces superior carpet wool.
Characteristics: They are of medium size. Rams weigh 45 kg whereas adult ewes weigh 36 kg.
Ears are short and curled like tube-Tubular ears. Face is clean with “Roman nose”. Face is
white, black or brown, may extend up to neck. Both sexes are polled. They produce long stapled
carpet type wool. Fibre length is about 8 to 12 cms. Quality is about 28’s to 32’s. Average wool
yield per year is 1200 gms in ewes and 3100 gms in rams. Lambing % is 75 to 90. They are not
good meat animals.
MARWARI
This breed is found in Jodhpur and Jaipur divisions of Rajasthan. Selected flocks are raised in
Pali and Barmer districts. They are also found extensively in north Gujarat and Saurashtra.
Characteristics: Marwari is medium sized breed. Rams have 35 to 45 kg and ewe’s 28 to 35 kg
body weight. Marwari sheep have black head, straight nose and tubular ears. Some sheep have
long pendulous ears. They have long black/white legs. They have long tail. Marwari produces
white but coarser wool having the diameter of bout 36 microns. Average wool yield per animal
is 1 to 1.5 kg/year. Medulation % in wool is 62.3. Staple length is 6 cms. Shrinkage in grease
wool is about 18 %. Density is 714 fibres/sq.cm. Prolificacy is about 70 to 80 %.
PATANWADI
This breed is native of Patan in north Gujarat. This breed is also known as ‘Gujarat’ or ‘Desni’.
It is found in Mehsana, Banaskantha, Kutchh, Surendranagar, Rajkot and Jamnagar districts of
Gujarat. Migratory flocks of Patanwadi are also found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra states. Bharwad, Rabari etc. community generally rear animals.
Characteristics: Patanwadi is medium sized animal (Adult ewes, 28 to 32 kg; rams 35 to 45 kg).
Weight of lamb at birth is about 2.5 to 3.5 kg. Head and legs of Patanwadi sheep are of brown
or tan color. They have ‘Roman nose’. Both sexes are polled. Ears are medium size, pendulous
and curled inward. Some times a tuff of hair is found on ears. Generally wattles are present.
Ewes have large udders. Tail is short. Prolificacy is about 70 to 80 %. Average wool production
in a year is 1 to 1.5 kg. They produce softer and finer fleece than Marwaris. Mean fiber diameter
is about 30 microns. Staple length is about 5.5 cms. Medulation of fibres is about 33.3%.
Density of fleece per sq. cm. is about 637 fibres. Shrinkage is about 13%. Wool of Patanwadi is
suitable for manufacturing carpets and blankets.
(III) Southern Region:
DECCANI
This breed is found in South -eastern part of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Deccani breed is
an admixture of wooly type of North Western region and the hairy type of Andhra Pradesh and
TamilNadu states. They are small and hardy and well adapted to poor pastoral conditions. It
possesses colored or white fleece. The fleece is of low grade and is a mixture of hair and wool
fibres. It is used for manufacturing of rough blankets and carpets. The average annual fleece
weight is 350 to 400 gm. Body conformation of sheep is not good for mutton also. But they are
kept chiefly for mutton. Animals are of small size, adult ewes weight 20 to 25 kg and rams
weight 30 to 36 kg. Rams are horned or hornless. Ewes are polled.
NELLORE
It is found in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, hence the name “Nellore”. Nellore is a hairy
breed of sheep and is noted for producing good mutton. Nellore is considered to be the tallest
breed of sheep in India. The rams are horned and the ewes are polled. Tail is very short with a
hairy whorl at the end. Adult rams weight 41 kg and ewes weight 37 kg. Colour of the fleece is
white or white with black or tan patches. Wattles are present.
MANDYA
Mandya is also a hairy breed of sheep of Peninsular India. Mandya is an important breed
producing mutton in Karnataka state. It is a medium sized animal with average body weight 30
kg. It has a compact body and faster growth rate.
BANDUR
This breed of sheep derives its name from the village Bandur in Mandya district, Karnataka.
Bandur is an outstanding mutton breed. It is a heavy animal with low-set body. It is an
attractive breed. The mature rams weigh 50 to 60 kg and ewes 35 to 45 kg. There has been
increasing demand for Bandur sheep from other states for improvement of local breeds. Bandur
has good dressing % (40 to 58%). Quality of mutton is also good. Mutton is tender, juicy with
nice flavor and fine grains.
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT:
Breeding flock is the flock of sheep which are taking active part in reproduction. Breeding ewes
and rams are used for further procreation.
100 Ewes and 3 Rams (103 breeding flock): Reproduce → 85 lambs are produced
Ewe lams (50%): 42 to 43
Ram lambs (50%): 42 to 43
Ewes Lambs: They are grown on their mother’s milk up to weaning and then on grasses and
grains up to maturity. After attaining the age of maturity they take part in breeding.
Rams lambs: Some of the ram lambs are selected at the age of weaning for breeding purpose
i.e. they become breeding/stud rams. Majority of the lambs are castrated and grown up to
certain age after which they are fattened and sold for slaughter.
Old ewes and rams are culled out. Most of the ewe lambs come in breeding stock when mature
and replace unproductive or low productive, old ewes. Thus strength of breeding flock is
maintained.
Shepherds get income from sale of: (1) wool (2) ram lambs and (3) cull ewes.
Rams produce more wool than the ewes but the quality of wool from rams is inferior (coarse).
This is due to effect of sex.
Sheep come in heat in particular seasons only. This is called the breeding season.
The season when they lamb is the lambing season. Summer is a bad season so far as lambing is
concerned. This is because due to higher environmental temperature and scanty grazing many
lambs die.
If a healthy productive flock of sheep is to be maintained the shepherds must give
special attention to the feeding and management practices. Generally, Indian sheep live on
grazing wild grasses, herd’s and farm waste products. Sheep relish young green grasses. The
young tender grass has more of proteins and is more digestible than old rank pasture. Ordinarily
the sheep require 3 to 4 kg of dry matter per 100 kg of their body weight. Sheep requires
more amount of salt and minerals in their ration other farm animals.
Flushing: About two weeks before the actual onset of breeding season ewes are kept on
higher plane of nutrition. This practice is known as flushing.
• Flushing the ewe will start the heat periods earlier, which is an advantage when early
lambs are desired.
• It has also the effect of bringing all of the ewes into heat at nearly the same time, which
will be helpful in breeding them.
• As ewes gain body weight, their reproductive organs begins functioning normally. Ova
produced in this condition will be more in number and more fertile leading to higher
conception rate and twin lambs.
• As a result Ewes lambs are more in uniformity resulting in easy management of ewes
and new-born lambs at and after lambing.
Twins are an advantage when is sufficient fodder and grains for feeding.
Flushing can be done by keeping the ewes on lush, green pasture. If good pasture is not
available, extra grains should be given @ about 125 to 150 gm daily.
If there are any over-fat ewes, they should be thinned down so that they may be placed
on a flushing ration prior to flushing. For this purpose they can be placed on a sparse pasture
and/or given plenty of exercise. Over-fat ewes do not breed.
FEEDING EWES DURING GESTATION:
Gestation period of ewes averages 147 days (142 to 152 days). It can be divided into
two parts for feeding the ewes judiciously. During the first ten weeks of the pregnancy period
the foetus grows slowly hence, the demand of nutrients for nourishment of unborn offspring is
not so great. But the growth of the foetus is very rapid the later half of gestation and therefore
the requirements of nutrients is more in the later part of gestation.
Low grade roughage can be fed to the ewes in their early period of gestation or they can
be kept on ordinary pasture. Supplementary feeding to pregnant ewes can be done either by
green roughage, silage or hay. If this is not possible, additional concentrates can be fed at the
rate of 110 gms/d/head.
Another/Later half (from11thweek) period of gestation is known as advance pregnancy.
Proper /better Feeding during advance pregnancy period is very important as it -
1) Results in heavy lambs at birth.
2) Reduces lamb losses at birth.
3) Decreases the number of week or crippled lambs
4) Increases the growth rate of lambs after birth.
5) Decreases the danger of ewes disowning their lambs as a result of their weakness.
6) Prolongs the productive lifetime of ewes.
A combination of hay and pasture may successfully be used during the gestation period.
During the last half of the gestation, the best forage available should be fed. Unless the
roughages are entirely legume hay, an additional amount of protein supplement should be
added. Beginning with the 16th week, the grain ration should be increased to about 225 gm.
Natural feed will provide sufficient minerals to the ewes, except for salt. But it is good plan to
furnish a mineral mixture free choice and salt should be available.
FEEDING OF LACTATING EWES:-
Feeding of nourishing ewes require ration. Milk production is very heavy/stressful
exercise and the lambs make their most economical gains while nourishing the ewes. Therefore,
ewes should be fed liberally during this period. Depending upon the quality of pasture,
supplementation is done with good quality hay, silage or grains. If necessary, concentrates
should be provided at the rate of 225 to 400 gm/day/ewe. Common salt should invariably be
given.
FEEDING OF BREEDING RAMS:
Breeding rams should be fed judiciously. If rams are over fat, they should be thinned
down by gradual reduction in feed and plenty of exercise. An over fat ram is sexually inactive.
If the rams are normal in condition, they should be kept on higher plane of nutrition before a
fortnight of commencement of breeding season. During breeding season, ram may be provided
good grazing along with ewes or separately. Extra concentrate ration at the rate of 200 to 450
gm per head may be given.
Grain ration for breeding ram: Crushed gram/guar-2 parts + Wheat bran-1 part (Salt-1 %).
Grazing of Sheep: About 85 % of sheep feed comes from grazing or roughages. Sheep get
tired, if kept on one pasture continuously. Grazing of sheep on the place leads to monotony and
result in incomplete feeding. So sheep should be grazed on different pasture from time to time.
Sheep relish short, tender grasses which are actively growing and which have higher protein
content. Sheep must not be taken to low lying area and stagnant water pools because such areas
may cause infestation of internal parasites. Sheep do not like moisture. Morning dew on grasses
is not good for sheep. In monsoon, sheep should be taken up to places of low rainfall or higher
altitude. After monsoon, sheep can be brought to the plain or valleys in winter. Animals should
be grazed on light soils in the morning and can be taken to heavy soils in the afternoon. In
summer season, sheep may be grazed on field from where winter crops are harvested. Generally
summer is very hard for sheep. Pods of acacia tree can be fed to sheep as apart of concentrates.
Grazing lands in India are not protected against over grazing and are not improved by scientific
ways. They are very poor in condition and require special attention if they are to be improved.
Breeding of the Sheep flock:
Heat period: The period of estrus i.e., duration of the sexual heat period in sheep ranges from 1
to 3 days. The average for our sheep is 21 to 30 hours. Generally ewes are bred near the end of
the heat period. The estrous occurs every 17 to 19 days during the seasons of breeding.
Gestation: The gestation period varies from 142 to 152 days, with an average of 147 days.
Mating season or Breeding season:
In India, there are three main breeding season-
1. The most important season of mating is autumn (June, July ad August), as about 60 to 80 %
ewes
come in heat during this season.
2. In summer season (March and April month) about 5 to 20 % ewes come in heat.
3. The third and the least important season of breeding is the winter season (October to
December) in
which very few ewes come in heat.
In the Western region the ewes are mostly bred in autumn season. The lambs from this
mating are born during the period of early spring (November to January). The rams are allowed
to run with ewe flock only for 40 to 50 days during the breeding season. This results in uniform
lambing. Because of uniformity in lambing proper care, protection and feeding required during
this critical period of life can be provided easily. Labourers and other expenditure to be incurred
for this purpose are restricted only to a short and limited period of about 40-50 days.
Systems of Mating :-
i) Flock mating: - In ranching system one ram is provided for 40 to 50 ewes and rams move
together in the flock in breeding season. The rams may be ‘breast painted’ or may be fitted
with ‘marking harness for recording the service details.
ii) Pen mating: The ewes in heat are detected in the morning and evening. Heat detection may
be done with the help of the vasectomized rams (teasers) or the rams with aprons. The ewes
found to be in heat are bred either naturally or artificially. If ewes are bred naturally, one ram
will be required for 50 to 60 ewes under this system of mating. The ewe in heat and the ram are
penned separately for the natural mating.
Age of breeding and average productive life:-
A normal ram is in full vigor for breeding during his age of 2.5 to 5 years. A ram should
be started for breeding from about 18 months of age. The recommended age to breed the ewe
lambs (hoggets) is about two years. Generally ewe hoggests are bred in next breeding season
after completion of 18 months of age. The productive life of ewes will vary considerably
depending upon breed, environment and managemental practices. Under average range
conditions, ewes may be expected to produce about five crops of lambs. After about 7 years of
age they lose vigour and productivity. Unproductive or low productive, old animals are culled
from the flock as it not economical to keep them.
Preparation of ewe and ram for breeding:-
Tagging: - Tagging means cutting the wool from around the dock, vulva and inner portion of
thighs (Breech region). Ewes are tagged prior to breeding and lambing. It is carried out
(1) To prevent blowfly strike in breech region
(2) To facilitate mating
(3) For general cleanliness at lambing
In Australia this practice is known as crutching.
Eyeing or Wigging: - In some breeds of sheep, wool grows aground the eyes. Sharp thorny
grasses,
seeds and other material gets accumulated in this wool. This results in wool blindness. So the
wool should be clipped from around the eyes. This process is known as "Wigging" or "Eyeing".
Ringing: - Shearing of ram prior to breeding season will make him more active. But if this is
not practiced, ram should at least be clipped from neck and from belly in the region of penis.
This process is known as "ringing". It will help in preventing the chances of infection at the
time of mating and facilitates easy contact with ewes while mating.
Care of feet: - Trimming of hooves is not necessary when sheep are raised under range
conditions. These sheep have to walk sufficiently for a distance to keep their hooves smooth and
clean by wearing, but when sheep are either stall fed or do not have sufficient exercise, the
wearing of feet does not take place sufficiently. Due to this, the hooves over grow and facilitate
accumulation of dung and dusty soil. Sometimes decaying of hoof takes place. A ram will have
difficulty in mating if he has over-grown hooves. For the reason mentioned above, trimming of
hooves prior to breeding season is necessary. It can be done with the help of knife or pruning
shears.
Marking of ram:- When we are not using a teaser for detection of heat and rams are directly
used for mating, it is advisable to mark ram. Marking of a ram will be helpful in recording of
breeding date, for knowing the sexual activity of ram and for knowing which ewes are bred.
Breast marking of a ram is done with different oil color which may be changed after 17 to 18
days. Special marking harnesses are also available, which can be fitted to the rams in breeding
seasons. Breast paint will be stamped on the rump of the mated ewe. It is useful to identify the
ewes bred.
Housing of sheep:-
Sheep do not require elaborated type of housing. Only a very simple cheap shelter to
protect the sheep from rains, snowfall and extremes of weather is all that is required. A sheep
requires 1.7 sq. meter of floor space under a shed. Advance pregnant ewes, ewes at the time of
lambing and young stock need the special care. A shed should have coral to have sufficient
space for the sheep to move around. The area may be protected from predators by means of
rabbit proof fencing. Area should be selected where good natural drainage is possible. An area
with shade of trees should be preferred.
GENERATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF WOOL FIBRES
A common belief that – whatever grows on the body of sheep is wool is not true. In
addition to wool, some other fibres also grow on the body of sheep viz., Hairy fibres, Kempy
fibres etc. in different proportion according to the breed of sheep.
Wool is the natural protective covering of sheep. It contains two types of cells.
(1) Epidermis or Cuticle and (2) Cortex
Epidermis or Cuticle:-
It is a surface layer of the wool fibre. It is made up of flat, irregular horny cell or scales.
These scales overlap one on top of the other, much like the scales of a fish, with the free upper
end projecting outwards and upwards the tip of the fibre. This gives wool fibre surface a
serrated appearance. The fine wool has many more serrations per centimeter than coarse wool.
The serrations impart spinning and felting qualities/property to the wool.
Cortex:-
The cortical cell of crimped wool fibres has a bilateral structure which is made up of two
distinct regions. The cells of these regions are called the ortho cells and the para cells. The
manners in which these two kinds of cells are distributed, determined the degree and character
of the crimp of the fibre. The crimp in wool is important for softness of the fibre and fabrics. It
is also somewhat helpful in spin ability of the wool.
Some fleece fibres and all the hair fibres in general contain a third main component
known as the medulla. The medulla consists of a group air filled cells. Although, medulla is
usually absent in fine wool, when it is present it forms the innermost layer. The cells are of
various shapes, often polygonal like a honey comb. They may either occur through the length of
the fibre or be restricted to certain area. Medullated fibres are generally coarse, uneven in
diameter and rough. Some proportions of medullated fibres are desirable in carpet wool.
Chemical composition of Wool:-
Chemically, wool is chiefly keratin, which is also the primary consistent of hair, nails,
hooves, horns and feather. Keratin is a protein made up of nitrogen and sulphur compound and
amino acids.
Impurities of Wool:
Fleece naturally contains a greasy substance. In a broad sense, grease refers to all the
impurities found in the wool, including the yolk (wool fat), suint and soluble foreign matter but
not vegetable matter. Over and above these the fleece contains some acquired impurities like the
vegetable matter and dust. Vegetable matters entangle in the wool during grazing or some times
during the process of shearing and storage. Generally vegetable matter includes burrs (grass
seeds), pieces of chaffed fodder etc. constituent the. Sometimes wool gets impure during
marking when paint brands are used. For this reason the paints used in marking of sheep should
be such that it can be removed during scouring process.
Fine wool contains higher amount of grease than the coarse wool. The fine raw wool or
fine greasy wool will shrink more as compared the raw coarse wool. Clean wool yield of a
sheep is the true indication of its wool production capacity.
Defective fibres of fleece:-
Although wool is the principal covering of the sheep certain defective fibres are
occasionally found. Most common defective fibres are hairy fibres, kemp or kempy fibres and
Hetero type fibres. All of these are medullated fibres having certain special features.
Defective fibres will not behave in similar manner as true wool. Fibres in the
manufacturing processes will not readily take the dye. Their presence in the fleece can be
controlled or reduced by careful breeding.
Factors affecting quality of wool:-
Some genetic and nongenetic factors affect the quality of wool. Certain important
factors are dealt below:
(1) Breed: Breed of animals affect so many qualities of wool viz., staple length, grease content,
softness, density, fibre diameter etc. Merino produces finer, shorter staple wool as compared to
Lincoln breed. Wool from Merino contains higher amount of grease and is having more and
uniform crimp as compared to the coarse wool.
(2) Nutrition: Level of nutrition affects the quality of wool. Whenever poor quality feed is
given to the sheep, it causes weak points. This wool having such weaker points is referred to
as tender wool. The tender wool breaks easily.
(3) Sickness: Sickness of the sheep may also cause weaker points in wool.
(4) Sex of the animal: Wool shorn from a ram is coarser as compared to the wool shorn from a
ewe. Wool of a ram has more grease and is difficult to scour out.
(5) Soil: The type of soil on which sheep are run gives the wool certain color, for example, the
wools from the black soil have quite a different color from those grown on red soil.
(6) Region of sheep body: The quality of wool varies from region to region of body. The wool
of breech region is coarser than that of the shoulder region. Medullated fibres are more in
numbers in the breech, the belly and the head regions.
(7) Shearing Practices: When wool is shorn by a skilled operator using a machine shearing,
the staple length of the wool will be uniform.
(8) Season of shearing: It also affects the color of wool, the staple length and the fineness of
wool.
Mohair: Mohair is very similar to wool in chemical composition. It is hairy fibres grown on
body of Angora goat. It is a beautiful, smooth and very lustrous fibre, but it is somewhat
coarser and lacks the felting properties of wool.
Mohair has uniform diameter. Pronounced crimp and lower grease content is valued the most.
Mohair is very useful in the manufacturing of the goods where strength and durability are
desired. It is used in manufacturing of blankets, pilofabrics, nets, shoe-laces, hats, decorative
trimmings, switches, curtains etc. Mohair caches dye readily. USA, Turkey and South Africa
are the three leading mohair producing countries in the world.
Pashmina: It is a hairy undercoat obtained from the Kashmiri (Pashmina) goat found in
higher attitudes of Himachal Pradesh. Outer covering is used for making blankets, numdas,
bags etc. Pashmina is used for making the famous ring-shawls of Kashmir.
WOOL GRADING OR WOOL CLASSING:-
It is grouping of fleece into various classes according to length, fineness, condition
and color. Graded wool can be placed on the market in reasonably even lines. This will help the
broker or merchant to judge its utility efficiency and the shepherd gets the highest possible price
of his wool.
Wool grown by the different breeds of sheep varies in many characteristics viz., length,
condition and fineness. Variation in these characteristics also occurs within the same breed and
even on the body of the same sheep. The manufacturing value of wool varies accordingly to
length and quality of wool. In the process of wool grading, each clip is divided into a number of
different classes of wool called lines. The number of lines into which clips is divided depends
on the size of the flock. Min. number of lines is four. Whereas in a large flock up to twenty lines
of wool may be made. Grading of wool is done on the wool table just after shearing the sheep
and before rolling and packing. Wool grading is usually carried out by professional wool
classers. Wool-grading can be done by an experienced shepherd.
Grading of wool is done with the help of sight, touch and good judgment by wool classer.
Grading of wool in foreign countries: Two systems
1. Numerical count system (Bradford system) under which the wool is graded according to
spinning count into different lines e.g. coarse wool with 44's to 48' s or very coarse wool with
40' s to less than 40's.
2. The System of wool grading is American Blood system. This system is popular in the USA.
When Merino sheep were introduced, they were crossed with native, coarse wool producing
sheep. The wool from this first cross sheep was coarser than that from Merino and was known
as half blood. Wool of decreasing degree of fineness were designated as 3/8 blood. ¼ blood,
common etc. The latter is the coarsest lines. Now a days this system is not commonly used.
Comparison of two systems of wool grading:

Type of wool Old Blood system Numerical count system Diameter (microns)

Fine Fine 80's and 80's 17.7 to 19.14

70's to 64's 19.15 to 22.04

Medium ½ Blood 60's to 62's 22.05 to 24.94

3/8 Blood 56’s to 58’s 24.95 to 27.84
¼ Blood 50’s to 54’s 27.85 to 30.99

Coarse Low quarter 44;s to 48’s 31.00 to 36.19

Braid 48’s a and less 36.20 and above

Wool grading in India:

Grading of wool is new for India. Grading of wool is done only in limited areas and accepted by
very few flock owners. Wool grading is done by state government department in Rajasthan. In
Gujarat grading of wool is started on small scale in major wool producing districts. Wool is
graded on the basis of fibre fineness (diameter), burr (grass seeds) content and color of wool.
Sometimes clean wool yield is also one of the criteria.
Grading of Indian wool is not done extensively because of the facts that 1. Wool produced in
India is only coarse wool type (carpet wool) and 2. Wool produced by an average shepherd is
very less in quantity. So it is very difficult to make several lines but shepherds can however
form co-operatives and can get their wool graded and thus can market their wool more
efficiently.
Skirting and Rolling of fleece:
Skirting: It is removal of any inferior wool (of the fleece shorn from a sheep), done on the wool
table, usually along with process of wool grading. The inferior wool is usually found around
the edges of the fleece. Along with inferior wool, some urine and dung stained wool is also
removed. Wool higher burr content is with kept separate. Over-skirting should be avoided. After
skirting and grading wool is rolled and tied.
Rolling of a fleece is done in such a manner that the most attractive wool (shoulder
wool) will remain on the other side of the bundle.
Carbonizing: It is the process of giving chemical treatment to wool to remove vegetable matter
like burrs entangled with wool fibre. It involves treatment of wool with dilute acids.
Carbonizing converts vegetable matter into hydrocellulose which may be bitten out
afterwards.
Sorting: Graded lines are still not uniform enough for a certain specific manufacturing use.
Wool is subdivided in various groups according to spinning quality. Sorting is done in the
spinning mill or the warehouse prior to processing.
Scouring: Removal of high content of dust and sand from wool after passing through duster.
Unfortunately, these impurities are embedded with grease and can be not removed
without removing wool grease.
Scouring is carried out by passing the wool though a succession of long tanks containing
suitable detergents in lukewarm water. This gently agitated to loosen the dirt. Finally wool is
washed with plain water and squeezed between the rollers and dried by spreading on the open
floor.
Feed lot: After weaning lambs are kept on high plane of nutrition for fattening. This is known
as “feed lot” or its management.
Prime lambs: Superior and early maturing lambs meant for export are called prime lambs.
Canary Coloration: It is due to the reaction of sweat with wool fiber because of humidity in
September as there is no evaporation of moisture from the body. Wool shorn in autumn will
have more canary coloration.
Spinning count (’s): No. of hanks, each of 560 yards, that can be spun from 1 lb. of wool.
Gujarat Sheep and Wool Development Corporation: Fixes the wool price based on quality of
wool and market demand.
Sheep Breeding Farms: Morvi and Patan.
 CHAPTER 6

GOAT PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Text books:
4. Livestock Production Management by N.S.R. Sastry and C.K.Thomas, 2005
5. Text book of Animal husbandry by G.C. Banerjee ,2008
6. ICAR, 2011. Handbook of Animal Husbandry 3rd Ed. ICAR.
7. Devendra C & Mecleroy GB. Goat and Sheep Production in Tropics. Longman.
-----------------------------
The goat is known to its friends as the ‘Poor man’s cow’ and regarded as ‘Gold’ as can
be encased at any time. The title is appropriate and well deserved. But the domesticated goat is
quite characteristically different from cow.
The goat was the first animal to be domesticated by man (8000 B.C.). Goat provides
milk, meat, hair, skin, manure and also used for sacrificial purposes. It is a popular, hardly,
prolific animal serving the needs of man.
Place of Goat in Animal Kingdom:
Class : Mammalia
5) Hairy coat
6) Mammary glands
7) Full developed foetus-birth
8) Warm blooded
Sub class : Eutheria- Placenta
Order : Ungulata- Hoofed
Sub order : Artiodactyla-Even toed : Two claws/digits
Family : Antilocapridae
Species : Capra hircus – domestic sheep

The goat is closely related to the sheep. The wild ancestors of domesticated goat are- 1.
Capra aegagrus of Persia and Asia minor 2. Capra falconeri of Himalayas and 3. Capra Persia of
Mediterranean. The modern goat’s tolerance of heat and cold and drought is because of this
ancestry.
Moreover the goat has certain advantages over cow and sheep. The goat can survive and
produce ½ litre milk where cow would starve to death in a few weeks. Goats can meet their
nutrients requirement as they can consume dry matter upto 6 % of their body weight. Goats can
face severe heat and cold better than sheep but they are at disadvantage in a damp cold climate.
 The goat is browsing animal which eats variety of plants and fodder. As such, goat
rearing is cheap and is major occupation of landless laborers in India. In India majority of the
goats are used for meat. Goat meat is in no way inferior to mutton but can not be compared with
prime beef or lamb. In India the goat meat is preferred as cow is sacred and the bullocks are
required for agricultural work.
The skin of goat makes leather of high quality. The hair of long haired goat is used for
weaving cloth. The mohair and pashmina of Angora goat and Kashmir goat have their own
value.
The goat production in rural area plays an important role in meeting the animal protein
of rural population as cow and buffalo milk is being sold to dairies by villages.
Goat population
The goat is distributed throughout the world in the temperate, sub tropical and tropical
zones. About 80 % of the goats of the world are found in tropical region. In Asia the highest
populations are found in India (125.5 million., 15.32 % of World's population as per
FAO,2007), Pakistan and Iran. The goat population of India is increased at the rate of about one
million per year in spite of lack of developmental programme for this species. The obvious
reasons for increase in goat population are :
1. High rate of reproduction.
A) It breeds at least thrice in two years. B) Twins and triplets are common.
2. Relative greater resistance to disease.
3. Marketing facilities.
The goat population is more than sheep in high rainfall areas than in the drier areas.
There are about 5 to 8 times more goats than sheep in North Eastern States. In Kerla , there are
about 140 goats to one sheep. The goats in India, 1/5 (20%) are dairy goats and rest (80%) are
meat type goats.
Advantage of goat keeping:-
The goat keeping has following advantages:
1) Financial investment is small:
The money required to purchase a doe is relatively small. A good doe is expected to
milk for six to ten years. At the end of this, she may be sold for full salvage value.
2) The building and equipment needs are less:
The goat is small animal and can be housed in an inexpensive house, hut or verandah. In
our country, the goat requires shelter from rain and hot sun. A wooden box or an old
bucket can be used as manager.
3) Returns start earlier:
A doeling can be bred at the age of 12 months, i.e., when it weighs 30-35 kg in general
breeds or 60% of adult body weight. The income from milk starts at about 16 to 18
months.
 4) Goat are prolific:
Exotic goats are fairly prolific. Twins are common. On an average, an exotic doe
produces 1.6 to 2.0 kids. The tropical goats like those of India produce triplets and
quadruplets. The sexes are equally distributed.
5) Goats require less feed:
A doe will consume about one-fifth as much feed as a cow. In case of buffalo it may be
one-sixth to one –eight.
Goat milk composition:-
Fat Protein Sugar SNF Ash Fat globules are small in sized,
4.33% 5.8% 9.3% 0.89% used for preparing soft cheese (can
4.9%
not used for butter making).

• As compared to the milk of other animals, goat’s milk approaches nearest to human
milk in fat and protein. The fat globules of goat’s milk are small and it makes soft
curd which is easily digested. The milk is recommended for infants. It is also advocated
especially to T.B. patients. It is rich in iron, so it helps in the formation of RBCs.
6) Goats helps in solving unemployment:
The village woman and children can easily manage goats which are docile by nature. So
the family members who are not employed can earn by goat keeping.
7) Goats provide stable income.
Goat provides a daily stable income which is useful for the family.
8) Goat manure increases crops.
Goat manure maintains and builds-up soil fertility. Goat manure is turned back to soil as
it is never used for fuel.
9) No prejudices against slaughter.
In India there is no prejudice against slaughter of goat. As such males and uneconomic
females can be easily disposed of. Moreover there are usually no middlemen for
marketing. Hence, better price is realized.
10) Advantages of integration of goat production with cropping system.
A) Controls the growth of waste herbage or weeds roots can be maintained on those.
No special land required for browsing. B) It improves the soil fertility.
Disadvantage of goat production:
1) Goats destroy plant life.
Goat is a browsing animal. As such it nibbles or eats tender leaves of shrubs trees and
grassland. When not confined, goats destroy forest, Hence, Stall feeding is
recommended.
 2) Palatability of goat’s milk.
Goat’s milk may have peculiar flavour – ‘goaty odour ’which is not liked by people.
The buck is responsible for this odour. This is avoided by- 1. Keeping buck for away
from milking barn and 2. Maintaining hygienic conditions during milking. 3. Removal
of the milk to a cool room immediately after milking.
3) Labour requirement is more.
Dairying is a full time job. It requires more labour to manage, feed and milk does as five
does are equal to one cow. Small quantities of milk are to be marketed (Labourer may
not be a problem in India).
4) Milk customers are temporary.
The consumer of goat milk may purchase it for short time. The demand may be
temporary. Goat’s milk is mostly consumed on medical advice and consumers may not
purchase as soon as he recovers. The goat milk producer has to search customers every
now and then.
DAIRY GOAT INDUSTRY
In India, the goats are in the hands of landless labourers. Most of the goats (80%) are
for meat purpose. But some of them are good milk yielders. Moreover the demand for milk in
India is far greater than the supply.
Even when the situations are good, the dairy goat production has not taken the shape of
industry. This is so in advanced courtiers like U.K., Switzerland, Norway etc.
Commercial goat farming must come up on two points:
1. Peculiar good quality of goat’s milk.
2. Goat’s feeding habits and digestive capacity
The demand for goat milk will increase when people start consuming in
large quantities. This requires publicity.
The goats’ milk can be sold as cows’ or buffalos’ milk by mixing. The detection of
the same is difficult but cream output will be less.
With the current trend of prices of milk, in future it may be expected that dairy goat
production will develop into industry.
Factors in dairy goat production:
In any business, the profit is the main motto. The profit is calculated by substracting
total expenditure from total income or gross return. Thus,
Profit = Gross return-Total expenditure.
The important components of gross return in goat production are;
1. Milk and 2. Meat
 Components of expenditure in goat production are:
1. Feed cost
2. Labour cost
3. Depreciation on capital i.e. House, Equipment and Animals.
4. Interest on capital investment.
5. Miscellaneous cost on breeding, veterinary aid etc.
Generally, expenditure remains more or less same for same number of goats producing
more milk or less milk. So to have more profit the milk production of goats must be on high
level.
Important factors in governing profit in dairy goat production:
1. Select the breeding flock carefully. Higher the milk production per goat, higher
the profit.
2. Prolificacy of does should be more for culling of animals with low production.
Sound breeding programme should be followed.
3. Cost of housing and equipments should be as low as possible. They should be
designed to save labour and time.
4. Feed the animals with balanced ration. The feed should be as cheap as possible.
If the feed lacks in any one or more nutrients, there will be loss in production.
The feeds of dairy goat comprises of (1) fodder and the (2) concentrates. If good
quality fodder like legume grass or hay is used, animals require less concentrates.
This results in minimizing cost of feeding.
5. Keeping of records for milk production, prolificacy, growth etc. Will help in
proper evaluation of animals. Records are very important for selection of
animals.
6. A health programme should be prepared and adhered to, as sick and weak
animals will not be productive.
7. A uniform, attractive and high quality product should be marketed.
8. Goats like to live in natural condition. Hence provide fresh and clean water.
They should be allowed to move freely in the yard.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS OF GOATS:
A) Zonal Distribution of Indian Goats:
There is distinct zonal distribution of goats for meat or milk or both or Pashmina.
Though majority of goats in India are milked for domestic use and male kids and surplus
animals are sold for slaughter, specific areas in the country can be identified where emphasis is
more on meat or both or fibre only.
 These zones are:
1. Himalayan region :
Small pocket of Kashmiri (‘Pashmina’) goats in Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh
covering five contagious valleys viz. Zanskar ,Rupshu Changthang ,Lahul, and Spiti.
These valleys are dry. The Pashmina goat is designated by different names viz. Chamba,
Gaddi, and Kashmiri. These goats are mainly for fibre.
2. North western zone:
This zone comprises Haryana Punjab, Rajashthan ,Western U.P. parts of M.P. and
extends into Gujarat .The goats breeds of this are known for milk production. These are
Jamnapari, Beetal, Barbari, Zakhrana, Sirohi, Surati ,Marwari, Mehsani Sindhi etc. this
group comprises 80% of total goat population .
3. Dry southern zone:
Meat and milk purpose goats. The entire southern region is having dual purpose
goats. But more emphasis is on meat. There are no distinct breeds in this region. In
Kerala the Malbari breed is specific which produces relatively more milk.
4. North Eastern region :
This region comprises of Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura,
Nagaland, Sikkim etc. The goat breeds of this region are highly prolific meat breeds.
The goats are small in zone and known for twins and triplet births. They breed twice a
year. The breeds are Black Bengal, Assam hill and Ganjam .
B) Classification based on utility:
Milch goats: Surti and Barbari breeds of goats are good milk producer and are known
as milch goats
Meat type goats: They produce small amount of milk (less than 1 kg. in a day) .But
there growth rate mature body weight, and meat conformation are better, so they
are grouped under the meat type goats, e.g., Bengal goats
Dual purpose goats: They produce fair amount of milk (more than 1 kg. per day) there
growth rate is also good mature body wt. of this type of goat is medium about 65
kgs. Ex. Jamnapari goats.
Fibre purpose goats: These goats produce fibre like Pashmina and mohair e.g.,
Kashmiri and Angora.
Indian breeds of goats :
BARBARI
Barbari is primarily dairy type goat. Its origin is native of east-Africa. In India this goat is found
most commonly in U.P., Punjab and Haryana .
Breed characteristics: Barbari goats are small in size they have good dairy conformation the
body colour of this goats is white or white with red spots. They have short legs. Mature bucks
wt. about 45 kg and does wt. 36 kg.
This goat is suitable for stall-feeding so it is found in towns and village. Barbari goat can be
kept as family goats. The average milk yield during the lactation is 250 - 300 kg with 5% milk
fat. Barbari goat is prolific twins are common They produce more milk compare to body
weight.
JAMNAPARI
Jamnapari goats are found in Etawah district and hilly areas of U.P. They are dual purpose
goats.
Breed characteristics: Jamnapari goats are larger in size and are most handsome of Indian goats.
They are generally white or yellowish tinge with light brown spots on the neck and face some
times patches of tan or black are found on the body. They have long pendulous ear and a
prominent “Roman nose” .They have long legs and hind quarter have long, thick hair. They are
hardy and very active. The avg. wt. of mature buck is 60-90kg and of mature doe is 50-60kg.
They yield 300-400 kg milk in 10 months of lactation. The fat content of milk is 5.2%.
They kid once in a year. Twins are common.
Jamnapari goats give good amount of milk and have meat conformation. They are well
adapted to village condition and rough range. They have contributed in development of Nubian
breed of goat.
BEETAL
Beetal goats are found in Punjab and Haryana.
Characteristics: Beetal goats resemble to Jamnapari goats but smaller in size and are not so
heavy in weight. The colour of body is generally black, red-tan, brown and often heavily spotted
on white. They have roman nose and long pendulous ears. They have curved, spiral horns. The
bucks have beards. The bucks weight is about 52 kg to 75 kg and does wt. 40-50 kg. Age of first
kidding is 20 to 22 months. Beetal goat gives kid once in a year. Twins are common. This goat
produces 180 kg milk in a lactation .The fat content in the milk is about 4.5%
SURATI
Surati is a small dairy goat. It is found in Surat dist. of Gujarat state. The Surati goats are also
taken to southern India. It is believe that they have some blood of Arabian goats.
Breed characteristics: They have angular body. They are of white colour. Ears and horns are
smaller. Sometimes polled strains are also found. They have short legs. Mature buck and doe
weigh 50 to 60 kg and 40 kg, respectively.
Surati is well suited to stalled fed condition and generally kept in urban area. They kid
twice in a year. Twins are common. The Surati goats produce 1.2-1.5 kg of milk in day.
BLACK BENGAL
Bengal goats are found in west Bengal, Assam and in adjoining area.
Characteristics: They are smaller in size with black coloured body coat. They have good meat
conformation. They have low-set body. The ears are erect. Mature buck weigh 14 to 15.3 kg and
doe weight 8.4 to 13.5 kg.
They are prolific goats. They kid twice in a year and give twins or triplets every time. They
produce milk sufficient for their kids. They are kept for chevon. Skin of Bengal goat is superior
and is in great demand in foreign countries.
KASHMIRI
Goats of this breed are found in hilly tracts of H.P and Tibets. They do not thrive well in plains
and humid areas. They can withstand very severe cold weather.
Breed characteristics: Generally, their coat colour is white or black and white. They long
curved horns and long ear. Their body is covered with fine silky hairs. They have fur like under
coat known as Pashmina. The Pashmina grows during winter and is shorn in the spring. This
undercoat is collected by combing for 8 days. The silky hair are clipped and used for making
ropes and numdas.
This goat produces very little amount of milk. It is kept for Pashmina, silky hair and
meat. They are used as pack animals also.
OTHERS
There are some breeds like Jhalawadi in Gujarat, Marwari in Rajsthan which have
importance in the region. There are originated from Jamanpari goat.
Exotic Breeds of Goats:
ALPINE
This breed was originated in the Alps Mountain of Europe (France and Switzerland).
The home tract of this breed cooler and snow falls is common. But Alpine goats do well in
warm climate also. This breed has been imported in our country and some flocks are kept at
Ludhiana. They are kept to evolve a crossbred new breed.
Breed characteristics: Alpine goats have perky (short and erect) ears, slightly dished faced and
variable colours, such as black, fawn, gray, brown, white or combinations of these colours. The
beard of males is quite pronounced. Usually they are polled and have shorter hair coat. Adult
bucks weigh 65 to 80 kg and the does weigh 50 to 60 kg.
Alpine goats produce 915 kg milk and 58 kg butter fat in ten months of lactation. They
have 3 to 4 percent fat in milk.
NUBIAN -‘Jersey’ amongst the goats
They are native of Nubia in North eastern Africa. They have been developed in England
–known as Anglo-Nubian. Anglo-Nubian was developed by crossing the Nubian and Jamnapari
bucks on native British does.
Characteristics: Nubian goat is aristocratic in appearance. The colour of Nubian goat varies
from white to black, red tan or combination of these colours. Nubian goat has large drooping
ears and a peculiarly long shaped head with ‘roman nose’. It has long legs. It is a large breed.
Mature buck weights 85 kg and doe weigh 65 kg.
Nubian does have capacious, pendulous udders and larger teats. They produce 1900 kg
of milk and 88 kgs of butter fat in 10 months of lactation. They are known as ‘Jersey ’amongst
the goats. The fat content in the milk is 4 to 5 %.
SAANEN - Queen of Goat world
Sannen, originated in Switzerland is famous for its high milk production and high persistency.
Breed characteristics: Saanen is white or light cream coloured. They may or may not have
horns. The face of the Saanen may be straight or slightly dished. The ears point upward and
forward. Weight of mature buck is about 90 kg and that of doe is about 65 kg.
The milk yield and butter fat production of the Saanen doe is 2200 kg and 87 kg,
respectively and regarded as Queen of Goat world. Fat % in milk is about 3 to 4 %.
TOGGENBERG
It is originated in Switzerland. It is the most prominent breed of dairy goat in U.S.A.
Characteristics: The colour of the Toggenberg varies from brown to dark chocolate. There are
white spots on the ears, face and legs below the hocks and knees. Mature doe weighs on an
average 60 kg and mature bucks weigh on an average 80 kg.
Toggenberg does yield about 2500 to 2600 kgs of milk and 92 kgs of butter fat in ten
months of lactation. The average fat content of the milk is about 3 %.
ANGORA
Angora goat is native of Turkey which is dry with extremes of temperatures. Angora goats are
extensively bred in U.S.A. and South Africa for Mohair production.
Breed characteristics: Angora is comparatively small in size and its legs are much shorter. It is
more like a sheep in appearance than a goat. Its back is straight and the body is blocky. It has
long pendulous ears. Both male and female are horned. Mature buck weigh 70 kg and doe
weigh 50 kg.
Angora goat is kept for their lustrous, fine and white fleece/hair covering known as
‘Mohair’. It possesses high tensile & strength and spiral locks. Mohair is clipped twice in a
year. Angora goat produces 2.5 kg mohair in a year.
Angora goat thrives well in a dry climate subject to extreme variations in temperature.
India has also imported some Angora goats and started crossbreeding programme with native
goats.
BODY CONFORMATION OF DAIRY TYPE GOAT
1) Head should be long and of moderate width.
2) Neck and shoulder – the neck should be long and slender and good depth.
3) Chest- should be moderately deep and good width giving the appearance of strength.
4) Fore-legs should be straight, strong and possesses good bone thickness/diameter/strength.
5) Foot- the animal should stand well its legs without the tendency to turn walks on heels.
6) Body- good depth is an important feature. The back should be level from the shoulder to the
hips and then drop slightly at the tail region.
7) Ribs- should be well sprung to give a barrel effect. Large barrel indicates capacity to take
more feed.
8) Bones should give the appearance of strength with the hocks slightly bent.
9) Udder and teats should be carried well under the body of should be large and proportional to
sized of the body. It should undergo considerable shrinkage after milking. The teats should
be considerably apart of moderate length and of suitable sized to be conveniently held in
hand during milking.
10) Milk veins should be well developed.
BREEDING OF GOATS:
A young doeling can be bred at the age of 12 months by which time it weigh about 30-
35 kg in general breeds or 60% of adult body weight . Age of breeding doeling much depends
upon the body development and facilities to feed and to manage. If these facilities are
favourable, the doeling may be bred at an early age.
On an average a doeling will kid for ten times in her life.
A mature buckling may be utilized for breeding at the age of 12 months. But it is full
sexual vigour and considered best for breeding at the age of 2 to 3 years.
The breeding season in Goats:
The length of oestrus cycle is doe ranged from 18 to 21 days. The heat period is about
34 to 48 hours. The gestation period is 1513 days.
The Indian goats can be bred through-out the twelve months of the year (whereas in the
exotic goats the breeding season is from September to February) . It is advisable to breed Indian
goats in the months of May-June, so that goat will kid during October-November. At this time
plenty of green grasses are available and environment is comfortable for the young one. This is
not of much importance when stall feeding is in practice.
Sign of heat:
A doe in heat shows following symptoms or signs.
1. A doe in heat becomes uneasy and shakes its tail frequently.
2. In milking doe, there will be drop in milk production.
3. A doe in heat seeks the company of the buck.
4. The vulva gets slightly swollen and little mucous may also flow from it.
5. A doe in heat may try to mount on other does or may allow other does to mount on her.
6. A doe in heat urinates frequently and bleats restlessly.
7. Teaser/vasectomized buck are the best for detection of heat in goats.
It is advised to breed the goat on second day of heat period 2-3 days. But in summer
they should be bred immediately on noticing the sign of heat as heat period last for an hour or
two.
Signs of pregnancy:
Pregnancy signs are many and varied. The first one is cessation of coming in heat. The
goat become quieter in disposition and generally goes down in milk yield during 2 to 3 weeks.
After this the milk yield declines very slowly. At 2 to 3 months of pregnancy, her figure shows
her condition. As compared to other animals, pregnant goat becomes heavy and lethargic.
This may lead to difficult kidding if they are not given light exercise daily. The pregnant does
should be allowed to dry up six weeks (1 ½ month) prior to kidding.
Drying up the doe:
It is necessary to dry a doe in milk either when the milk produced is little or doe is
advance pregnant. Drying up of doe is advantageous as it is observed that dry period (6 weeks)
is helpful in higher milk production after next freshening /parturition. Drying up may be done
by-1.Abrupt stopping of milking, 2. Gradual skipping of milking for some time or 3.
Incomplete milking .
Disadvantages of drying off a doe by abrupt stopping of milking-
1. In high yielder chances of mastitis will be there.
2. Lower milk production in next lactation.
Kidding:
The time of kidding or parturition can be easily calculated, if the breeding date is
known. As the goat approaches in term, the kid can be felt moving inside the bulge on the right
side.
The maternity/kidding box should be small and on no account goat should be tied up.
Care and help is essential because of multiple births.
1. About 2 to 3 hours before actual kidding, the doe becomes fussy and bleats for help to
any one passing by.
2. It will then be seen that the udder is tight, shiny and engorged with milk.
3. The goat shrinks in the belly and is rather hollow in the flank.
4. Her tail head appears to be higher than usual as the ligament on either side is relaxed.
5. She may breath rapidly or be panting.
6. She shows evident signs of pain and keeps scratching up her bedding, lying down and
getting up repeatedly with anxiety.
7. There will be thick white starchy discharge resembling the white of an egg.
8. This is quickly follow by water-bag with the kid floating in it . This must not to be
broken.
9. It bursts in 15 minutes and then front feet with the tip of the nose resting on them
exhibit.
10. After renewed efforts, she expels the kid within a few minutes.
In multiple births, second kid may come with hind feet first so often, hence consider it
almost a normal presentation.
After the kids have arrived, the goat should be given a warm cereal meal (gruel) e.g.,
boiled crushed bajri/wheat /barley to drink. Some goats like table spoonful of treacle in it. The
kids are now ready for feeding and the goat is glad to have her udder relieved. If she can not be
sucked by her kids, the newly kidded goat should be milked soon after she has kidded, but only
that much milk should be taken from her, which relaxes the tension in the udder. She can be
milked out fully from 3rd day.
Some tips while breeding goats:-
While breeding goats, the following tips may prove helpful.
1. Check the tattoo or tag number of the individual animal to facilitate better recording.
2. Provides best grazing facilities to the breeding stock.
3. Improve the physical condition of the flock (flushing) 4-6 weeks before tupping. It will
increase chances of implantation of fertilized ova and the number of ova shed.
4. Shorten the breeding seasons before actual mating by allowing either the vasectomized
buck or teaser to join the breeding flocks. Remove the hair around the vulva for easy
mating. Examine the quality of semen and check the breeding.
5. Save the buck from summer sterility. Observed heat detection properly by use of a teaser
buck and thus conserved the energy of fertile buck to be used for sound mating.
6. Extra growth of hooves to be trimmed.
7. Daily exercise is most essential or the breeding buck.
8. Your buck is half your flock your goats the other half. There for use a pedigreed and
proven buck.
9. The buck can serve more goats if it is permitted to stay with the flock during night.
10. Increased the length of mating period. It will bring those late comers in heat who to
conceive in the first phases of mating.
11. Selection of foundation stocks is very important. Cull out uneconomical.
12. If horned bucks insist on spending their energy in fighting discourage them by rubbing a
little kerosene or other foul smelling agent along the nose, head and back.
13. Keep exact records of individuals for better management.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ADULT GOATS
A dairy goat may be considered as ‘a miniature cow’. An adult doe should be groomed
regularly. This helps in circulation of blood. At the same time external parasites, if any, can be
noticed. Clipping of hairs must be carried out. This is necessary especially in those regions
having long hairs.
Goats are very active animals. When they are confined lot of exercise is necessary. They
should be let loose in open yards and the feeding and watering may be provided in these yards.
The feeding of adult is similar to feeding of a cow. Goat will consume 1/5 as much as
feed as a cow. To get high production from a goat, it is important she be fed a good ration. An
adult doe may be given 300 to 350 gm of concentrate and good fodder should be given ad.
libitum. Extra concentrate should be given to milking animals depending upon milk produced.
Milking:-
It is best to milk a goat from a small stand or a bench that has a stand at one end of
which the goat may be secured by a neck-strap. Goats should be milked twice a day as close at
12 hours interval. A high yielder may be milked 3 times a day at interval of 8 hours. The
synthesis/secretion of milk takes place throughout day and night. The accumulation of milk in
the udder slows the rate. Therefore, milking at even interval give the best results. They may
milked from either side, but only one method should be adopted and use as regular routine. Best
result obtained when the same person does feeding, handling and milking of the animal.
1. Before milking, the doe’s udder should be either washed or wiped clean.
2. Any long hair around the udder should be clipped. The first milk drawn at each milking
should be not saved as it contains dust or bacteria, accumulated in the end of the teat canal.
3. Care should be taken to milk out the udder completely. The last stripping contains more fat
than they otherwise would.
4. If the teat are sore to cracks, they should be treated with little savlon and the milking should
be especially gentle.
5. Record of milk yield should be kept and used to determine her selection and breeding value.
Warm of milk should not be placed as refrigerator as it absorbed odour, develops off
flavours with high bacterial counts.
Management of buck :
The buck must be kept away from the other stock. It should be given enough of exercise
to keep in active condition. Regular grooming must be carried out. The buck usually consumes
more feed than a doe. Balanced concentrate and good fodder should be provided. During
breeding season, it is necessary to feed more concentrate.
CARE AND MANAGEMENTS OF KIDS
Rearing the kids:
Colostrum feeding within an hour of birth is essential for passive immune transfer ,
health and vogour. The kids are usually hand reared when the goat is to supply the family milk.
Kids may be allowed with their dam until they are four days old than should be removed from
her sight and sound. The kids must be fed the recommended amount of milk three to four times
a day up to 2-3 weeks of age. The milk should be warmed 950 F to 100 0 F. the kids take 1 ½ to
2 pints (1 pint = 473.17 ml) of milk per day@ of 1/5th to 1/10th of their body weight. They may
be fed cow milk if goat milk is not available. Milk substitutes can be discontinued at 3 to 4
months of age. The males should be separated at this age and castrated.
Males kept for slaughter are sold at the age of 3 Months when the meat considered excellent.
Kids are mainly raised for meat and not for breeding. Goat meat is dark pink and coarse.
Characteristic goaty odour and may have hairs adhering to its surface.
Disbudding/Dehorning:-
Removing the horn buds from kids is a common practice and should be done when the
kid is 2 to 5 days old. First, hair from the area of the horn buds are clipped and surrounding area
is covered with petroleum jelly to protect it from caustic soda or potash that is thoroughly
rubbed on the bud until the horn button is well blistered.
Mature goats may be dehorned by sawing the horns close to the head with a meat saw.
This should be done during cool weather and wounds should be coated with pine tar or other
disinfectant repellant. The other methods are :- (1) Dehorning iron method: by hot red iron. (2)
Dehorning colloidin method : dehorning outfit with colloidin. and (3) Electric dehorner.
Removal of off-flavour producing –‘ Musk glands ’:-
Male goats emit a smell which develops in them at puberty and normally remains with
the buck for life. It is stronger in breeding seasons. It is reduced, if the animal is castrated at an
early age. It is thought to be originating from fatty glands (musk gland) which enlarged during
the breeding seasons. This smell may be accentuated by the males’ objectionable habits of
frequently spraying urine and sperm over the head, chest and forelegs. These “musk glands”
situated immediately behind and towards the inside of the horns or corresponding bumps on a
hornless goat, can be destroyed at birth by applying red hot iron at the time of disbudding.
Subsequently, only little smell develops.
Tattooing: - The number is tattooed on ears of kids and later on the inside of the skin flap of
goat tail. Branding on thigh, and ear or neck tags may also be used depending on the
convenience of the management.
Hoof trimming:- Goats seldom get sufficient exercise on hard surfaces to keep down the horny
growth covering the sides of hooves. A sharp knife is the best to cut these in a month.
The heel may also need trimming.
Bucks should be thoroughly trimmed otherwise they suffer from lameness/foot rot.
Grooming:- Grooming is done with stiff dandy brush and a fine toothed steel comb. This helps
to eliminate the scrub which is often prevalent when the old coat is being shed in the
spring. (In winter and autumn, wash-leather rubbing is better as extensive grooming
removes the developing wooly undercoat).
Ageing of goats:- Age of goats can be determined by the front teeth on the lower jaw. Both the
kids and adults have eight teeth on the lower jaw. These are small and sharp in kids. At
about one year of age the central pair drops out and is replaced two large permanent
teeth, at 2 years of age, two more small teeth drops out and are replaced by two more
large teeth, one on each side of the 1st pair, at three year of age there are 6 permanent
teeth, and at 4 years a complete set of permanent teeth. After this the degree of wear and
tear gives the rough indication of age.
FEEDS AND FEEDING OF GOATS
Goat is a ruminant, but its feeding is quite different from sheep and cows. For its size, a
goat can consume substantially more than either cow or sheep, can viz, 6 to 8 % and even up to
11 % of her body weight in dry matter as compared to 2.5 to 3.0 % in case of cattle and sheep.
Thus, goats can satisfy their maintenance and production requirement on good fodder and
pasture. It is interesting to note that each 100 kg body weight goat require 1.5 times as much
feed per day for maintenance as a 100 kg cow. For every 140 pounds (36.5 kg) of common
concentrate mixture, a goat produced 2 gallon (9.1 lit.) more milk than a cow. The goat should
not be fed more than 50 % of dry matter as concentrate. The remainder of the ration should be
roughages supplied as hay, silage, or roots. Good quality lucerne or berseem hay is more
desirable for milking animals.
A goat can utilize a large variety of feed stuffs than any other animal. Goat likes to
browse tree leaves, twigs and tender branches. Most of our goats get their food through grazing
and browsing. Only city goats are more or less stall-fed. For higher milk production the goats
should be fed more systematically. Feeding dairy goats involves the same principles as for dairy
cows. They may be fed at more frequent interval by using hay racks to avoid wastage which is
likely to occur otherwise.
A goat can consume total dry matter about 6.5 to 8 % of body weight. This requirement
varies greatly from animal to animal. Well-cured lucerne, berseem or cowpea hay is the best
source of nutrients for a dairy goat. Depending upon the quantity and quality of grazing and the
roughage fed, an adult doe may be fed up to 300 g of concentrate for maintenance. A milking
doe will require 100 g of extra concentrate mixture per 300 g of milk production. The
concentrate mixture should contain about 14 % to 16 % protein.
Feeding stuffs are chiefly divided into two classes: (I) Roughages and (II) Concentrates
The leaves and stalks of plants rich in crude fiber form roughage while
Grains and it’s by- products containing less crude fibre are concentrates.
(I) Roughages:-
The nutritive value of roughages depends on whether, they are green or dried, have been
harvested before or after flowering or are grain by-products. Legumes (Lucerne/Berseem) are
superior than ordinary grasses. Goats are exceptionally fond of leguminous crops. They do not
like jowar, maize, silage or bhusa which are commonly fed to dairy cattle. All green feeds
should be either tied in bundle or hung up before goats. It may be thrown on a high platform or
in a special manger to avoid spoilage of the feed by droppings. Special care should be taken to
serve it repeatedly in small quantities while feeding green legumes, as it is likely to cause
tympany other digestive troubles. Regular feeding, 3 to 4 times a day in small quantities, to be
consumed in half an hour is best. They should not be fed wet grass, fodder or leaves. It is better
to sun-dry these and then offer as wilted green. All left over green feeds should be removed
from the manger as it may become a hiding place for fungus and vermins.
(II) Concentrates feeds:-
A proper concentrate mixture essential for the milking doe is composed of mainly cereal
grins including maize, oats and barley. However to supply a properly balanced ration, these
cereal must be supplemented with protein (gram, tuver etc. Chuni/fotri), minerals and
occasionally with vitamins. Young kids may be raised on milk of their mothers separate milk,
whey or on milk replacer. A kid will start nibbling of tender grasses at the age of about two
weeks. After this age quantity of milk fed may be reduced. At the same time kids may be fed
grain mixture separately. Feeding the kids separately from their dams i.e. creep feeding will
improve their growth rate.
SITE FOR GOAT PEN AND HOUSING:-
Housing should be planned before goats are purchased. They should have a shed or
small barn that is well lighted and well ventilated. The building should be clean. Dry and free
from drought. Goat’s houses are designed for the primary object of feeding concentrate and
green feeds.
Cheap houses with low roofs and large coral, hanging hay racks, water buckets,
concentrate trays; arrangements of dips, kids boxes and raised plate-from with narrow drainage
are pre-requisites for housing milking does. Individual breeding buck pen measuring 2 x 1/4
meters with open coral of 6 x 1/4 meters and draught-free small rooms to house 15-20 newly
born kids are essential to raise good breeding stock.
The following points should be considered in selecting the site for constructing goat pens.
(1) Plan so as to have the advantages of exiting trees.
(2) The site should be on a high land so that the building and their approaching always
remain well drained and dry, especially in rainy season.
(3) Goat pen should be away from main road but should have a convenient all weather
connecting road.
(4) It should face towards the morning sun to get plenty of morning sunshine .The morning
sun is usually preferred than the afternoon sun.
(5) The building should be oriented planned to keep cool in summer and yet admit sunshine
and warmth in winter. Goats seek shelter from rain and cold sooner than most farm
animals.
Housing (goat’s pens):
A good goat house should be a compromise between that which is most comfortable and health
giving to goat and that which is most convenient and economic from the view point of
management.
Milks goats should not be allowed to run together in their pens for getting roughages
and concentrates. They should be fed in separate stalls or in a group of 8-10 does.
A part of goat pen should be a concrete floor with a drain nearly 4” wide and 2” deep,
round the outside walls. The water pails can be fastened to the wall on the opposite of the hay
rack or they can be placed on the floor just inside the door. Where several goats are kept, it is
recommended to use a small light iron barrow for feeding purpose. The space required per goat
is (2.5’ x 3’) and the manger should not be less than 15” wide. There should be no dampness in
the house as goats easily catch cold which may later developed into pneumonia, one of the few
disease to which goats are quite susceptible.
There should be one or more kidding pens fitted with kidding boxes. Each feeding
stall and kidding pen/box should be equipped with a rack for hay, a trough or pail fastened to
the wall and a bucket for water.
To increase the productivity of goats following provisions are to be made.

Adult goats 12-16 sq.ft/goat Kids , 7 days to 3 months 5-6 sq.ft/kid

,, 3 to 6 months 8 sq.ft/kid
Lactating and pregnant 20 sq.ft /goat
,, 6 month to 1yers 10 sq.ft/kid
goats
20 sq.ft /buck
Bucks
 CHAPTER 7
UTILITY CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS AND
FAMILIRIZATION WITH CATTLE, BUFFALOES,
SHEEP AND GOST BREEDS

UTILITY CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS OF CATTLE:

Breeds of Cattle:
There are 43 well defined cattle breeds classified as milch, draught and dual purpose
and are usually named after area, location and habitat they occupy. India possesses 7.75% of
world’s and 32.11% of Asian breeds of cattle.
Utility Classification of Cattle Breeds:
(A) Bos. indicus: Indian cattle, humped cattle.
Utility: Milk production, draught purpose.
1. Milch Breeds: (Dairy Breeds)
Features:
(i) The cows are high yielder produce 1500 liters or more milk per lactation.
(ii) The cows are docile and mild in temperament.
(iii) The bullocks are slow workers.
(iv) These animals are preponderous in build with pendulous dewlaps and sheath and loose
skin.
Breeds: Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Gir, Deoni and Gaolao (5 breeds).
2. Dual Purpose Breeds: Useful for both milk and draught purpose.
Features:
(i) The cows are fairly good milkers, produce 900-1400 liters milk per lactation.
(ii) Bullocks are medium fast and good for draught.
Breeds: Kankrej, Hariana, Ongole, Tharparkar, Rathi, Mewati, Nimari (7 breeds).
3. Draught Purpose Breeds: Useful for agriculture works (16 breeds)
Features:
(i) Majority of Indian breeds raised for draft purpose.
(ii) Cows are poor milk producers; produce less than 900 liters milk per lactation.
(iii) Bullocks are active, powerful and good draft animals.
Salient features are:
- Well proportionate body.
- A long barrel tight sheath and skin, fast gait and alertness
Photographs of Breeds of Cattle

(B) Bos Taurus: Humpless cattle, European cattle.

Useful for milk production as well as for beef purposes.
 1. Milch or Dairy Breeds: For milk purpose.
Features:
(i) Cows produce more than 3000 liters milk per lactation.
(ii) Low milk fat content 3.5 to 5.0 %.
Example: Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss, Ayreshire.
2. Dual Purpose Breeds: Milk and beef purpose.
Features:
(i) Cows produce 2000-3000 liters milk per Lactation.
(ii) Weight gain more quickly and efficiently than milch breeds. Growth rate is
faster.
(iii) Males, unwanted heifer and cows are sold as beef animals.
Example: Red Dane, Milking shorthorn.
3. Beef Breeds: Meat purpose.
Features:
(i) The cows are not milked.
(ii) Cows are maintained for producing young ones.
(iii) Young ones are sold for slaughter after certain age and weight.
Example: Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, Santa Gertrudis.
Identification of Various Breeds of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat:
Breed is a group of animals of a species having similar physical and economical
characters. Each ecological region has a breeds of animals adapted to the climate of that
region. According to necessity and adoption, a breed of animal developed by the people in a
region.
Objectives: - To be familiar with breeds.
- To know the physical characteristics of breeds.
- To know the breeds of animals of the region, state and country.
 Cattle Breeds

Milch purpose Dual purpose Draught purpose

North Gujarat -- Kankrej --

Gujarat Gir -- Dangi

India Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Amritmahal,

Sahiwal, Deoni, Haryana, Ongole, Khillari,
Gaolao Rathi, Mewati, Kangayam
Nimari
Nagori, Malvi,
Ponwar, Siri

Buffalo Breeds

North Gujarat Mehsana, Banni

Gujarat Jaffarabadi, Surti

India Murrah, Nagpuri, Bhadwari, Toda,

Sambalpuri, Jerangi, Kalahandi
Indian Breeds of Cattle

Breeds/ Location Physical characteristics Economical Professional Special remark

Synonyms characteristics breeders

Kankrej Kankrej taluka The newly born calves have rusty Male body wt. 540-590 kg Rabari, “Savai Chal” of bullock.
Synonym: Bani, Banaskantha, red colour poll, adult animals are Female body wt. 410-500 Bharwad rear New breeds evolved
Kutch, silver-grey to iron grey or steel from this breed is;
Banniai, kg these animals.
Ahmedabad to black. Forehead is broad with Indubrazyl in Brazil,
Vaghadia,
Calf wt at birth- 22 to 24 kg
Wadhiar,Kacchi Deesa of Gujarat short face, black muzzle and Santa Gertrudis in USA.
(North). prominent eyes. Hump and dewlap Av. Milk yield 1200 to
. Breeding farms: At.
are well developed. Tail is long 1500 liters per lactation; Sardarkrushinagar,
(Dual purpose) whip like. Udder is well
Fat 4.2 to 5.0 %. Chharodi, Thara, Bhuj,
developed. Barkol, Mandvi (Surat)
Age at first calving 45
months
Age for service (bull) 34 to
35 months.

Gir In Saurashtra
Entirely deep red colour body. Male body wt. 500-550 kg Rabari, “Banyan leaf” like ears
region-Jamnagar, Bulging forehead like a shield,
Synonym: Female body wt.340-410 kg Bharwad, New breeds evolved
Junagadh, Rajkot,eyes are big almond shaped gives
Kathiawari, from this breed is;
Bhavnagar and
sleepy appearance. Hump- Calf wt at birth 20 to 22 kg Ahir,
Indubrazyl in Brazil,
Bhodali, Amreli districts.Dewlap and sheath are heavy and Av. Milk yield 1800-2600 Maldharis rear Santa Gertrudis in USA.
Sorathi, In western India pendulous. Tail long whip like liters per lactation. these animals.
Breeding farms: At.
Desan. in Rajasthan, MP with a black switch. AFC 46 to 57 months; Gir bulls are Junagadh, Morbi,
and Maharashtra. used for
(Milch breed) Fat 4.2% to 4.8%. Kandivali (Bombay),
grading up of
local cows.
Sahiwal Punjab province Medium size animals with long Male body wt. 425-525 kg “Jungalies” New breed “Jamaica
these Hope” (USA) - Jersey x
Synonym: Lola, of Pakistan near body. Body coat colour is Female body wt. 350-375 keep
the river Ravi. yellowish red/pale red. Skin of the animals. Sahiwal.
Montgomery, kg
animal is thin and loose. Whitish
Lambibar. “Karanswiss” (India):
ring around the eyes. Tail is very Lactation length: 300 days
Brown Swiss x Sahiwal
(Milch breed) long touching to the ground. Legs Av. Milk yield 3000-3200 at NDRI, Karnal,
are short. liters per lactation; Haryana.
Milk fat % - 4.6-5.2. Breeding farms: NDRI,
IARI & IVRI.

Tharparkar Tharparkar Light grey colour with strip of Male body wt. 450 to 500 ---- New breed “Karan-
district of Sindh light grey colour along the back, kg Fries” (India) –
Synonym:Thari,
province of ear large semi-pendulous, Black Tharparkar x Holstein
Female body wt. 350 to 400
Kutchi. Pakistan, rings around eyes. Mixture of Friesian bulls developed
kg
(Dual purpose) Adjoining tract of different breeds like Kankrej, at NDRI, Karnal,
Rajasthan, Sindhi, Nagori and Gir. AFC: 38-42 months; Haryana.
Jodhpur, Av. Milk yield 500-1200 Breeding farms:
Jaisalmer. liters per lactation.
NDRI, Karnal
Bullocks are good draft
LRS Patna, Bihar
animals.
LRF at Chetinad,
TamilNadu

Hariana Hissar, Rohtak, Long and narrow face with black Male body wt. 360-400 kg ---- Breeding farms:
Gurgaon, Karnal muzzle, body is light grey colour, Female body wt.300-325 kg
(Dual purpose) IVRI, Izatnagar, U.P.
dist. and near short horns, forehead flat with
Delhi. prominent poll. Hooves are hard Weight at birth- 22-23 kg NDRI, Karnal, Haryana.
 and black in colour. Milk yield 1100-1500 liters HAU, Hissar, Haryana.
per lactation. Cattle breeding farm,
Milk fat % - 4.0-4.8. Mathura, U.P.
Calving interval - 16-20
months.
Bullocks are active,
powerful and willing
workers.

Red Sindhi Karachi and Mostly red, shades varying from Male body wt. 425-450 kg “Maldharis” Breeding farms:
Hyderabad dark red to light yellow, white rear these
Synonym: Female body wt. 350 kg NDRI, Karnal,
Sindhi, Malir, (Sindh) and spots on forehead and dewlap, animals on
Kohistan in forehead slightly bulging, horns Birth wt of calf – 19- 23 kg grazing near AAU, Allahabad,
Red Karachi.
Pakistan. short and stumpy, drooping hind Milk yield 1800 kg per water pools of Govt. LRS Hosur
(Milch breed) quarter, pendulous udder. canals of river
lactation (T.N.),
Indus.
Milk fat % - 4.6-4.9. Export in Ceylon,
Philipines, Malaya and
AFC: 38-41 Months
Iraq for pure breeding
Calving interval-14-16 and upgrading of local
months. cattle.

Nimar “Narmada valley” Mixture of Gir and Tapti. Red Draft purpose cows,
in Madhya colour with white blotches,
Synonym: Poor in milk production.
Pradesh. buldging forehead. Ear moderately
Nimad
long, copper coloured muzzle. AFC: 48 to 54 months. ---- ----
(Draft purpose) Strong and hard hooves, Calving interval- 18
pendulous dewlap. months.
Gaolao Wardha and Medium sized, narrow and long Av. milk yield- 820-1200 ---- Utilized to upgrade
Chindwara in MP, body. Colour white to grey. kg per lactation. scrubbed cattle at
Synonym:
Nagpur in Forehead flat, horn short, almond Bullock castrated at 2.5 Balaghat (MP)
Gavarani
Maharashtra. shaped eye, voluminous dewlap. year of age.
(Dual purpose)

Khilar Native breed of Developed from ‘Hallikar’ breed. Well known draft breed. ---- Cattle Breeding farms:
Hingoli, Parbhani.
Synonym: Maharashtra state. Khillari means herd of cattle. Cows are poor milkers.
Khillari, Thillari 4 types of Khilar Yellowish white to grayish tan CBF Bankapur
Male body wt. 500-550 kg.
(Draft purpose) cattle are :Alpadi body colour. Horns are long and Dharwad, Karnataka.
southern pointed. Eyes are prominent and Female body wt. 320-360
Kangayam in Karnataka
Maharashtra, fiery. Yellow patches inside ears. kg.
State.
Mhaswad AFC: 30-36 months
Sholapur and
Male calves castrated at 5
Satara,
to 5.5 yrs of age.
Tapti – Satpura
Khillari bullocks are very
ranges
good for all agricultural
Nakali- Adjascent purposes.
to Khandesh dist.

Deoni Native breed of Resembles Gir breed but less Cows are good milkers. ---- -----
Western Andhra bulging forehead. Horns have Average milk yield: 900 kg
Synonym:
Pradesh. It is an outward and backward curve. in 300 days of lactation.
Dongrapatti
admixture of Gir, Body colour is black and white or Bullocks are well suited for
(Dual purpose) Dangi and local red and white with irregular spots. heavy work.
 animals.

Rathi Home tract of this Medium sized powerful cattle, Av. male body wt. 385 kg ---- ----
breed is Alwar well built and deep chest, straight
Synonym: Rath Av. female body wt. 326 kg
and Rajputana face, flat forehead, large and wide
(Dual purpose) region of eyes, short and pendulous ears, Cows yield about 5.5 kg
Rajasthan. short tail with black switch. milk per day.
Bullocks are powerful and
active suitable for field and
road work.
 Buffaloes: Even toed ungulates (Order: Artiodactyla).
Suborder: Ruminant, Family: Bovidae. It can be further grouped into three groups.
Genus Bovina (Cattle/ Bison)
Bubalina (Asian buffaloes - angular horns)
Syncercina (African buffaloes - oval shaped horns)
Asian Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are of Swamp and Riverine type.

Riverine Buffaloes Swamp Buffaloes

• Chromosome number 50 • Chromosome number 48

• Native Indian sub continents, Egypt and • South East Asia and China
Mediterranean basin of Europe

• Maintained chiefly for milk production. • Minor or no role in milk production.

Dual purpose animals also exhibit good Used for draught power, for land
meat characteristics. preparation, threshing, water lifting, oil
extraction and transportation.

• Wallows in river water and in clean • Permanent denizen of marshy lands,

running water, water tank or reservoir. wallows in mud and feed on coarse
Feed on pasture or cultivated fodder, marshy grasses.
example: Murrah, Mehsana, Surti,
• Generally found in Malaya, Singapore,
Pandharpuri and Jaffarabadi.
Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and
• Generally found in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Malaysia.
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
• Physical characteristics: Short stocky
• Physical characteristics: Longer body and body, short face, wide muzzle and short
weight more than Swamp buffaloes. thin legs. Dark grey in colour normally
Usually black sometime white makings on black to albinoids occasionally.
body.

Normal Habits of Buffaloes:

• They are nocturnal in habit.
• Not only do they like to wallow at night, but if left to their own devices they will mate,
suckle their calves and travel more during hours of darkness than in day light.
• More like rain or water splashing and mud plastering on body.
• Poor heat resistance/tolerance due to poor heat regulating mechanism.
• Resting habits during several hours in the middle of the day.
• Remarkable characters are their docility as they can be easily managed by even
children and women.
BREEDS OF BUFFALOES
16 breeds of buffalo in India.
Indian buffaloes: (Bubalus bubalis Linn.)
Local name: Arna, Bhains, Geva, Erumai.
Feature:
▪ Semi aquatic animal.
▪ Abundant in humid localities.
▪ Large massive and clumsy creature.
▪ Short thick legs and conspicuous hoofs.
▪ Horns thick, flat, curved or straight.
▪ Jet black colour or light coloured brown breeds.
Photographs of Breeds of Buffaloes

Nili Ravi Toda

Mehsana

Jaffarabadi

Murrah Bhadawari
Sixteen indigenous (Desi/local) standard breeds of buffaloes:
MURRAH:
Home Tract: Hariana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rohtak, Karnal, Hissar, Gurgaon Districts of
Haryana.
Synonyms: Delhi, Ravi, Kundhi.
Physical Characteristics:
• Tightly curled horns.
• Massive body, thin and long neck, small face.
• Male body wt: 540-590 kg, female: 450-475 kg.
• Hairless skin with glistening jet black body colour.
• White switch of the tail. Humpless.
• Wedge shaped body. Barrel is massive and well developed.
• Straight and powerful limbs with black hooves.
Economical Characteristics:
• Milk yield per lactation – 1400 to 3000 kg in 300 days.
• Milk fat: 6.8 to 7.2%
• Average lactation length: 280-340 days and av.dry period: 150-200 days.
• Average age at first calving: 45 to 58 months.
• Inter calving period is 450 to 500 days.
Breeding Farms:
• HAU Hissar, NDRI Karnal, PAU Ludhiana, IVRI Izatnagar, CBF Meerut.
NILI RAVI:
Home Tract: Main breed of buffalo in Pakistan, distributed in Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Firozpur
and Muktasar district of Punjab.
Physical Characteristics:
• Broad massive hairy forehead with prominent nasal bone.
• Tightly coiled horns, Muzzle with prominent double chin.
• Well developed udder with pink markings. White markings on the forehead, face,
muzzle, legs, switch and around eyes.
• The tail is long, almost touching the ground.
 Economical Characteristics:
• Age at first calving: 41-53 months.
• Lactation yield: 1600 kg. Milk fat content:4 %.
• Peak daily milk yield: 9-11 kg.
• Lactation length: 285-326 days. Calving interval: 15-18 months.
• Males are used for draught purpose.
Breeding Farms:
• Military farm Firozpur (Punjab), Buffalo farm Nabha (Punjab) and Khanna (Punjab).
Endangered Breeds: Endangered status of a breed can be determined by the size of breeding
stock which can be expressed by the number of breeding females, sex ratio or effective
population size. The population size of cattle and buffalo breed for normal, insecure,
vulnerable, endangered and critical status as suggested by Nivsarkar and Bhat (1986) for
Indian condition is given below.

Category Cattle Buffalo

Normal 25000 30000

Insecure 15000-25000 20000-30000

Vulnerable 5000-15000 10000-20000

Endangered 2000-5000 5000-10000

Critical <2000 <5000

• There are 9 breeds of endangered cattle:

Vechur, Punganur, Siri, Ponwar, Kenkatha, Nagori, Bachaur, Mewati and Kherigarh.
• There are 3 breeds of endangered buffaloes:
Toda, Bhadwari and Nili Ravi.
MEHSANA:
Home Tract: Originating from Inter breeding of Surti and Murrah. Breeding tract is Mehsana,
Banaskantha and Sabarkantha district of North-Gujarat.
Physical Characteristics:
• Medium sized animals with long body and lighter limbs than Murrah.
• Adult male weigh: 525-575 kg and adult female weighs: 425-450 kg.
• The head is long and heavier, horns less curved at the end but longer.
• The colour is usually black to gray with white markings often on face, legs or tail tips.
 • Face long and straight. Dewlap is almost absent.
• Eyes are prominent, black, bright and bulging.
Economical Characteristics:
• Reputed for regular breeding and high breeding efficiency. Good persistency so
preferred by city milk producers.
• Milk yield 1300-1800 liters per lactation. Having shorter dry period.
• Fat % - 6.6 to 7.2, Age at first calving: 42 to 54 months. Inter calving period 450-550
days.
Breeding Farms:
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, LRS, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, CBF,
Udaipur.
SURTI:
Synonyms: Desi, Nadiadi, Charotari, Gujarati.
Home Tract: Lies between Sabarmati and Mahi river. Kheda, Baroda, Bharuch, Surat district
and adjoining districts of Maharashtra.
Physical Characteristics:
• Medium sized animals with wedge shaped body, straight back, black or brown in
colour.
• Sickle shaped long and flat horns with long head.
• Two white chevrons one just around the jowl from ear to ear and other just one the
brisket is the peculiarity of the breed.
• Ears are medium sized, squarely placed and drooping.
• Skin of udder is pinkish.
Economical Characteristics:
• 1000 to 2000 liter milk yield in 10 months lactation.
• Fat rich (8.9%) milk.
• AFC 40-50 months.
• Lactation length is 300-320 days and dry period is 150-220 days.
• Inter calving period 400-450 days. Bullocks are good for light work.
Breeding Farms:
• Livestock Research Station (LRS), GAU, Navsari, Gujarat.
• Buffalo Breeding Centre (AICRP) Dharwad, Karnataka.
• NDRI, Bangalore, Karnataka.
• Progeny Testing Centre, Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Dharmod, Bharuch.
JAFFARABADI:
Synonyms: Kathiawari, Sorathi.
Home Tract: Around Jaffarabadi town in Gujarat state, Kutch, Junagadh, Jamnagar. Forest
grazing buffaloes of Gir forest.
Physical Characteristics:
• It is the heaviest breed of buffaloes in the world.
• Adult male weigh: 600-650 kg, adult female weigh: 500-525 kg.
• Body colour is jet black with thick skin and scanty hair.
• Forehead is large and bulging like that of a baby elephant; horns are long, flat and
loosely curved.
• Eye are sunken and small with sleepy appearance, neck and brisket are massive and
well developed.
• Udder is well developed and pendulous with irregularly placed teats. Tail is long with
white switch.
Economical Characteristics:
• Milk yield 1800-2700 liters per lactation. High fat % 9 to 10.
• Fat globules are big with high fat content; hence milk is very suitable for ghee making.
• Inter calving period 600 days. AFC 480 to 60 months.
• AFC is 48-54 months.
Breeding Farms:
• Cattle Breeding Farm, GAU, Junagadh.
BHADWARI:
Home Tract: Bhadwari estate of Agra district and adjoining areas of Gwalior and Etwah.
Also found in the areas of Yamuna and Chambal rivers.
Physical Characteristics:
• Medium sized and wedge shaped body.
• Small head bulging towards horns. Legs are short and stout.
• Barrel is short and well developed.
• Coppery body colour. Eyes are prominent, active and bright.
• Udder is not so well developed.
Economical Characteristics:
• Average milk yield ranges from 2000-2100 kg per lactation (305 days).
• Milk fat may exceed 13% in some animals.
 • AFC: 48-51 months, Calving interval: 15 months and dry period: 150 days.
Breeding Farms:
• CBF, Babugarh (Meerut), Agri. College Dairy Farm, Kanpur.
BANNI:
Home Tract: Banni area of Kutch district in Gujarat. They are also found in Sabarkantha,
SurendraNagar and Banaskantha districts of Gujarat.
Physical Characteristics:
• Body is medium to heavy, typical double and vertical coiling horns, strong body
conformation.
• Wide head and neck is without wrinkles/folds, absence of dewlap, soft, thin and black
skin.
• Mostly black in colour, in some cases copper colour or black with white markings on
forehead.
• Udder is well developed, cup shaped and square.
Economical Characteristics:
• Well known for high milk production, disease resistance.
• Average daily milk yield is 9-10 kg.
• Average milk fat content is 5-6%.
• AFC is 46 months.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Classification of Breeds of Sheep:
According to ICAR India possess 43 breeds of sheep; which is 6.41 percent of world
sheep breeds. Sheep produce fleeces of different types. The fleece differs in their hair content,
fiber diameter, fiber length and fineness of wool and accordingly sheep breeds are classified
as:
1. Fine wool breeds. 2. Medium wool breeds.
3. Long wool breeds. 4. Crossbred type wool breeds.
5. Carpet wool breeds. 6. Fur wool breeds.
Note: Details of important breeds of sheep are given in sheep production management chapter.
1. Fine Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Produce only wool fibres in their fleece, hair absent.
(ii) Fibre diameter ranges from 17 to 23 µ (microns), very fine wool.
(iii) Produce poor quality lambs.
(iv) Sheep are hardy, hence suitable for ranches.
Example: Merino, Rambouillet, Pollworth.
2. Medium Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Fleece of these sheep does not contain hair.
(ii) Diameter of wool fibre varies from 23 to 32 µ (microns).
(iii) Produce less and lower quality wool than fine wool breeds.
(iv) Produce very good quality lambs, higher prolificacy and higher growth rate.
(v) Not suitable for ranches, do better in stall feeding.
Example: South Down, Suffolk, Hampshire.
3. Long Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Wool is coarse having fiber diameter more than 33 µ.
(ii) Fibre length varies from15 to 30 cm.
Example: Lincoln and Leicester.
4. Crossbred Type Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Developed by crossbreeding between fine wool breeds and long wool breeds.
(ii) Wool quality similar to medium wool sheep.
(iii) Better mutton conformation.
(iv) Classified as medium wool breeds.
Example: Corriedale, Panama, Columbia, Hissardale.
5. Carpet Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Fleece contain hair i.e. modulated fibers
(ii) Wool is coarse wiry and tough.
(iii) Wool fibre diameter is more than 33 µ.
(iv) Wool is used for carpet manufacturing.
(v) Length of wool fibre is 5 to 15 cm.
(vi) Carpet wool – India, Pakistan, Newzeland, Syria, Argentina and Iraq.
Example: Marwari, Patanwadi, Bikaneri, Chokla, Magra.
 6. Fur Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Skin of sheep with wool known as fur.
(ii) Skin is obtained by killing of lamb called pelt.
(iii) Used for making fancy articles, fur coat, purse, ladies wear, gloves etc.
Example: Persian, Lamb pelt, Karakul, Broadtail.
Classification of Breeds of Goat:
Our traditional goat farmers have extensively practiced the art of selection and
inbreeding for evolving definite breeds with specific or multiple functions. The country as a
whole represents an important genetic reservoir of goat breeds for meat, milk, fibre and skin
production. Some of these are well-known but more than half of the population is on non-
descript type. There are about 34 breeds of goats with specific characteristics.
(A) Milch Breeds: These breeds of goats are mainly reared for milk purpose on commercial lines.
E.g. Alpine, Saanen, Toggenburg and Nubian. Saanen is also known as Jersey of the goat
world due to its high milk production potential.
(B) Dual Purpose Breeds: These breeds of goats are reared for milk as well as for meat purpose.
They produce 100-200 liters of milk per lactation and 1-2 kids per kidding. E.g. Jamunapari,
Barbari, Beetal. Whereas, triple purpose breeds i.e. for milk, meat and hair are Marwari,
Mehsana, Kutchi and Zalawadi.
(C) Meat Breeds: These breeds of goats are mainly reared for meat purpose on commercial lines.
E.g. Black Bengal goat breeds (known for excellent mutton and skin quality), Deccani,
Malabari etc.
Utility Classification of Breeds of Swine (Pigs): Domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the
consumption of their flesh, called pork. The animal's bones, hide, and bristles have been
fashioned into items such as brushes. Thus swine/pigs give two important marketable products
viz; meat (pork) and the lard. Lard is the fat obtained from pig carcasses. It is used for
cooking, making soap etc. At present swine are mainly kept for pork and there are 8
recognized breeds of pigs in India.
(A) Meat Type Breeds: Such breeds yield less than 15% lard of the carcass weight. E.g.
Landrace, Duroc, Yorkshire and Tamworth (UK).
(B) Lard Type Breeds: The pigs of these breeds yield 15% or more lard of the carcass
weight. E.g. Berkshire, Guinea Hog and Mulefoot.
Utility Classification of Poultry: Chickens are grown for their egg and meat. Likewise they
are classified as egg-type chickens and meat-types chickens. Egg type chickens are composed
of stock that has been developed for egg production and are maintained for the principal
purpose of producing chicks for the ultimate production of eggs for human consumption.
Breeds of meat type chickens primarily include broilers, fryers, roasters, and other meat type
chickens. Here broilers and other chickens are raised for their meat. Broilers are genetically
selected for fast growth and raised for meat rather than eggs.
 • Commercial Broiler Strains:
E.g. Cobb, Hubbard, Lohman, Anak 2000, Avian -34, Starbra, Sam rat etc.
• Commercial Layer Strains:
E.g. BV-300, Bowans, Hyline, H & N nick, Dekalb Lohman etc.
India has made considerable progress in broiler production in the last two decades.
High quality chicks, equipments, vaccines and medicines are available. With an annual output
of 41.06 billion eggs and 1000 million broilers, India ranks fourth largest producer of eggs and
fifth largest producer of poultry broiler in the world. The broiler production has also sky
rocketed at an annual growth rate of about 15 percent at present.
Based on Utility Poultry Breeds are Classified into:
(A) Egg Purpose: Producing more than 180-200 eggs per head per year and weighing 2-3
kg. E.g. White leghorn.
(B) Dual Purpose: Producing nearly 150 eggs per head per year and weighing 3-4 kg.
E.g. Rhode Island Red.
(C) Table Purpose: Producing less than 100 eggs per head per year and weighing 3.5-4.5
kg. E.g. Brahma, Cochin.
Classification of Camels: There are 9 registered breeds of camels in India. The Indian camels
are divided into two types depending on the work they perform, viz;
(A) Baggage Camels: These are robustly built than riding camels. These can carry 3-4
quintals of load over a distance of 35 km in a day with an average speed of 3-4km per
hour. E.g. Bikaneri camels.
(B) Riding Camels: These can cover about 50 km per day for several days at an average
speed of 10 km per hour. E.g. Jaiselmeri camels can cover up to 200 km in a night
without stopping for food or water.
Depending Upon the Origin/Hump, Camels can be Classified into Two Groups:
(1) Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius): These are from the Middle East and North
Africa. Single hump. Head and body length: 9.6-11 feet. Shoulder height: 5.8-7.5 feet.
Weight: 700-1500 pounds. Their color ranges from white, brown, tan, red, black and
spotted. With their longer legs they can easily out run the bactrian camel.
(2) Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrians): These are Asian camels, which come from the
deserts of China and Mongolia. They have two-humps, shorter legs, are usually a beige
color with hair that ranges from short to long depending on the season. Head and body
length: 10-12 feet. Shoulder height: 6-7.6 feet. Weight: 1300-2100 pounds. Height of
humps: up to 9 feet.
 CHAPTER 8
IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS (RUMINANTS)
SYSTEMS OF MATING (BREEDING POLICIES)
The aim of the breeders is to evolve outstanding and improved average meritorious types
of animals. Selection and systems of mating constitute the only tools available to the breeder for
improvement of animals, since new genes cannot be created, though they can be linked together
into more desirable groupings.
Systems of mating have been broadly classified as under:
1. Inbreeding – Breeding of the related animals.
2. Outbreeding- Breeding the unrelated animals.
Relatives means animals related up to 6 generations.
IN-BREEDING: Inbreeding can again be divided into two groups:
(a) Close breeding (b) Line breeding
e.g. mating (i) Sire to daughter (i) Half-brother-sister
(ii) Son to dam (ii) More distantly related animals
(iii) Full brother and sister
(a) Close breeding:
This means the mating of full sister to full brother or sire to his daughter or dam to her
son. These types of mating give the greatest concentration of similar traits and can be used in the
production of sires.
(b) Line breeding:
This means the mating of animals of wider degrees of relationship than those selected for
close breeding. It promotes uniformity in the character, but brings in more hereditary influence
than mating of animals by close breeding. Homozygosity is not reached so quickly as in close
breeding. Neither desirable nor harmful characters are developed so quickly. It is a slow method
for the fixation of hereditary character of outstanding bull or cow. The progeny is mentioned as
being line-bred to certain ancestors.
Advantages of inbreeding:
1. It increases prepotency of a sire, because he has many homozygous genes.
2. It brings about the uniformity of required type in the animals of the herd.
3. It takes less time for reaching the desired standard of production/type in the herd.
Disadvantages of inbreeding:
1. Undesirable characters are intensified in the progeny if wrong selection is made.
2. The vigour and resistance to diseases is reduced in the progeny.
3. Progeny may have reduced growth and reproductive performance.
4. Hereditary abnormalities or lethal factors are likely to appear more in the inbred animals
than in the outbreds.
Line-breeding is less severe in bringing about the advantages as well as the disadvantages
than the close-breeding.
OUT-BREEDING
Out-breeding is the breeding of the unrelated animals. It includes the following types of
breeding:
(a) Out-crossing
(b) Cross-breeding (i) Criss-crossing (ii) Triple crossing (iii) Back crossing
(c) Species hybridization
(d) Grading-Up
(a) Out-Crossing:
It consists of the practice of mating unrelated purebred animals within the same breed.
The animals mated should not have common ancestors in either side of their pedigree up to 4-6
generations The offspring of such a mating is known as the out-cross.
Advantages:
1. This method is highly effective for characters that are largely under the control of genes
with additive effects and are highly hereditary, e.g. milk production, growth rate in beef
cattle etc.
2. It is an effective system for fixing genetical factors if carefully combined with selection.
3. It is the best breeding method for herd that are below average, i.e. that of a common
farmer.
When ceiling is reached and no further improvement is possible it has to change over to
other system of breeding for fixing them up.
(b) Cross-Breeding:
It is the mating of animals of different breeds within a species. It is generally resorted to
where the crossbred progeny is directly marketed and is not needed for breeding and further
multiplications. It has become quite common in pigs and in the production of hybrid chickens.
With beef cattle also it is practiced to a certain extent. Cross-breeding for milk production has
been tried with varying degrees of success with motive of evolving new breeds.
Advantages of Cross-breeding:
1. It is valuable as a means of introducing desirable characters (genotypes) into a breed in
which they were absent formerly.
2. It serves as good purpose in evolving a new breed owing to the fact that it disturbs the
balance and brings about recombination in the germplasm to cause variations.
3. It is an extremely handy tool to study the behaviour of characteristics in hereditary
transmission.
4. The CB animals usually exhibit an accelerated growth and vigour of heterosis, which
means the blending of desirable genes from 2 breeds in the first generation. Such animals
are thriftier than either of the parents; they grow rapidly, produce more milk, wool, eggs
etc., than would be expected from their pedigree.
Disadvantages:
1. The breeding merit of crossbred animals is generally reduced because of the heterozygous
nature of their genetic composition, and the fact that all animals transmit only a sample
half of their own genetic materials to the offspring. I.e. it has a tendency to break up
(segregate) established characters and destroy combinations of characters which have
long existed in the strains and which, under the system of pure breeding, have behaved in
a manner like unit characters in transmission.
2. The crossbred are useless for breeding purposes because their offspring are more variable
than themselves, and are of lower merit.
3. It is possible that most of breeders cannot resist the temptation to use some practically
good crossbred animal for breeding purposes. Such a bull passes various assortments of
genes from both the breeds to its offspring and hence is incapable of producing even a
relatively uniform set of offspring.
4. Replacement cost of stock is heavy.
5. Cross-breeding requires maintenance of two or more pure breeds in order to produce the
crossbreds, which undoubtedly involves a considerable investment, as rapid progress need
not be expected in any line of breeding unless sufficient numbers can be kept to allow for
rigid selection.
Efforts are made to evolve new dairy cattle breeds in India. (1) Karan-Swiss breed is
evolved by crossing Brown Swiss (Exotic dairy breed) with Sahiwal (Indian breed) and
subsequent inter-se mating of the crossbreds with rigid selection for several generations. (2)
Karan-Fries breed has foundation of Holstein Friesian and Tharparkar. Both the new cattle
breeds, viz. Karan-Swiss and Karan-Fries are evolved at NDRI, Karnal. They have promising
performance under our climate as indicated earlier in breed description.
Similarly, Sunandini and Jersindh are new cattle breeds produced by cross-breeding in
South India.
(c) Species Hybridization:
By crossing two different species sometimes we get good virile individual. The ‘Mule’
and ‘Hinny’ are good examples of commercially important species hybrids.
Jack (male ass) x Mare (female horse) = Mule.
Stallion (male horse) x Jennet (female ass) = Hinny.
European cattle and American bison when crossed produce sterile males and fertile
females. By backcrossing the females to bison and cattle, attempts are being made to form a new
hybrid species the ‘Cattalo’.
Heterosis or Hybrid Vigour:
Heterosis or hybrid vigour is phenomenon, in which the crosses of unrelated individuals
often result in progeny with increased vigour much above their parents (i.e. superiority of first
filial generation over both the parents). The progeny may be from the crossing of strains,
varieties, breeds or species. The explanations for this increase vigour are that genes favourable
for reproduction are usually dominant over their opposites. They also have few unfavourable
recessive genes. When one breed is crossed with the other, one parent supplies a favourable
dominant gene to offset the recessive one supplied by the other and vice versa.
(d) Grading-Up:
Grading-up is the practice of breeding purebred sires of a given breed to local non-
descriptive females and their offspring’s generation after generation.
By the successive use of a good purebred sire only a few generations are required to bring
the herd to the point at which it has all the appearance, production and practical value of the pure
breed. Following table will explain how the desired characters of purebred are introducing to
replace undesirable non-descriptive ones.
OFF-SPRINGS
_________________|___________________
| |
Generation Per cent replaced Per cent non-descriptive left
First 50.00 50.00
Second 75.00 25.00
Third 87.50 12.50
Fourth 93.75 6.25
Fifth 96.87 3.12
Sixth 98.44 1.56
Seventh 99.22 0.78
The grading process does not create anything new, but it may transfer the good quality of an
improved breed to the local non-descript cattle. A grade is also likely to carry many undesirable
recessives that would appear in future mating.
For a grading-up program, it is advisable to use a breed that thrived well under local
conditions, otherwise the graded animals may not be able to adapt well to the local environment.
Grading-up is the only system of mating left for improving indigenous non-descript
buffaloes.
FERTILITY AND BREEDING EFFICIENCY
The profile that is obtainable through milk, meat, eggs, wool, etc., is dependent on the
reproductive efficiency of the stock. Fertility is the ability of an animal to produce large number
of living young ones. This is a relative term, consequently ‘high’ and ‘low’ fertility are terms
used to describe differences between numbers of young per litter or differences in the frequencies
of pregnancies. This applies to both males and females.
Fecundity is the potential capacity of the female to produce functional ova, regardless of
what happens to them after they are produced, e.g. a hen may have high fecundity but her eggs
may have low fertility/hatchability. Sterility is inability to produce any offspring at all, while
infertility is inability to reproduce temporarily.
Some of the management suggestions, which will tend to improve breeding efficiency, are
listed below:
1. Do not breed cows following parturition until uterus has involuted and entire vaginal
discharge has ended and at least 60 days have elapsed.
2. Keep an accurate record of dates of parturition, heat periods, services, etc.
3. Maintain regularity of heat detection and use teasers in large herds.
4. Breed cows from mid to end of heat period, i.e. later half of oestrus.
5. Have regular pregnancy examination by a competent veterinarian.
6. Get the animals examination by a competent veterinarian failure to come into heat, irregular
heat periods, repeat breeding, abortion and retained placenta, and follow his
recommendation as to correction of the problem.
7. Be sure to feed well-balanced ration.
8. Use proper sanitation, care & isolation when contagious disease is found in the herd.
9. Follow annual testing of the herd for chronic diseases like TB, JD and Brucellosis, and
Regular mass vaccination against common contagious diseases.
 CHAPTER 9
DIGESTION IN RUMINANTS
The cow's digestive tract consists of the mouth, esophagus, a complex four-compartment
stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The stomach includes the rumen or paunch,
reticulum or "honeycomb," the omasum or "manyplies," and the abomasum or "true stomach."
The rumen. The rumen (on the left side of the animal) is the largest of four compartments and is
divided into several sacs. It can hold 25 gallons or more of material, depending on the size of the
cow. Because of its size, the rumen acts as a storage or holding vat for feed. It is also a
fermentation vat. A microbial population in the rumen digests or ferments feed eaten by the
animal. Conditions within the rumen favour the growth of microbes. The rumen absorbs most of
the volatile fatty acids produced from fermentation of feedstuffs by rumen microbes.
The reticulum. The reticulum is a pouch-like structure in the forward area of the body cavity.
The tissues are arranged in a network resembling a honeycomb. A small fold of tissue lies
between the reticulum and the rumen, but the two are not actually separate compartments.
Collectively they are called the rumino-reticulum.
The omasum. This globe-shaped structure contains leaves of tissue (like pages in a book). The
omasum absorbs water and other substances from digestive contents.
The abomasum. This is the only compartment (also called the true stomach) with a glandular
lining. Hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes, needed for the breakdown of feeds, are secreted
into the abomasum. The abomasum is comparable to the stomach of the non-ruminant.
The small intestine. The small intestine measures about 20 times the length of the animal. It is
composed of three sections: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine receives the
secretions of the pancreas and the gallbladder, which aid digestion. Most of the digestive process
is completed here, and many nutrients are absorbed through the villi (small finger-like
projections) into the blood and lymphatic systems.
Cecum. The cecum is the large area located at the junction of the small and large intestine, where
some previously undigested fibre may be broken down. The exact significance of the cecum has
not been established.
Large intestine. This is the last segment of the tract through which undigested feedstuffs pass.
Some bacterial digestion of undigested feed occurs, but absorption of water is the primary
digestive activity occurring in the large intestine.
Function of the Digestive Tract
Eructation (belching). Large quantities of gas, mostly carbon dioxide and methane, are
produced in the rumen. Production amounts to 25 to 50 litres per hour and must be removed;
otherwise bloating occurs. Under normal conditions, distension from gas formation causes the
cow to belch and eliminate the gas. Rumination. A cow may spend as much as 35 to 40 percent
of each day ruminating (cud chewing). The actual amount of time spent ruminating varies from
very little (when grain or finely ground rations are fed) to several hours (when long hay is fed).
Mature cattle spend little time chewing when eating. During rest periods, feed boluses (cud) are
regurgitated for rechewing to reduce particle size and for resalivation. Feed is more readily
digested by rumen microbes as particle size is reduced.
Motility of the rumen and reticulum. The rumen is always contracting and moving. Healthy
cows will have one to two rumen contractions per minute. The contractions mix the rumen
contents, bring microbes in contact with new feedstuffs, reduce flotation of solids, and move
materials out of the rumen. Lack of or a decrease in frequency of rumen movements is one way
of diagnosing sick animals.
Saliva production. As much as 60 to 70 litres of saliva can be produced by salivary glands and
added to the rumen each day. Saliva provides liquid for the microbial population, recirculates
nitrogen and minerals, and buffers the rumen. Saliva is the major buffer for helping to maintain a
rumen pH between 6.2 and 6.8 for optimum digestion of forages and feedstuffs.
Vomiting. Cattle rarely vomit. Occasionally certain feeds will induce vomiting. Some pasture
plants, usually weeds, contain alkaloids that can cause this problem. Should this condition
persist, a veterinarian should be consulted. Microbial digestion of feed carbohydrate in the rumen
Digestion of energy feeds in the rumen. Simple and complex carbohydrates (fibre) are digested
by rumen microbes and converted into volatile fatty acids. The volatile fatty acids, which consist
mainly of acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, are the primary energy source for ruminants. When
large amounts of forage are fed, the formation of acetic acid predominates (60 to 70 percent of
total) with lesser amounts of propionic (15 to 20 percent) and butyric (5 to 15 percent) acids
occurring. However, when grain feeding is increased or when finely ground forages are fed, the
proportion of acetic acid may decrease to 40 percent, while the amount of propionic acid may
increase to 40 percent. Such a change in volatile fatty acid production generally is associated
with a reduction in milk fat test. Approximately 30 to 50 percent of the cellulose and
hemicellulose is digested in the rumen by the microbial population. Sixty percent or more of the
starch is degraded, depending on the amount fed and how fast ingested materials move through
the rumen. Most sugars are 100 percent digested within the rumen. The volatile fatty acids are
absorbed from the rumen into the blood stream and transported to body tissues, including the
udder, where they are used as sources of energy for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and milk
production. The cow derives 50 to 70 percent of its energy from the volatile fatty acids produced
in the rumen. Protein and non-protein nitrogen utilization in the rumen. Some of the protein
consumed by the cow escapes breakdown in the rumen. Protein undergoing fermentation is
converted to ammonia, organic acids, amino acids, and other products. Approximately 40 to 75
percent of the natural protein in feed is broken down. The extent of breakdown depends on many
factors including solubility of the protein, resistance to breakdown, rate of feed passage through
the rumen, and others. Many rumen micro-organisms require ammonia (breakdown product of
protein) for growth and synthesis of microbial protein. Ammonia also may be provided from
NPN sources such as urea, ammonium salts, nitrates, and other compounds. Rumen microbes
convert the ammonia and organic acids into amino acids that are assembled into microbial
protein. Excess ammonia is mostly absorbed from the rumen into the blood stream, but small
amounts may pass into the lower digestive tract and be absorbed. Feed protein (that escapes
breakdown in the rumen) and microbial protein pass to the abomasum and small intestine for
digestion and absorption. Vitamin synthesis. The rumen micro-organisms manufacture all of the
B vitamins and vitamin K. Vitamin synthesis in the rumen is sufficient for growth and
maintenance. Under most conditions, cattle with functioning rumens do not require supplemental
B vitamins or vitamin K in the diet. Niacin (B3) and thiamine (B1) may be needed under stress
conditions. Fat digestion. Most of the digestion and absorption of fat occurs in the small
intestine. Rumen micro-organisms change unsaturated fatty acids to saturated acids through the
addition of hydrogen molecules. Thus, more saturated fat is absorbed by cows than by simple-
stomach animals. Feeding large quantities of unsaturated fatty acids can be toxic to rumen
bacteria, depress fibre digestion, and lower rumen pH.
Digestive System of Calf
At birth and during the first few weeks of life, the rumen, reticulum, and omasum are
undeveloped. In contrast to the mature cow, in the calf, the abomasum is the largest
compartment of the stomach. At this stage of life, the rumen is non-functional and some feeds
digested by the adult cannot be used by the calf. During nursing or feeding from a bucket,
milk bypasses the rumen via the oesophageal groove and passes directly into the abomasum.
Reflex action closes the groove to form a tube-like structure which prevents milk or milk
replacer from entering the rumen. When milk is consumed very rapidly, some may overflow
into the rumen. Development of rumen begins at the age of 3-4 weeks and will begin
functioning like the adult's when the calf is about 3 months of age.
CHAPTER 10
(A) Feeding Standards
Feeding standards are guidelines or statements of the amount of nutrients required by
animals for their normal functions and productions. These requirements are given for different
purposes (viz. growth, lactation, work, pregnancy etc) in table form. Feeding standards so far
designed are of three types (1) Comparative type (2) Production value type and (3) Digestible
nutrient type. Among the later (digestible nutrient types), following three feeding standards are
in practice now-a-days.
(i) Morrison Feeding Standard:
Morrison observed stockmen spending large sums of money for entirely unnecessary
amounts of protein supplement to their animals, thus considerably reducing their profits. He
therefore, endeavoured to combine in one set of standards what seem in the judgment to be the
best guide available in computation of rations for the various classes of livestock. These
standards have been expressed in terms of Dry Matter (DM), Digestible Crude Proteins (DCP)
and Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN). The average of Morrison standards has been accepted for
Indian Livestock, which are ahead under the heading “Indian Feeding Standards”.
(ii) National Research Council Standard:
A sub-committee of the committee on animal nutrition of the National Research Council
(USA) recommended a nutrient allowance for dairy cattle, which was first published in 1945
with the latest revision in 1989. The requirements are quite similar to those of the Morrison
standard.
The standard includes requirements of crude protein, un-degradable protein and total
digestible nutrients and also includes the recommended requirements for calcium, phosphorus,
carotene and Vit-D for growing animals.
(iii) Indian Feeding Standard:
For many years, we were dependent on feeding standards drawn up in foreign countries.
Sen, Ray and Ranjhan (1978) gave a feeding standard based on average of recommended upper
and lower limits of nutrients required for animals. They have prescribed nutrient requirement for
maintenance, growth, milk production, work and pregnancy in cattle. The nutrient requirements
are given in terms of DM, DCP, TDN, Ca, P, carotene etc.
Recently Indian Research Council (1985) has published a feeding standard prescribing
nutrient requirement of livestock and poultry. It is based on research work carried out in India.
The requirements are given for almost all species of domesticated animals and poultry.
A brief summary of Sen, Ray & Ranjhan standard is given here.
Table 1: Nutrients required for growing cattle per head per day (Growth Requirement)

Live Wt (Kg) Daily Wt Gain (g) DCP (Kg) TDN (Kg)

45 300 0.15 0.8

70 500 0.22 1.3

100 500 0.28 1.9

200 500 0.40 3.0

300 450 0.47 4.0

400 450 0.48 5.0

Table 2: Nutrients required for maintenance of adult cattle per head per day

Live Wt DCP TDN ME Calcium Phosphorus

(Kg) (g)
(Kg) (Kg) (Mcal) (g)

350 0.227 2.70 9.72 8 8

400 0.254 3.03 10.91 9 9

450 0.282 3.37 12.13 10 10

500 0.296 3.69 13.28 11 11

550 0.336 3.71 13.36 12 12

575 0.356 3.72

600 0.376 3.73

Table 3: Nutrients required for milk production (per kg of milk) to be added to
maintenance requirement (Production Allowance)

Fat % in milk DCP (Kg) TDN (Kg) Calcium (g) Phosphorus (g)

4.0 0.045 0.316 2 1.4

5.0 0.051 0.363 2 1.4

6.0 0.057 0.411 2 1.4

8.0 0.069 0.506 2 1.4

10.0 0.081 0.602 2 1.4

Table 4: Nutrients required for working cattle per head per day

Live Wt (Kg) Normal work Heavy work

DCP (Kg) TDN (Kg) DCP (Kg) TDN (Kg)

400 0.45 4.0 0.57 4.8

500 0.56 4.9 0.71 6.4

600 0.66 5.8 0.84 7.2

Pregnancy Allowance:
During pregnancy, the animal should receive an extra allowance of 0.240 kg DCP and 1.4
kg TDN over and above what one should get for maintenance and milk production, which helps
in the proper development of the fetus and in replacing the body sores of the energy that may
have been utilized in the earlier part of lactation.
During the first and second lactations of early maturing animals (crossbred & exotic
cattle) about 20 and 10 per cent, respectively, of the maintenance requirement should be added to
the requirement given in Table for their continued growth.
Table 5: DCP & TDN content (Kg/100Kg DM) of some common fodder & concentrates

Name of Fodder DCP TDN Name of Concentrate DCP TDN

(Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)

Green Fodders Grains and Seeds

Cereals: 2.4 56.6 Bajra 4.6 70.9

Jowar

Maize 2.6 53.8 Guar 22.1 69.8

Oat 3.2 56.8 Pigeon pea 17.1 77.7

Hybrid Napier 5.8 52.5 Cotton seed 14.1 67.2

Legumes: 19.3 69.7 Oil seed Cakes

Lucerne

Berseem 14.2 63.9 Ground nut Cake 37.8 82.0

Cabbage 9.3 52.9 Cotton seed cake 15.6 57.07

Cauliflower 9.0 73.5 Cereal byproducts

Silage: Jowar 1.5 54.7 Maize bran 7.6 88.4

Hybrid Napier 3.3 48.7 Wheat bran 9.3 70.4

Dry Fodders Rice bran 6.0 55.0

Jowar straw 1.5 59.3 Maize Gluten 40.5 71.3

Bajri straw 0.6 51.3

Legume Byproducts

Wheat straw 0.2 56.8 Guar meal 35.1 73.9

Sal seed cake 0.1 57.9

Amul Dana 28-30 75.0

FEEDING AND WATERING REQUIREMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE
(A) Feeding Roughage:
On an average, dairy cattle consume dry roughage at the rate of 2.5% of their body
weight. If the roughage is succulent, the consumption is 2 ½ to 3 times i.e. at the rate of 6 to 7.5
percent of body weight. If the cow weighs 400 kg, she will consume about 10 kg of dry
roughage. If the roughage is succulent, she will take about 25 to 30 kg. The quantity of roughage
consumption by an animal will vary from 1½ to 3½ % of its body weight according to the quality
of the roughages. Good quality roughage is eaten more and vice-versa.
Dairy cattle should be fed good quality roughage as far as possible. Good quality
roughage is low in fibre, is more leafy, is greenish in colour and is palatable. Dairy animals
should be fed at least 33% of their total roughage requirement in form of succulent roughage. It
contains factors of succulence i. e. certain unidentified nutritive factors, which lead to higher
milk production. Preferably the ratio of leguminous to non-leguminous roughage should be 2:3.
(B) Feeding Concentrates:
The basal feed of dairy cattle is roughage. Moreover, the roughage is cheaper as
compared to concentrates. Hence as far as possible, the nutrients required by dairy cattle should
be given in the form of roughage. The concentrates should be fed to supply only their remaining
nutrient requirement.
The quantity of concentrates to be fed daily to dairy animals will depend upon the quality
and quantity of roughage fed to them. With good quality roughage, the concentrates to be fed will
be less and vice-versa. So by feeding better quality roughages, we can curtail concentrate
requirement.
The compound concentrate mixtures are available from private as well as dairy co-
operatives. The concentrate mixture produced by reliable firms and with the composition of our
need should be used. Generally, the farmers prefer compounded concentrate mixtures produced
by dairy co-operative unions in Gujarat. Because they have advantages of (1) well-formulated
production under expert’s supervision, (2) bulk purchase, (3) feasibility of using cheaper &
unconventional feeds to economise the concentrate mixture.
(C) Feeding Minerals:
Dairy cattle need minerals like calcium, sodium, potassium and phosphorus in relatively
larger amounts, and iron, copper, iodine and cobalt etc., in traces. Ordinarily, dairy cattle receive
from their normal ration all the minerals required by them in sufficient quantities, except for
sodium, calcium and phosphorus. But in areas where the soil on which the forage crops are
grown is deficient in any one or more of the above minerals, there may be deficiency of the same
in the ration of animals. This deficiency should be corrected by feeding suitable mineral
supplements.
Under ordinary condition, the dairy cattle are fed common salt mixed with the
concentrates. If the roughage fed is non-leguminous, they may also be fed steam sterilized bone
meal or any other calcium supplement. When leguminous roughage is fed to dairy cattle,
supplying additional calcium through such supplement is not necessary. Now-a-days, several
mineral mixtures are available in the market. They are mixed with concentrates. Extra mineral
mixture is given to high producing cows.
(D) Providing Water:
Water constitutes over 70% of the animal body and over 85% of the milk. It is therefore
not surprising that the daily consumption of water is greater than that of the any other nutrient.
Lack of water will retard growth and reduce production.
Qualities of water:
• Drinking water must be free from pathogens
• Should not contain organic matter or inorganic impurities.
• Such water is safe- wholesome –for animal life.
• At the same time drinking water should be palatable to the animals, so that they will drink
sufficient amount.
• The drinking water should be cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
Functions of water in animal body:
1. It is one of the constituents of the body tissues and fluids.
2. By its solvent action, it serves as a universal medium for metabolism, transport of nutrients,
transport and excretion of metabolic waste from the body etc.
3. It helps in maintaining body temperature.
4. It is helpful in digestion of food, assimilation and absorption of digested nutrients.

Factors affecting water requirement/consumption:

The amount of drinking water needed will depend upon the
• Class of animal,
• The level of production,
• The water content of the feed,
• The type of ration and the
• Ambient temperature.
As a general rule, allow 5 parts of water for each part of air dry feed. Equal mount of
water is also needed for washing of animals, utensils and sheds.
Under average conditions the (a) Beef cattle, Dry cows, Bullocks etc. may drink 5 to 8
litres of water/100 kg body wt. and (b) Lactating Dairy cows may drink 5 to 8 litres/100 kg body
wt for maintenance plus 3 litres of water per kg of milk produced.
(E) Calculation of Feed and Water Requirement for a Dairy Herd:
From the herd register or roll call register, collect the information of different classes of
animals in the herd. From this information calculate the equivalent adult units in the herd. The
adult units give rough idea about feed and water requirement, wherein different classes of
animals are compared with an adult cow of average body weight. Under average condition,
following guideline is used for calculation of adult units.
1 Cow = 1 adult unit (AU) Indian heifers from 1 to 2 yrs of age = 1 AU
1 Bull = 1.25 AU 2 Indian heifers from 2 to 3 yrs age = 1 AU
1 Bullock = 1 AU 2 Crossbred heifers above 1 year of age = 1 AU
4 Calves = 1 AU
Now, from the total adult units calculate the feed and water required in the herd daily,
monthly or yearly.
(F) Formulation / Computation of Ration:
The feeds available and production as well as physiological status of animal changes
frequently. Therefore, it is necessary to compute ration for animals of different classes under
different feeding conditions we have. The data comprising a feeding standard and feed
composition are useful as a guideline in computation of ration.
(V) DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS/QUALITIES OF A RATION
1. Liberal Feeding: Dairy cows need all nutrients liberally incorporated in the ration for
exploiting inherent capacity to the maximum. However, they should not be overfed, as it is
wasteful and sometimes harmful.
2. Individual Feeding: To obtain max profits, cows must be fed individually according to their
production and physiological status instead of group feeding, because in group feeding,
weaker or sicker animals get lesser feeds as against powerful ones.
3. The ration should be well balanced for all nutrients required by animals. Excess of nutrients
are wasteful. Any deficiency of nutrient affects health and production.
4. Palatable Feeds: This affects feed consumption. Evil/bad smelling, mouldy, dusty, spoiled
and inferior feeds are unpalatable.
5. Variety of feed should be included in the ration: By combining many feeds in a ration,
better and balanced mixture of proteins, vitamins and other nutrients are furnished. Moreover,
variety of feeds in the ration makes it cheaper and palatable.
6. The feeds used in the ration should be free from foreign materials like mould, dust, nails,
toxins, gravel etc. It is better to clean them if necessary.
7. The ration should be fairly laxative and not constipating. Otherwise it may lead to digestive
trouble and depression of appetite/hunger.
8. The ration should be fairly bulky, so that the hunger of animal is satisfied. If ration is more
bulky, animal cannot eat sufficient quantity to fulfill its nutrient requirement.
9. Allow much of green fodders: As they are rich in carotene, slightly laxative, more palatable
and easily digestible. Feeding only green fodder may not supply sufficient dry matter for
satisfying hunger.
10. Avoid sudden changes in the diet: These may cause digestive troubles.
11. Maintain regularity in feeding timings. Otherwise animals become restless and go down in
production.
12. Feed must be properly prepared/processed by chaffing, soaking, grinding, boiling,
pelleting, mixing etc. These have special advantages associated with them.
COMPUTATION OF RATION FOR LIVESTOCK
Objectives:
➢ To provide balanced ration to farm animals in view of production.
➢ Scientific approach for feeding of farm animals.
➢ To make economical use of available feed resources.
Principle:
Computation of ration includes translating the recommendations contained in feeding
standards into actual formulation of feed mixture and feeding practices. In formulation of ration
for ruminants DM, DCP, energy in terms of TDN, minerals and vitamin A is given consideration.
Formulation of Ration:
Ration may be defined as total allowance of the feed given to an animal during 24 hrs
period to perform the various functions. The ration of animal may be divided for the sake of
convenience into two parts, one for maintenance and other for production or reproduction
whatever the case is. The word “balanced ration” means feeds or mixture of feeds which contain
all essential nutrients in right quantity and in optimum proportion to meet the needs of the animal
for maintenance and production.
Desirable Characteristics/Qualities of a Ration:
• Liberal Feeding: Dairy cows need all nutrients liberally incorporated in the ration for
exploiting inherent capacity to the maximum. However, they should not be overfed, as it
is wasteful and sometimes harmful.
• Individual Feeding: To obtain maximum profits, cows must be fed individually according
to their production and physiological status instead of group feeding, because in group
feeding, weaker or sicker animals get lesser feeds as against powerful ones.
• The ration should be well balanced for all nutrients required by animals. Excess of
nutrients are wasteful. Any deficiency of nutrient affects health and production.
• Palatable Feeds: This affects feed consumption. Evil/bad smelling, mouldy, dusty, spoiled
and inferior feeds are unpalatable.
• Variety of feed should be included in the ration: By combining many feeds in a ration,
better and balanced mixture of proteins, vitamins and other nutrients are furnished.
Moreover, variety of feeds in the ration makes it cheaper and palatable.
• The feeds used in the ration should be free from foreign materials like mould, dust, nails,
toxins, gravel etc. It is better to clean them if necessary.
 • The ration should be fairly laxative and not constipating. Otherwise it may lead to
digestive trouble and depression of appetite/hunger.
• The ration should be fairly bulky, so that the hunger of animal is satisfied. If ration is
more bulky, animal cannot eat sufficient quantity to fulfill its nutrient requirement.
• Allow much of green fodders: As they are rich in carotene, slightly laxative, more
palatable and easily digestible. Feeding only green fodder may not supply sufficient dry
matter for satisfying hunger.
• Avoid sudden changes in the diet: These may cause digestive troubles.
• Maintain regularity in feeding timings. Otherwise animals become restless and go down
in production.
• Feed must be properly prepared/processed by chaffing, soaking, grinding, boiling,
pelleting, mixing etc. These have special advantages associated with them.
Points to be Considered while Formulating the Ration:
a. Live weight of the animal
b. Age of the animal
c. Condition of the animal
d. Producing or non-producing
e. Production level-high or low
f. Types of the feed and fodders available
Ration for Dairy Cattle:
The computation of ration must be done in a systematic manner otherwise it will be a
cumbersome exercise. The steps involved in ration formulation are:

Step-I Determination of dry matter requirement.

Step-II Distribution of required DM to different category of feeds.

Step-III Determination of DCP and TDN requirement of animal for maintenance.

Step-IV Determination of the DCP and TDN requirement for production or

reproduction functions over and above the maintenance requirement.

Step-V Sum up the maintenance requirement of nutrients with

production/reproduction requirement. This will be total requirement of the
nutrients for particular animal in a day for maintenance and
production/reproduction.

Step-VI Refer the chemical composition of the available feed resources to fulfill the
DCP and TDN requirement as per the allocation of DM to particular feed
category and at the cheapest price.

Step-VII Calculate the nutrients supplied through roughage and concentrate according
to DM allocation and also calculate the quantity of individual feedstuff on
fresh and dry basis.
 Step-VIII Match the supply of nutrients with their requirement for one day. It should be
exactly same or somewhat higher than the requirement but, if anyone is deficit
then re-adjust the level of individual feed ingredient within the category and
according to deficit nutrient.

Step-IX Preparation of ration.

Note: Mineral mixture @ 2 per cent and salt @ 1 per cent of the ration should be given to the
animal.
Chemical composition of feedstuffs: The quantity of individual feedstuff in the ration can not
be fixed until unless you have the idea about its chemical composition. Different principles of the
composition may be analyze in the laboratory or may refer from the books. The composition of
some common feed ingredients in terms of DCP and TDN is given below.
DCP and TDN content of some common feedstuffs

The nutritive value of some important feeds are as follows:

FEEDS DM DCP TDN

Wheat straw 90 0.0 42

Bajra straw 90 0.8 48

Jowar straw 90 1.0 50

Rice straw 90 0.0 35

Berseem hay 90 9.0 60

Lucerne hay 90 14.0 50

Green bajra 30 1.0 15

Green jowar 30 0.8 16

Green maize 30 1.2 17

Green berseem 20 2.8 13

Green Lucerne 20 3.0 12

Guar 90 29 71

Moth 90 8 78

Barley grain 90 19 72

Wheat bran 90 10 62

Cotton seed cake 90 17 72

 Groundnut cake 90 42 72

Til oil cake 90 30 78

Linseed cake 90 28 65

Gram 90 12 75

Guar churi 90 38 74

Moth churi 90 25 75

Gram churi 90 38 72

CALCULATION OF WATER AND FEED REQUIREMENT FOR DAIRY HERD

Objectives:
➢ To calculate nutrient requirement of cattle and buffaloes for maintenance in terms of DCP
and TDN.
➢ To determine the requirement of DCP and TDN for bovines to perform various
productive functions like growth, milk production, field work and pregnancy.
Introduction:
The nutrient requirements viz. DM, DCP and TDN vary with body weight, intensity of
production, intensity of work, average daily gain and gestation month etc. The requirement of a
particular animal for performing a specific function is compile in tabular form which is known as
feeding standard. Thus, the feeding standard may be defined as tabulated statement of the
requirement of nutrients of animals for performing various body functions. Feeding standards
broadly are divided into three categories namely comparative, digestible nutrient type and
production type feeding standards. There are various agencies in the world such as NRC, ARC,
CNCPS, ICAR etc. which provide the information about the nutrients requirement of animal. The
Indian feeding standards prepared by ICAR is basically based on the average value of Morrison
feeding standard. ICAR (1985) feeding standard describe the nutrient requirement in terms of
DM, DCP, TDN, Ca and P based on recommendations of scientific panel on nutrition and
physiology. This standard includes recommendation based on experimental work carried out in
India over the past several years. The figures given for TDN can be converted to DE and ME by
taking 4.4 Mcal DE and 3.6 Mcal ME per kg TDN, respectively. The requirements for
maintenance are the same for buffaloes as that for Indian cattle.
Requirement of Nutrients for Dairy Bovine:
(1) DM Requirement:
DM Requirement of different animals depends on the body weight of animal and species.
For indigenous cattle: 2.0-2.5kg/100kg BW
For cross bred cattle and buffalo: 3.0 kg/100kg BW
Supply of DM by dietary feed resources
FEED/DM

2/3 Roughage
1/3Concentrates

1/3 Green fodder 2/3 Dry fodder

50% cereal fodder 50% leguminous fodder

40% oil cakes 30% grains 30% grain by products

The DM supplied by the dietary feed ingredients will furnish the nutrients required by the animal
for different body functions viz. for maintenance, milk production, pregnancy, field work etc.
The requirement of DCP and TDN, which are the measures for expressing the protein and energy
need of the animal, respectively, depend on the body weight and intensity of production.
a) Maintenance Requirement:
This is the minimum requirement of the nutrients for the animal to perform various vital
functions of the life like respiration, circulation, transportation of nutrients, metabolism of
nutrients and secretion of hormones etc. The maintenance requirement of particular animals
depends on its body weight. The nutrients requirement in terms of DCP and TDN at different
body weight has been compiled in the below given table.
Daily Maintenance Requirement for Various Nutrients:

B.W. (kg) DCP (g) TDN (kg) Ca (g) P (g)

250 168 2.02 6 6

300 197 2.36 7 7

350 227 2.70 8 8

400 254 3.03 9 9

450 282 3.37 10 10

b) Production Requirement: Production requirement varies animal to animal and species to

species e.g. in cow and buffalo additional allowance of nutrients required to produce milk while
in sheep it is for wool production and in goat for meat production. The production requirement in
dairy animal get change with the level of production and not only with quantity of milk but the
quality is also important specifically the fat per cent. The production requirement is given to the
animal in addition to the maintenance requirement. Nutrients requirement in terms of DCP and
TDN for producing 1 litre of milk with varying level of fat has been given below.
Nutrient Requirement for Milk Production:

Fat % DCP (g) TDN (g)

3.0 48 275

3.5 51 300

4.0 55 325

4.5 58 350

5.0 62 375

5.5 65 400

6.0 68 425

Growth: growth is a function of the nutrients, which require protein and energy in addition to the
maintenance. The requirement of DCP and TDN depends on the daily gain in body weight. The
table given below gives an idea about the nutrient requirement for growth at different body
weight and different average daily gain.
Daily Nutrient Requirement in Terms of DCP and TDN for Growth:

B.W. (kg) DCP (g) TDN (g)

45 150 800
 70 220 1300

100 260 1900

200 400 3000

300 470 4000

Work Allowance: The allowance for working bullocks depends on the intensity of work. The
nutrient requirement describing the protein and energy requirement in the form of DCP and TDN
is given in the table as under for normal working bullocks.
Daily Nutrient Requirement for Working Bullocks:

B.W. (kg) DCP (g) TDN (g)

200 240 2000

300 330 3100

400 450 4700

500 560 4900

600 660 5800

Pregnancy Allowance: In addition to the maintenance requirement, an additional allowance

should be given to female animals during pregnancy especially in last three months for the
development of foetus. Generally 140 g of DCP and 700 g of TDN daily is sufficient for the
pregnant animal.
Breeding Bull: The nutrient requirement for nutrients again depends on the body weight of
animal, which must be given in addition to the maintenance requirement.
Daily Allowance for Breeding Bull over and Above the Maintenance:

B.W. (kg) DCP (g) TDN (kg)

400 380 3.6

500 450 4.5

600 530 5.4

 CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTION TO COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS,
THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND UTILITY, FEED
INGREDIENTS AND RATION FOR LIVESTOCK
Livestock feeds are generally classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient
they furnish in the ration. They are divided into two general classes – roughages and
concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing relatively large amount of less digestible
material, i.e. crude fibre more than 18 per cent and low (about 60 per cent) in T.D.N on air dry
basis. Concentrates are feeds which contain relatively smaller amount (less than 18 per cent)
of crude fibre and have a comparatively high digestibility and as a result higher nutritive value
having more than 60 per cent T.D.N.
The number of substances used as feeding stuff to different species of livestock may
exceed over 2000 items. All that is being attempted in this section is to indicate the outlines of
classification of the conventional feeds into broad categories and to give typical examples of
different groups under this classification.
Roughages:
Roughages are sub-divided into two major groups- succulent and dry, based upon their
moisture content. Succulent feeds usually contain moisture from 60-90 per cent, whereas dry
roughages contain only 10-15 per cent moisture. For the sake of convenience, succulent feeds
are again classified into various types such as pasture, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves,
silage and root crops. Dry roughages have been further classified as hay and straw based on
the nutritive values and methods of preparation.
Succulent Feeds:
1. Pasture: Of the succulent feeds, pasture is the most convenient and economic for
maintaining larger livestock. Young rapidly growing grasses are rich in protein and highly
palatable.
2. Cultivated fodder crops: In the absence of sufficient grazing ground of good quality for
maintaining cattle, sheep, goat on pasture all the year round, the importance of growing fodder
crops to provide feed economically for production of milk for draught animals, need no
special emphasis. For the sake of convenience, these are classified into two groups-
leguminous and non-leguminous. Among leguminous fodders, cowpea (Vigna catjung),
cluster bean (Guar – cyamopsis psoraloides) are the most common kharif leguminous crops.
They contain from 2-3 per cent D.C.P. and about 10 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis and yield
about 100 quintal of forage per acre. Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) and lucerne (Medicago
sativa) are two other commonly cultivated leguminous fodder in India. The former is an
annual crop grown during the rabi season; the later is a perennial one having maximum growth
in winter and spring but the growth is retarded during the monsoon season. Both these crops
can yield over 300quintalas per acre in 5-6 cuttings. The disadvantage is that, both the fodders
are liable to produce “bloat” if given in large quantities and thus it is advisable that they
should always be given along with some dry fodder. Lucerne and berseem contain on an
average 2.5 to 3 per cent D.C.P. and 12 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis. The phosphorus
content of these two forages are poor and thus have wide calcium to phosphorus ratio. It is
advisable to supplement a ration containing a large amount of leguminous fodder with a
limited quantity of wheat or rice bran.
Among non-leguminous fodder jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (Zea mays) and sudan
grass (Sorghum sudanens) are most common kharif fodder. Yield ranges from 100-200
quintals per acre. Most of the fodders belonging to this group (Non-legume kharif) are having
0.5 per cent D.C.P. and 11-15 per cent T.D.N. except maize, which is the nutritious of all,
having 1 per cent D.C.P. and 17 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis. An improved variety of bajra
named as I.C. 2291, has been evolved by I.C.A.R., which has protein content of 2.5 per cent
on fresh basis and the yield is about 65 tonnes per acre in 4 cuts. Among the rabi non-
leguminous fodder crops, oat is by far excellent for milch cattle. It has 2 per cent D.C.P. and
17 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis. Non-leguminous perennial
fodder crops consists of napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), para grass (Bracharia mutica)
and guinea grass.
All these grasses flourish vigorously during summer and rainy seasons. About 4-6
cuttings can be taken under north Indian conditions, so that an annual yield of 30-40 tonnes
per acre is the yield.
Important Forage Crops:
I. Cultivated fodder - Legumes
Berseem, Lucerne, Senji, Cowpea, Guar, and Rice bean.
II. Cultivated fodder – Cereals
Oats, Sorghum, Bajara, Maize, Teosinte, Barley etc.
III. Cultivated fodder – Other than cereals and legumes
Brassica spp.
IV. Cultivated fodder – Perennial grasses
Napier, Bajara hybrid, Guinea grass.
V. Cultivated fodder – Annual grasses
Deenanath grass
VI. Perennial Range Grasses
Setaria, Anjan grass, Dhaman grass, Marval grass etc.
 Pasture
(Cowpea, clusterbean, green pea,
Succulent

Legume bersem, Lucerne etc.)

mmmm
Green fodder
mmmme
Non legume (Fodders of jowar maize, bajra,
oat etc. and grasses of sudan,
Tree leaves napier, guinea etc.)
Roughages

Silage
Root crops
Dry

Legume (Hays of Lucerne, cowpea etc.)

Hay
Non-legume (Sorghum, maize, doob etc.)
Straw
(Straws like oat, rice, jowar, wheat, etc.
Feeding Stuffs

Grain and seeds (Maize, barley, sorghum etc.

Energy Feeds

Mill by products (Arhar chuni, wheat bran, rice bran, gram chuni)
Roofs (Tapioca tubers, turnip, potatoes)
Animal by product (blood meal, other meat scraps and offals from
Slaughtered animals.
Concentrates

Marine by products
Proteinous Feeds

Avian by products
Brewer’ s grains and
yeast
Oil cakes
slaughter house)
Mineral supplements (natural or pure elements)
Additives (antibiotics, hormones, colouring materials and flavouring agents.
CHAPTER 11
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE OF FORAGES AS SILAGE AND HAY
Forages can be preserved either in the green form as Silage or in the dry form as Hay or
Straw.
(A) Silage Making
Silage is the product resulting from storage and fermentation of succulent forage under
anaerobic conditions in a silo.
Advantages of Silage Making
1. It furnishes high quality succulent feed for any season of the year and can be stored for
number of years.
2. Nutrients are better preserved in silage than in hay, and it has high carotene content.
3. The animals eat fermented coarse stems of jowar and maize practically without waste.
4. It requires less storage space than the hay.
5. There is no hazard of fire as it contains 65% moisture.
6. Weedy crops/plants can be utilized in silage making.
7. It is slightly laxative and easy to digest by the animal.
8. Silage making is possible during monsoon, but not the hay.
Limitations of Silage Making
1. Transport of the fodder from distant places to the silo is difficult and costly especially
during rainy season.
2. If not ensiled (filled and sealed) properly, wastage is high.
3. Small farmers can not afford to make silage, since silage once opened need to be
utilized and silo can not be reclosed.
4. Vit-D content is less in silage than the hay.
Crops Suitable for Silage Making
All cereal crops rich in carbohydrates are suitable for silage making. Green maize has
higher soluble carbohydrates and hence on anaerobic fermentation produces more organic
acids (lactic and propionic acids), which preserve the silage well. This is the reason why green
maize and jowar make excellent silage. The leguminous crops like green Lucerne, berseem not
only have lower carbohydrates, but also have higher crude protein, which is broken down into
butyric acid and ammonia, which make the silage unpalatable. If the carbohydrate content of
silage material/crop is low, one may add molasses, vinegar or ground grains.
 Types of Silo
_____________________!______________________ !
!
Vertical or Upright Silo Horizontal Silo
____________!_____________ ____________!_________
Pit Tower Tower cum pit Trench Bunker Trench cum Bunker Silo
Silo Silo Silo Silo Silo
Silos, viz. tower silos and to some extent tower cum pit and trench cum bunker silos
are more suitable where water table in the soil is very high.
Advantages of Vertical/Upright Silo
1. The gravitational force of the material is an advantage in self-packing of the silage.
2. The surface area exposed to air is less in such silo, and hence
3. Even with less skill, the material can be packed well in upright silo.
Because of these benefits upright/vertical silos are more popular in India.
Limitations/Disadvantages of Vertical Silo
1. It requires more labour in filling and emptying of silage material.
2. It does not facilitate mechanical filling, pressing and self-feeding.
Hence they are getting out-dated in European countries and are replaced by horizontal
type of silos as they facilitate above aspects and therefore save labour.
The wall of a silo should be air tight, without any cracks and crevices. If walls are
smooth plastered, it facilitates well settling and packing of material. On an average one cubic
meter space in silo can store 600 kg silage (i.e. 15-17 kg per cubic feet space). Silage is much
more compact and heavier as the depth from surface increases.
Ensiling (Filling the Silo Pit) includes following steps:
1. Harvest the crop (jowar, maize) at 50% flowering /dent stage, when it contains
maximum nutrients.
2. Dry/wilt the harvested crop for 1-2 hrs so that its moisture content is reduced to 70%
or so. If moisture content is more, silage will be slimy / lumpy, and with lower
moisture, there will be mould growth.
3. Chaff the green fodder into small pieces (1-2.5 inch) by electric chaff cutter. Set the
chaff cutter in such a way that the chaffed fodder is thrown directly into the silo pit.
4. Spread the chaffed green fodder evenly into the silo and press it to the maximum
extent for expulsion (removal) of air trapped in. Occasionally, trampling should also be
done.
 5. Do even spread of common salt @ 0.5-0.7% i.e. 10-15 kg per 2 tons of chaffed
materials. Because all the fodders are deficient in sodium and chloride. Salt improves
the test and acts as preservative. If the crop is poor in sugar and/or protein content like
legumes and/or Napier hybrid/natural grasses, respectively one can add molasses @
0.8% and urea @ 1 % in the silage material.
6. Fill up the silo layer by layer using chaffed fodder (1-2 feet) and silage additives (salt,
molasses) in as much compact manner as possible, over a week time.
7. Cover the top of the silage material with poor quality dry roughages like wheat or
paddy straw (about 1 feet layer).
8. Lastly, close the silo pit with a plastic sheet and pack it with minimum of 3 feet layer
of earth/soil on the top for complete pressing of silage material.
9. Finally, seal or plaster the top of earth layer with a mixture of cow-dung and mud to
create anaerobic condition in the silo. Check after 3-4 days for the presence of any
cracks and if found, seal it again.
10. Maintain this air-tight condition for 2.5 to 3 months for complete fermentation of green
forage into the silage.
Silage Additives
For making good quality silage, the fodder crop should contain sufficient amount of
moisture and sugar. Napier hybrid, Guinea grass, Para grass, pasture grasses etc. contain less
sugar and need addition of molasses @ 0.8% (8 kg/ton). Some time urea is also added @ 1%
(10 kg/ton) to increase the protein content of the silage. Salt is added @ 0.5% (5 kg/ton) to
increase palatability and preservability. Ground grains and grain byproducts are also added to
absorb excess moisture and to increase the nutrient content of silage. Various organic acids are
also used to increase the acidity, which helps in preservation of silage.

Figure – Process of silage making

How Ensiling Preserves the Green Fodder (Chemical Reaction in Silage)
When the green forage is placed in a compact mass in a silo, for some time the living
plant cells continue to respire/breath rapidly using the O2 of the air trapped within the mass
and give out CO2. Within few hours practically all O2 disappears and CO2 level built-ups,
which prevents development of mould. Initially heat is generated. This favours the growth of
desirable anaerobic microbes mainly Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
These microbes multiply vigorously in absence of O2 and break the sugars of green forage, and
produce various organic acids, viz. Lactic acid, Acetic acid and others. When enough lactic
acid is produced in the silage, pH goes down to 3.8 to 4.0. In this condition silage is preserved
for a long time. There is also production of other volatile fatty acids namely formic acid and
butyric acid. When there is exchange of air inside the silo, the butyric acid producing bacteria
multiply and break down the protein into butyric acid and ammonia leading to spoilage of
silage. The moulds and fungi also grow/multiply under such aerobic conditions.
If silage is prepared and preserved well the losses are less. Loss of nutrients due to
bleaching and shattering of leaves observed in hay making are not occurring in silage.
However, if silage is not prepared skillfully, the losses are greater due to total spoilage. As
compared to silage, hay making requires less skill and facilities. Moreover, there is shortage of
green fodder, hence Indian farmers prefer hay making rather than silage making.
Qualities of Good Silage
1. It should have yellowish green colour (Khaki colour).
2. It should have fine aroma of lactic and acetic acids.
3. There should not be any mould or fungus growth.
4. It should have soft texture without coarse steams.
(B) Haylage
It is between hay and silage. It is low moisture silage. It is a product of legumes and/or
grasses, which are wilted to about 50% moisture before ensiling in upright silo. The lower
moisture content of haylage makes it difficult to pack sufficiently to exclude air from the
mass, which results in greater spoilage.
Advantages of Haylage
1. Where the climate is not conducive/favourable (heavy continuous rain) for hay
making, haylage can be prepared.
2. Animals also consume more dry matter in the form of haylage than the silage.
3. Feeding value of the forages when fed as hay or haylage is about the same, when
proper procedures for both are followed.
(C) Hay Making
Forages, which are harvested before seed formation i.e. at flowering/bloom/ dent stage
and dried to near 85-90% dry matter, form hay. Indian hay just like straw consists of dry grass
on which seeds have been ripened and leaves usually has been shed. For hay making, forages
are dried (cured) either under the sunrays or inside the barn or in the machine, i.e. Sun curing,
barn curing or machine curing is used to prepare hay.
Harvesting and Field Curing of Hay
The best time for cutting the crop for hay making is when it is 1/3rd to ½ in bloom. The
crop cut early is higher in protein, lower in crude fibre and contains more vitamins i.e. more
nutritive. Such hay is more palatable and will shatter less. It is best to let the crop lie in the
field for few hours until it is well wilted or about 1/3rd to 1/4th dried cured. It should be raked
in to small loose bundles called “windrows”. It is necessary to handle the hay only early in the
morning to avoid loss of leaves.

Figure – Steps in hay making

Requisites/Characteristics of Good Quality Hay
1. It should be leafy. Leaves are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals.
2. Colour of hay should be green parrot like, which indicates the amount of carotene – a
precursor of vitamin-A present in it..
3. It should be soft and pliable in texture.
4. It should be free from dirt, dust and fungus/mould growth.
5. It should have smell or aroma characteristic of the crop from which it is prepared.
6. It should be free from weeds and stubbles.
Losses of Nutrients in Hay Making
1. Losses of leaves by shattering. Gentle handling in early morning prevents shattering.
2. Losses of vitamins due to bleaching by sun and fermentation by bacterial action. Avoid
bacterial action by complete drying/curing of material.
3. Losses of carbohydrate due to fermentation, starch is oxidized into CO2 and water
4. Losses of soluble nutrients by leaching in heavy rain.
5. When hay is not properly dried, more heat will be produced by fermentation in staked
hay and have a chance of spontaneous combustion.
Kinds of Hay
1. Leguminous hay: It has got more of digestible protein and other nutrients, viz.
carotene, vit-D & E as it is prepared from leguminous crops like lucerne, berseem etc.
2. Non-leguminous hay: It contains less protein, minerals and vitamins and is less
palatable as it is prepared from non-leguminous crops like jowar, grasses etc.
3. Grain crop hay: It is made from crops like barley, oat, harvested at dent stage.
4. Mixed hay: prepared from mixed legume and non-legume crops, has balanced
nutrients.
Physical Forms of Hay (Treatment of Dry Roughage)
1. Long hay: Forages that are cut dried and then stored as such in the barn.
2. Chopped hay: Dry hay cut into small pieces of 2.0 - 2.5” in size and then stored.
3. Baled hay: Hay is tied in the form of bales of about 1m x 1m x 1m size. It requires less
storage space than the chopped or long hay.
4. Pelleting: Grinding and pelleting of hay results in a product, which is easy to handle
and store than the previous three forms. Pelleted hay is consumed in greater amount
than the other forms, resulting in faster body weight gain. The processing cost is
however little higher under Indian condition.
5. Wafering or Cubs: Hay is packed in form of 2-3” long x 1.25” wide x 1.25” high
blocks/cubes. It requires less space for storage (25 lbs/cubit feet), because of small size
and compactness. It also requires less labourers for transport, storage and feeding.
 CHAPTER 12

INTRODUCTION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES AND

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF IMPORTANT DISEASES
OF LIVESTOCK
The herd health calendar includes schedules in the form of charts, tables, pamphlets etc
of various operations like vaccination (immunization), annual/ periodical testing, de-worming
and dipping or spraying etc to be performed on animals to preserve their normal health. It
gives information about the content, dose, route and mode of administration of vaccines or
drugs, and also the time of its application and the name of disease against which it is to be
used.
Livestock Health
Herd health programme that emphasize prevention of disease, rather than treatment
play a central role in any attempt to increase production efficiency. Treatment will always be
important in terms of survival of the individual sick animal. However in terms of survival of
the total production unit (profit verses loss) prevention is the more desirable method of disease
control. Health denotes physical, physiological and mental wellbeing of an individual.
Disease means any deviation from normal state of health.
Classification of Diseases:
A. According to Mode of Origin
1. Hereditary diseases: Transmitted from parents to the offspring.
2. Congenital diseases: Acquired during intra-uterine life.
3. Acquired diseases: Acquired after birth.
B. According to Specific Causes:
a) Specific diseases: Produced by a specific pathogen or factor. They are subdivided into
i) Infectious diseases: Caused by pathogenic organisms like
Viral diseases: Rinderpest (RP) and Foot & Mouth disease (FMD).
Bacterial diseases: Black quarter (BQ) and Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) and
Protozoan diseases: Surra and Theileriosis.
ii) Non-infectious diseases: Caused by physical or chemical or poisonous agents, nutritional
deficiency or disturbed metabolism.
E.g.
1. Deficiency diseases - Rickets
2. Metabolic diseases - Milk fever
3. Poisoning - Pesticide poisoning
b) Non-specific disease: Those diseases whose causes are indefinite or multiple e.g.
Pneumonia.
C. According to mode of spread:
1. Contagious disease: Spread by means of direct or indirect contact, e.g. FMD and HS.
All infectious diseases may or may not be contagious but all contagious diseases are
infectious.
2. Non-contagious diseases: Do not spread by means of direct or indirect contact. E.g.
Rickets.
D According to clinical signs:
1. Per acute disease is characterized by very short course (few hours to 48 hours) and
very server symptoms e.g. Anthrax.
2. Acute disease is characterized by a sudden onset, short course (3-14 days) and severe
symptoms e.g. FMD, RP.
3. Sub acute disease: Whose course is 1-4 weeks and severity is less than acute one. E.g.
Sub acute mastitis.
4. Chronic disease: Whose course is more than 4 weeks and signs are not severe in
character e.g. Tuberculosis.
E. According to intensity and spread of diseases:
1. Sporadic disease: Occurring occasionally, singly, or in scattered instances and shows
little or no tendency to spread within the herd e.g. Johne's disease.
2. Enzootic/Endemic disease: Outbreak of disease among animals in a definite area or
particular district. E.g. Anthrax, H.S.
3. Epizootic/Epidemic disease: Which affects a large population of animals in large area
at the same time and spread with rapidity e.g. FMP, RP.
4. Panzootic /Pandemic disease: Widespread epidemic disease usually of worldwide
distribution e.g. Influenza.
5. Zoonotic disease: A disease which can be transmitted from animal to man and vice
versa e.g. Anthrax, Brucellosis.
General Measures for Prevention of Contagious Diseases
1. Identification and isolation of infected animals.
2. Treatment of' affected animals.
3. Slaughter of animals suffering from incurable diseases.
4. Disposal of dead animals either burning or deep burial.
5. Destroy contaminant fodder by burning.
6. Proper disposal of contaminated water.
7. Regular cleaning and disinfection of cattle shed and its premises.
 8. Don’t allow animals to come from affected to clean area.
9. Restrict the movement of animals from affected to clean area.
10. Don’t allow animals to drink water from ponds, rivers etc. during outbreak of disease.
11. Close animal markets, cattle shows etc. during outbreak of disease.
12. Regular spraying of insecticides to control external parasites.
13. Regular de-worming to control internal parasites.
14. Avoid stress associated with long distance transportation, inclement weather and under
nutrition.
15. Provide adequate ventilation and sufficient space.

Normal clinical values in animals:

Species Temperature 0F Pulse rate/minute Respiration rate/minute

Cattle & buffalo 101.6 42 – 60 16 – 24

Sheep & Goat 102.6 70 – 80 18 – 30
107.0 130 – 160 15 – 30
Poultry

(I) Vaccination or Immunization Schedule:

`Vaccine is a Proteinous preparation of any living attenuated or killed micro-
organisms, which is used to evoke immune response of host specific to the antigen when
injected, and thereby protecting animals from that disease.
However, the young animals below 2 months of age should never be - vaccinated as it
would neutralize the passive antibodies/immunity received in the form of maternal or colostral
immunoglobulin, and thus, would make the animal more susceptible to infection rather than
creating resistance/immunity against that disease. Normally first dose of vaccine is
administered to young growing animals at the age of 4-6 months, except for FMD which can
be given earliest at 2 months of age.
No vaccine has so far been developed for fungal and parasitic diseases, except
Theileriosis.
(II) Annual/Periodical Testing:
Farm animals are generally tested annually once (in the month of June- July) for the
possibilities of certain chronic, zoonotic or contagious diseases like TB, JD & Brucellosis, and
periodically (monthly/fortnightly) for detection of sub-clinical mastitis for immediate
treatment/action.
 1.Tuberculosis (TB) and John’s Disease (JD) — Intra-dermal Tuberculin and Johnin tests
are done in the skin fold of neck region by injecting 0.1 ml of antigen by a tuberculin syringe
and then measuring the circumference of the bead with the help of Venire Caliper immediately
and after 48-72 hr. In positive reactors, the site appears swollen, hot, painful and hard within
72 hrs. Therefore, the difference in the reading above 4 mm is considered positive and such
animals are retested 3 months later and if again found positive, are culled/slaughtered.
2. Brucellosis - Milk ring test is done as a herd test on pooled milk sample of the entire herd
using coloured Brucella abortus antigen in a test tube and if it is found positive (coloured ring
formation in tube on incubation at 56°C for 1 hr) then blood or serum of individual animal is
checked by plate agglutination or tube agglutination test respectively. A serum titer above
1:40 is taken positive and such animals are culled immediately from the herd.
3. Sub-clinical mastitis: California Mastitis Test (CMT) is carried out periodically on milk
samples of all four quarters of each lactating animal in a strip-cup using coloured California
reagent. The change in colour and consistency of milk (greenish-sticky) indicates infection in
that quarter of the udder, and intra-mammary treatment should be given soon to prevent
development of clinical form of mastitis in that case, as it is economically very harmful to the
farmer.
(III) Control of Internal (Endo-) Parasites (by Deworming):
As a routine, deworming is usually done twice a year i.e. before (June-July) and after (Oct-
Nov) monsoon. In young growing animals, it should be done at 10 days and then at 1, 3, 6, 9
& 12 months of age and then every year before & after monsoon. Important deworming agents
used are albendazole, mebendazole, perbendazole, fenbendazole, fasciolax, flukin, distodin,
oxyclosanide, banminth, heltac, piperazine, vermax etc.
(IV) Control of External (Ecto-) Parasites (by Dipping or Spraying):
Dipping means immersing the animals in insecticide solution or spraying of some safe
insecticides on the animal body to eradicate ecto-parasites like ticks, fleas, lice, mange, mites
etc present in the skin or hair coat. For the purpose, DDT, BHC, Malathion, Butox (safe),
Pestoban, Arsenic- sulphur dip, Tobacco leaves extract etc can be used. Dipping or spraying
should be done at least twice at 14 days interval to kill adult as well as egg/larval stages of
parasites from the body coat.

Spraying of disinfectant on udders Dipping of cattle in insecticide solution

 Vaccination Schedule for Farm Animals

Sr. Vaccine/Disease Content of vaccine Animals to be Dose Remarks

No. vaccinated and
route

A. Bacterial vaccines

1. HS — vaccine for Oil adjuvant, Cattle/Buffalo/ 3.0ml Vaccinate 3 wks

hemorrhagic formalized or alum Calves S/C before onset of
Septicemia precipited killed rainy season (pre-
Pasteurella /Sheep/Goat monsoon
multocida bacteria vaccination)- i.e. in
the month of May
or June.

2 BQ vaccine for Killed/activated As above 3.0ml As above

black Quarter suspension of S/C
Clostridium
chauvoei bacteria

3 Anthrax spore Live attenuated As above 1.0ml Avoid self-

vaccine for spores of Bacillus S/C inoculation -
anthrax anthracis bacteria Practice only in
endemic areas in
June.

4 Brucella vaccine Calves 4-8 M 1.0ml Avoid self-

for Brucellosis a) Live attenuated old only (Calf- S/C inoculation-
Brucella abortus hood vaccine) Practice only in
strain-C 19 vaccine young stock, not in
adults.

Adult cattle 5.0ml Used in adults

b) Killed/inactivated and buffaloes S/C during actual
suspension of Br. outbreak of
abortus strain 45/20 disease.

5 Enterotoxaemia Inactivated toxin of All age groups 3.0ml Follow Pre-

Clostrid. Perfringi-D of Sheep S/C monsoon
vaccination i.e. in
June.
6 Tetanus toxoid Inactivated toxin of All age group, 0.5- Whenever there is
for tetanus Clostridium tetani all species 5.0ml serious injury/
I/M accident or
operation.

B. Viral Vaccines

1 FMD polyvalent Killed/inactivated All cloven 5.0ml Vaccinate twice a

vaccine for Foot suspension of FMD footed farm S/C year i.e. Feb-March
& Mouth Disease (Aptho) virus animals, 1st and again Sept-Oct
serotypes O, A, C, dose at 2 (half yearly)
Asia1 months

2 R.P. vaccine for Live attenuated or Calves at 6 & 1.0ml Vaccinate once a
Rinderpest killed tissue culture 10 Months of S/C year in epidemic
of RP (Myxo) virus age and then, areas and every 3
annually yrs in other zone

3 Rabisin or Raksha Inactivated All pet and 1.0ml Post-bite

-rab vaccine for suspension of Rabies farm animals, S/C immunization: 1
rabies (Rhabdo) virus 1st dose at 4-6 dose on day of bite
months of age. in vaccinated
animals, and 7 dose
each of 1 ml on
0,3,7,14,30,60&
90days of bite in
non-activated
animals

C. Protozoan Vaccine

Raksha-T Killed suspension of Exotic and 1.0ml Costly vaccine,

vaccine for Theileria annulata crossbred S/C used only in
Theileriosis blood protozoa calves susceptible young
cattle
 CHAPTER 13
PREPARATION OF MILK PRODUCTS
COMMON TERMS PERTAINING TO VARIOUS SPECIES OF LIVESTOCK
COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS

(1) Humped Cattle : Indian cattle, Brahma or indigenous cattle having

hump. Spp. Indicus.

(2) Humpless : European or exotic or foreign cattle having no hump.

Cattle Spp. Taurus.

(3) Castration : The act of rendering the gonads of an animal

nonfunctional, generally it is used for males.

(4) Calving : Interval between two successive parturition in cows

Interval and buffaloes.

(5) Lactation : Period during which the animal gives milk i.e. from
Period day of calving to last day of giving milk in cattle
290-330 days (standard 305 days).

(6) Dry Period : Period in which animal do not gives milk i.e. from
last day of giving milk to subsequent calving.

(7) Service Period : Period between calving to successful service i.e.

animal became pregnant.

(8) Gestation : Date of successive service up to parturition i.e.

Period period during which animal remain pregnant.

(9) Breed : A group of animals of a species having similar

physical and economical characteristics.

(10) Prolificacy : Ability to produce large number of offsprings.

(11) Avian : A generic description of birds in general.

(12) Bovine : A generic name of cattle.

(13) Broiler : A chicken rose especially for meat purpose.

(14) Broody : A hen which attempts to incubate its egg.

(15) Browse : Fodder obtained from eating leaves and twigs of

bushes by goat and camel.

(16) Carcass : The dressed body of slaughtered animal or dead

animal.

(17) Concentrate : Feed stuffs low in fiber and high in digestible

 nutrients.

(18) Crossbred : The offspring resulting from the mating of male and
female animal of different breeds.

(19) Cull : To dispose of the poorer animals in a herd or flock.

(20) Fleece : The total wool coat of a sheep.

(21) Flush : To increase feeding level of females just prior to

breeding.

(22) Gestation : The time period between conception and parturition

Period or is the condition of female when developing foetus
is present in the uterus.

(23) Heat/ Estrus : Period when female will accept service by male.

(24) Insemination : To place semen in female reproduction tract.

(25) Litter : A group of young ones born to one mother at one

time or materials placed on floor to absorb moisture.

(26) Livestock : A collective term to denote those animals kept on a

farm for productive purposes.

(27) Natural service : Insemination of female by the male.

(28) Parturition : The general term about process of giving birth to

young one.

(29) Purebred : The offspring of the mating of a male and female of

the same breed.

(30) Restrain : To stop the movements of an animal so it can be

examined or treated.

(31) Roughage : Feed stuffs high in fibre and low in digestible

nutrients.

(32) Semen : The discharge ejaculated from the testes and

accessory sex glands of the male which includes
sperm and accessory fluids.

(33) Shear : To remove the fleece from a sheep.

(34) Sire : The male parent of the calf.

(35) Dam : The female parent of the calf.

(36) Steaming Up : To give extra-feed to milk producing animal 6-8

 weeks prior to parturition.

(37) Tusk : Elongated or enlarged permanent canine tooth,

usually seen in boars.

(38) Domestication : Means making the animals to adopt their life in

intimate contact with men for their benefit.

(39) Vice : A habit or action of animals that is harmful to itself

or to others.

(40) Yearling : A bovine in its second year of life which has not yet
produced young one.

(41) Crone : An old broken mouthed ewe, which has been

retained in breeding flock, beyond the normal time,
because of her excellent breeding performance.

(42) Gimmer : A female sheep between first and second shearing.

(43) Seggy : A ram castrated after service.

(44) Puberty: : It is the period when reproductive tract and

secondary sex organs/characteristics start to acquire
their mature form.

(45) Runt : The smallest and last born piglet in a litter.

(46) Brood Mare : Mare kept for breeding purpose.

(47) Free Martin : A female calf when born along with male calf
usually sterile with abnormal genitalia is known as
free martin.

(48) Hybrid Animal : Animal born due to mating of animals of different

species.

(49) Mule : Animal produced by mating of male donkey (Ass)

and female horse (Mare).

(50) Hinny : Hybrid animal produced by mating of Jennet (She

donkey) with stallion (Male horse).
COMMON TERMS USED IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION:

Sl. Details Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Horse Rabbit Poultry
No.

1 Genus and Species Bos. Bubalus. Ovis. aries Capra. hircus Sus. Equs. Oryctolagus. Gallus.
indicus bubalis domesticus caballus cunniculus domesticus

Generic name Bovine Bovine Ovine Caprine Porcine Equine Leporidae Avian

2 Act of parturition Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Foaling Kindling Hatching

3 Young one of Calf Buffalo calf Lamb Kid Piglet/Pigling Foal (<1yr) Kit Chick
either sex (<1yr)
(<1yr) (<6 months) (<6 months) (<8 wks) (<8 wks)

4 Female young one Heifer Buffalo heifer Ewe lamb/ Doeling/ Gilt Filly Doeling Pullet/ Grower
up to parturition (>1yr) (18-22 wks)
(>1yr) Gimmer Goatling (>1yr) (>2 months)
(>1yr)

5 Male young one Bull calf Buffalo Ram lamb/ Buckling Boarling Colt Buckling Cockerel
housed for future (<1yr) bull/calf Tup lamb (>6 months) (>2 months) (18-22 wks)
breeding (<1yr)

6 Adult female Cow Buffalo Ewe Doe/ Sow Mare Doe Hen
parturated at least Nanny (>21 wks)
ones

7 Adult male used for Bull Buffalo Bull Ram/Tup Buck Boar Stallion Buck Cock
breeding
8 Castrated male Bullock/ Buffalo Wether/ Wether/ Stag/ Hog Gelding/ Neuter Capon
Wedder Geld
Steer Bullocks Wedder (>1yr)
(>2yr) (>2yr)

9 Meat Beef Cara beef Mutton Chevon Pork Cheval Vanison Chicken

10 Group Herd Herd Flock/ Flock/ Band Herd/ Stable/ Warren/Flock/ Flock
Drove/Stock Band
Band Herd/Pack