Shah Wali Ullah

Biography: Born in Delhi in 1703. Father: Shah Abdul Rahim founded Madrassa Rahimya and also
helped to compiled Fatawa-I-Alamgiri a book of Islamic legal text under the direct supervision of
Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir. Education from Madrassa Rahimya for 12 years.
In 1724 he went to Arabia, he was greatly influenced by the teaching of Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim a
well-known scholar of his time. He returned to Delhi in 1732.
Beliefs:
o  One of his major believe was that the terrible conditions of Muslims has occurred because of
incomplete knowledge of Quran. So, it was necessary to make them accessible.
o  Secondly, he realized that reforms cannot come from weak leadership of Dehli, they have to come
from Community itself.
o  Shah Wali Ullah did not liked the division of Shia and Sunni. He wanted to see them united, and
focus on Major principles of Islam.
o Fourthly, he knew that Muslims should focus on Moral and Spiritual principles of Islam
Workings:
o  In Battle of Panipat, he was the one to Persuade Ahmed Shah Abdali to help in Battle, which was
won. However, it was not enough to unite Muslims
o He wrote 51 Islamic Books in Persian and Arabic
o Translated Quran into Persian, later hi two sons (Shah Rafi, Shah Abdul Qadir) translated it
into Urdu to make it further accessible
o Deep/High knowledge Scholar, Shah Wali Ullah was role model for Muslims
o Tried his best to heal Shia, Sunni difference
Importance:
o Madrassa Rahimya played a vital role later for the revival of true Islam
o First to find out the cause of decline as incomplete knowledge of Islam
o Translation of Quran made it accessible for huge population
o He believed in Unity as key to success
o Many future leaders were greatly influenced by him!
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi
Biography: Born near Lucknow in the town of Rae Bareli. Faithful follower of Shah Abdul Aziz.
In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Wali Ullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya). He graduated from
Madrassa & joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan. He learnt about European weaponry
including use of Artillery.
0. In 1821 he went for Haji & returned to Delhi in 1823 with a clear vision of Jihad He soon founded
the “Jihad Movement” which was aimed at nothing less than the rejuvenation & restoration of
Muslim power.
Beliefs:
o Syed Ahmed was more a man of action, who was right and perfect as a leader
o He identified the evils must be ended to improve corrupted Muslims Society
o British ensured that Muslims have very little power, and Sikhs in Punjab were dominant.
Syed Ahmed wanted to restore Mughals Power and overthrow Sikhs from Punjab, so he found ‘Jihad
Movement’.
Workings:
o  He went on Haj in 1821, before that he circulated his words; when he was back on 1823, he was
ready to take action
o  He soon found the cause, the Sikhs tynnaries in Punjab. Muslims were not allowed to do their
religious practices.
o Jihad Movement was launched from Peshawar headquarters.
o To enlist men for this action; he went to Rajasthan, Baluchistan, Sindh and Afghanistan.
However, Afghans were not quite ready.
o  1826, he sent a message to Ranjit Singh (Sikh ruler in Punjab, that allow Muslims to worship their
ALLAH (GOD) or face the mujahedeen.
o  This lead to the first attack on Okara on 21st Dec, 1826. Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi led a force of
80,000. However, the major problem was that these peoples were from different communities. So,
they were exploited by Sikhs calling them un-Islamic.
o  Soon, Muslims agreed that Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi should become Imam, because his words
have influence on Muslims.
o  After the victory of Okara attack, he was preparing for attack on Attock, however, he faced
another army of 35,000 Sikhs. What he didn’t knew was that a man of his army Yar Muhammad
Khan was bribed. First, his servants tried to poison Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi. And then in battlefield
Yar Muhammad deserted in Battlefield creating confusion and Chaos in ranks, which led to defeat of
Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi. So they moved to Panjtar near Kashmir
o  Although Yar Muhammad was killed his brother Sultan Muhammad waged the war against
Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi.
o  There was no option but to move, so Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi along with forces disappeared and
hided into Hazara, protected by mountains. But local peoples told the way in, which led to Battle of
Balakot (1831)
o  Battle of Balakot: Mujahedeen fought bravely but they were heavily outnumbered. It was a
surprise to them, the huge army of Sikhs. Along with Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi and brave
Commander Shah Ismail 600 Mujahedeen were killed.
Importance:
o Jihad Movement was able to unite Muslims
o One of first movement to get away from foreign rulers
o It indicated freedom of worship
o Battle of Balakot, decline of Jihad movement, which was later ended by British
o It defined culture and religion
o Regarded mostly as fore-runners of Pakistan Movement
Haji Shariatullah
Biography: Ever since the loss of independence, the Muslims of India were not only hovering in the
domain of uncertainly but also many un-Islamic ideas were taking place in the minds of Muslims. It
was at that time that some Muslim thinkers thought that unless the Muslim were brought back to the
teachings of the Quran & Hades, would not be possible to save Muslims from their ruin. This shows
that growth or Religion & national Movements in the subcontinent was not a spontaneous act. All
these movements started not only in one part of Indo-Pakistan but throughout the country. One of the
movements started by Haji Shariatullah in Bengal was Faraizi Movement’.
Haji Shariatullah was born in the district of Faridpur in the year 1781. After receiving his early
education in his village he got an opportunity to perform Haji at the age of 18 He stayed there in
Hejaz for 20 years & studied religion & Arabic. He returned to Bengal in 1806. During his stay in
Arabia he was greatly impressed by doctrines of Sheikh Mohammad Abdul Wahab who had initiated
the Wahabi Movement in Arabia.
Beliefs:
o  Miserable conditions of Muslims has led the country being Dar-ul-Harb (Area where non-
Muslims rule). He believed in such areas Friday and EID prayer should not be offered.
o  He believed that Muslims Community is no longer close enough to Islam. He wanted them to
return to original purity of Islam, which in observation was called faraiz
o  It supported the Idea of Jihad against the non-Muslims who were undermining the true principles
of Islam
Workings:
o  Muslims were near poverty and they were given less opportunities for jobs. He wanted to restore
their Pride
o  Haji Shariat Ullah urged from his followers to adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for
all the past sins & a pledge to lead a righteous & God-fearing life in future. His followers as already
mentioned were known as Faraizi. His movement brought the Muslim peasants together against the
cruel treatment by the Hindus Zamindars.
o  Haji Sahib was greatly opposed by the Hindus who were disturbed by the unity of the Muslim
peasants. They started harassing him by putting up false cases against him. Ultimately he was forced
to leave Dhaka. He thus returned to his birthplace in Faridpur district & continued his religious
preaching & fighting against the non-Islamic forces.
o He died in 1840
o His workings was later carried out by his Son, Mohsin-ud-Din:
     He divided East Bengal into areas called circles, each had their own Khalifa, who was
responsible for their wealth
          Helped to oppose high taxes, he was opposed, but he went further and
declared a Jihad. He was arrested and after his death in 1860, Faraizi
Movement declined.
Importance:
o It encouraged de-moralized Muslims
o Brought a Spiritual revival and Hindu influences of Islamic practices were removed. o      It was
politically and economically important. Muslims rose against their harsh treatments and it is called to
be seeding Pakistan Movements
Aurangzeb
Shah  Jehan  left  the  Empire  more  peaceful  and  large  than  any  other  Emperor. 
However, Aurangzeb soon found much of his money spent on fighting.
o War of Rajputs 1679-1681. Rebellions such as Sikhs, Jats in Gokal and Satnamis in
Mewar.
o Keen to extend empire towards north. He fought a campaign against Pathan tribes in
NWFP.
o  The Most costly of all was campaign towards Marathas in Deccan. Their leader Shiva
was defeated in 1665 and prisoned in Agra. However, he soon escaped and was back as
leader for Marathas. Even 25 years of campaign was not able to overthrow Marathas in
Deccan. It just almost emptied the Treasury of Mughal Empire.
In 1707, death of Aurangzeb. The Empire was bigger than any other, however, there were
some weaken factors of it.
Aurangzeb’s Reforms
Historians are divided among Aurangzeb’s attitude towards Non-Muslims. Measure taken
by
Aurangzeb are:
o Jizya was Imposed (tax on Non-Muslims)
o Numbered Hindu Temples were destroyed
o Some old religious practices were banned, such as suttee
o Islamic Laws were enforced making Sikhs and Hindus to live according to Quran
Some Historians describe this as
Intolerant Attitude towards Non-Muslims

Some describe as follow:

It was not intolerant, Aurangzeb was little more Orthodox among other Emperor.

Most of criticism about Aurangzeb is because:

o Appointing censors to Public Morals
o Banning the Consumption of Alcohol
o Stopping Singing and Dancing at ‘Court’
o Maximum lengths of breads
However, to some peoples: Needy and Wise Measures
Aurangzeb was Popular among traders, abolishing many taxes, however, taxation was still
very high. Cost on military campaign contributed to ending Treasury, which was further
damaged by Extravagant Lifestyle (Pearl Mosque)
During this region, start of Decay of Empire can be seen!
Succession
Aurangzeb fought his rivals/brothers to get on the throne. So, he was convinced to avoid
such fights, which was damaging the Mughals Treasury. So, he divided his empire into his
three sons, however, it was not successful… they still fought for the throne. Prince
Muazzum (Victor) survived only few years. His four sons fought, Jahandar Shah (victor) was
murdered within a year. In 10 years after death of Aurangzeb, there were 12 claims of being
the emperor.
1719, Muhammad Shah was on throne for 30 years, he faced much opposition. Still, he was
last who could claim to the emperor.
The Empire Disintegrates
o  Nadir Shah was successful to beat Muhammad Shah’s forces in 1739 at Karnal. He
captured and sacked Delhi, however, he didn’t wanted to rule, he wanted to plunder as
much as possible and leave Delhi. He left after two months
o  1747, Afghan general Ahmed Shah Durrani attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore. 1749,
he caught Punjab and later Kashmir and Multan in 1756.
End of Mughal Empire
o 1748, Empire was shrinking rapidly, resistance of Ahmed Shah Durrani came from
Marathas not Mughals
o  Durrani placed Ahmed Shah (Son of Muhammad Shah) on throne. But Empire was
shrinking rapidly. He was sent in jail by his own courts
o  Successor Alamgir II was assassinated on the orders of CM. Next Emperor Shah Alam
was outside Delhi for 12 years, he lost battle of Buxar. New emperor was placed under
British protection.
o Upcoming 2 rulers ruled in names only
o Akbar II ruled Dehli.
Reasons for the Decline of Mughal Empire
Some historians blamed that Aurangzeb was the seed of the Mughal Decline, but still the
Empire was maintainable, after all it was very successive empire. Even after Aurangzeb, the
Empire continued another 150 years.
A)  The Nature of the Empire
o  Administrative: Huge Empire, was very difficult to administrate. Emperor was unable to
know exactly what was happening to the other side of the Empire.
o  Succession: Huge sums were also wasted when succession had disputes. Shah Jehan
was not dead yet, however, fights for Empire started between sons. Aurangzeb tried to
avoid that by dividing empire. Still disputes continued to erode the Empire
o  Military Costs: The costs of putting down rebellions such as Nadir Shah was enormous.
B)   The Consequences of Success
o Decline Military Expertise: An ‘Over Confident’ army with no longer the Expertise can be
easily beaten. Consider Battles with Marathas in Deccan
o Pleasure Seeking: Mughals turned pleasure seeking as they were very wealthy. Nobles
had the finest clothes and food. Finest Building were becoming symbol of Extravagance.
o Weak Control: The Huge the empire the hard it is to control. There’s no doubt that
Mughal Empire was vast/huge.
C)  The Arrival of British
Mughal Empire was in serious decline from 18th  century. And from the region of Jehangir
EIC wanted to take advantage of wealth gained by trade in India. EIC was Private Trading
Company, but behind it was the most powerful country. It was the first to go through
Industrial Revolutions. EIC, were able to afford army Mughals cannot defeat. So, decline
and the strength of British meant fall of mightiest Mughal Empire.
Enter the British
East India Company:
o  The East India Trading Company was a Company set up by British Merchants to trade
with India in 1600.
o 1600, its first port was set up at Surat.
o The East India Company gained power and created a private army.
o It made a major role in establishing British Reign in the subcontinent.
o The East India Company was finished through India Act 1858 after War of Independence.
o The British was interested in the Indian Wealth of Spices and Mineral Resources.
o The British wanted to use and take control over the major trade routes to control World
Trade and they all passed through the subcontinent.
o The British wanted to eliminate all other countries from competitions.
o The British wanted to trade for its economic growth.
Why the British took over on EIC?
o The company became bankrupt.
o It lost its monopoly. Other companies wanted to share the Indian trading monopoly.
o British government achieved its purpose of capturing the subcontinent by blaming EIC of
War of Independence.
o India Act 1858 abolished the company and the British government took over the
company’s assets.
British gains control
Battle of Plessey: The French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal to attack the EIC base at
Calcutta. Furthermore the Fortification of British post on Calcutta was also against
agreement with the Nawab of Bengal and so Siraj-ud-Daulah marched over Calcutta and
seized Fort William and locked the British residents in a small room. 23 out of 65 people
died and so Battle of Plessey began. Robert Clive succeeded in defeating Siraj-ud-Daullah
by bribing one of his key men Mir Jafar. Jafar was made the new Nawab of Bengal as
reward and Bengal came under EIC’s rule. Robert Clive was given Kashmir as reward.
Battle of Buxar: 1764, Mir Qasim (Son of Mir Jafar) joined forces with the Nawab of Oudh,
and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II in order to drive the British out of Bengal. The British
fought under Hector Munro and won a decisive battle, after which their influence gradually
increased and
the EIC forces eventually took over the revenue collection of Bihar and Orissa. Their
influence was further extended into Oudh and this victory helped the British in extending its
control moreover in India as it paved a clear way for the British to make further inroads into
the Indian possessions.
Annexation of Sindh- a shameful British act?
1839, Assault on Afghanistan: The British were threatened about Russia seeking to
expand its territory. In 1939, British invaded Afghanistan and installed its own puppet ruler,
however the British army could not face the difficult terrain of Afghanistan as well as the
locals and soon
within Two years the Afghan’s rebelled and massacred the British force. Out of 4000
soldiers, only
one doctor from Kabul survived and reported the incident.
1843, The Annexation of Sindh: The British pride was hurt by the invasion in Afghanistan
and decided to attack on Sindh under Sir Charles Napier to restore their Pride and Prestige
among Muslims and to capture the important Route through Bolan pass. Also they wanted
to make sure it is not the target of Sikhs expansion. Even in Britain many people
condemned Napier’s action for they had broken a friendship treaty with the Amirs of Sindh
in 1809. Sir Charles Napier provoked Amirs of Sindh to attack British. Now they had a
reason to make it the base of annexation.
Annexation of Punjab and NWFP
The British now turned to Punjab threatened by the increasing power of Ranjit Singh and
now to capture the trade route over Indus River and Khyber Pass. The Sikhs were worried
also and so they attacked on British controlled India in 1845, First Sikh War. Their main
army was destroyed. Finally in 1848-9 Second Sikh War, the Sikh army was destroyed and
so the British took over Punjab. The NWFP also came under British rule with Capture of
Punjab.
Why were the British able to conquer India?
o  The weakness of India: There was no uniting force in India. People of different
communities were not even involved in attempts to recover the Mughal Empire. Thus it can
be concluded: “A disintegrated society weakens the nation and ultimately it will lead to
enslave its own citizens to others”
o  The Strengths of British: Industrial Revolution in Britain resulted an advanced
technology in country. Superior Weapons. They saw, India in decline. It was an opportunity
for Trade and imposing British administration. They believed that they would succeed and
they are destined to rule large parts of world.
It can be seen weakness of India and Strengths of British resulted as end of rule of mighty
Mughals.
British Rule
o  1833 Charter Act, said that Indians would have greater say to run their
country/appointment in civil service. However, examinations were in London, so all the
officials employed were from England.
o  Historian remember this rule as ‘Drain of Wealth’. Income of country was used to buy
goods which were sent to England.
o  In start Govt. was less involved religion. However, later in 1829, suttee was banned.
1834, English was replaced with Persian. 1835, English was included in education.

Indian Exploitations: Historians say, 150 years after the ‘Battle of Plassey’. 1000 million
euros have been taken from India Subcontinent to England. This explains that poverty
existed and why famines in 1877, 78, 89, 92 killed 15 million peoples.
Doctrine of Lapse
Lord Dalhousie applied a new policy for the expansion of the British Empire, which was
called ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ in 1852. According to the doctrine the rulers of state were not
allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed many states like Oudh, Jhansi,
Behar, etc. through this doctrine. These annexations created a sense of insecurity among
the general public. They became suspicious of the British policies.
Events of the war
1857 Jan: New guns were announced. It was rumor that the new guns cartridge is greased
by fats of cow and ham. Which was resentment to both Muslims and Hindus
1857 March: Mangal Pandey defied his British officers, he was executed
1857 May: Sepoys in Meerut refused to touch the new rifle/guns. They were ‘court-
martialed’ and prisoned. But, fellow Sepoys broke into prison and rescued them. Meerut
was sacked and British officers put to death. Soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it.
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II became unifying symbol of uprising to gain help of both
Hindus and Muslims. War spread quickly and Kanpur, Jhansi, Allahabad and Lucknow were
captured.
1857 September: Dehli and Lucknow were regained, Bahadur Shah II was made to
surrender. But, his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar were brutally
killed and presented to him as lesson.
1858 June: Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai was killed (Dressed as man in Battle). His supporter
of great ability Tatya Topee (Indian General) escaped. However, he was later caught and
executed.
1858 Aug: War was officially declared over.
Causes
A.  Economic
1)   Low pay of sepoys.
2)   High tax
B.   Social
1)   Laws, clashing/not supporting religion
2)   Arrogance by British… considered Indian an inferior race
3)   Rumors about forced conversation to Christianity, resentment for Muslims
C.  Political
1.   English replaced Persian as National Language
2.   Disrespect of Mughals. Especially Dalhousie decision to move royal family from Fort of
Dehli to more obscure Qutub Sahib
3.   Doctrine of Lapse, by Dalhousie in 1852, was also resentment, even some of the
Indians stated that British were greedy land grabbers. Adding to this was seizure of Oudh in
1856
D.  Military
A)  New guns were announced. It was rumor that the new guns cartridge is greased by fats
of cow and ham. Which was resentment to both Muslims and Hindus
B)   Indian were not ready to leave ‘mother India’ and go to Afghanistan
C)  Indians were not able to reach higher post
D)  This was rumor that Indians will forced to turn into Christianity, another resentment and
cause of unrest.
Reasons for the failure
Lack of Unity: Indians were not united. Peoples of different places fought for different
objectives. There was no central leadership, although in common was resentment against
British rule.
         Some Indian Princes wanted to restore their power, which required British support.
This proves why ruler of Kashmir sent 2,000 troops to help British win
         Punjab and Sindh were conquered by troops of Bengal and Central Asia. On the
orders of British officers. So not surprisingly when the troops rebelled. Punjab was not
interested to support them!
British Strengths: British were too powerful. One of the most powerful nation that time.
They had highly skilled diplomats, effective machinery, highly trained, modern methods and
disciplined. So the strengths of British was major reason for failure of WAR.
Effects
The Failure of war proved that British were one in Power.

1858, Allahabad: ‘Proclamation of 1858’ bringing war to an end

The British claimed they would:
1) Not interfere in religious beliefs of peoples
2) Pay due regard to ancient property rights and customs
3) Abide all treaty obligations
4) Agree to no further territorial acquisition
5) Guarantee the right to appointment in Public Services
However, British were not paying attention to this later.
British Rule: EIC was demolished, a member of British Cabinet, Secretary of State of India
was given responsibility. However, direct responsibility was of Governor-General (known as
‘Viceroy’). With the help of 1000 ICS officers from Judges to low level officers. Despite
Proclamation till 1870 only one Indian was appointed in ICS. Princes who proved
themselves loyal were allowed to keep their throne, however, they had little or no power.
Bahadur Shah was imprisoned for life, and was sent to Burma. Queen Victoria was now
Empress of India so Loyal Family was formally replaced.
Muslims: Muslims were no longer trusted. Even, in army more Sikhs, and Hindus were
employed. British spared funds from Muslim Schools and Education, leaving them into
decline. It might have been their policy to keep them illiterate. Muslims suffered as result.
Hindus: Soon started learning English. They were getting educated in ‘English Type’
schools,
which soon got them their favor.
The Birth of Nationalist Ideas
British wanted to make sure it does not happen again, so the measures were tough now:

o
Indians were largely excluded and they had a very little say in running their country
o British ensured their benefits more than needs of their population
o  Ratio of Army British to Indian was decrease to 1:2 from 1:5 and employment from
trustless areas like Oudh was stopped

o 
Viceroy, ended all import duties on cotton so British Cotton was sold more easily than local
one!

1907, Bikhaji Rustom Cama participated in International Socialist Conference in Germany.

Where she made a fiery speech on how India has suffered the ‘terrible tynnaries of British
Rule’
Thirty-five million pounds have been annually taken away from
India without return. As a consequence people in India have died at a rate of half a million
every month
The lack of opportunities made wide-spread criticism in newspapers. Which resulted: To
ensure that such situation never happens
o Vernacular act 1858: strict control over newspapers
o Arms Act 1858: No Indian could own a weapon
In this Environment Nationalists ideas began to grow:
o 1866, Rajinarayan Bose founded a society for promotion of nationalist feelings
Educational Services: Believed that Muslims could not achieve this goal without education. He set
up a Persian school at Muradabad in 1859 (was upgraded to the college in 1875 and to university
level after his death). The educated Muslims of the early twentieth century were the product of this
institution.
Aligarh Movement: 1. To build confidence between the British and the Muslims.
2. To persuade the Muslims to get scientific knowledge and learn English language.
3. To hold back the Muslims from the collective politics.
Effects: His main focus was on Aligarh to achieve his goals. Established Mohammad an Anglo
Oriental School. It was a symbol of a broad movement affecting every phase of Muslim life. The
actions taken by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan for the educational uplift of the Muslims left a far-reaching
impact on the political, social, economic and religious aspects of the Muslims. The Aligarh
movement showed new ways to press and opened the doors of economic prosperity for the Muslims
of the sub-continent.
Urdu-Hindi Controversy: In 1867, Hindus demanded that Hindi should be made on official
language of India in place of Urdu. The Hindus were against Urdu because it was the language of the
Muslims.
Sir Syed felt sorry and he was now convinced that the Hindus would never be friend with the
Muslims.
The Real Founder of Pakistan Sir Syed Ahmed Khan saw the attitude of Hindus towards the
Muslims and felt sorry for it. He declared, “I am convinced now that Hindus and Muslims could
never become one nation.” Hindus and Muslims are two separate nations because their religion,
culture, history and way of life are quite distinct from each other. In this way we can say this great
hero and reformer, the real founder of Pakistan. Sir Syed passed away on 27 March 1898 but his
work was continued by Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. Due to the Sir Syed’s efforts the Muslims emerged
as a separate identity.
How did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan try to improve British-Muslim relations?
o Muslims were in poor condition without any jobs and were given harsh treatment.
o  He wrote the Loyal Mohammadens of India to highlight the work of those who kept loyal to
British
o He wrote the pamphlet, “The Causes of Indian Revolt,” which highlighted the wrong steps of
British and the causes of War.
o He wrote “Tabyan-ul-Kalam” in which he brought down the similarities between the two religions
in one place.
o  He gave message to Muslims that they should adopt good habits of British but discard their bad
ones and should cooperate with them to get benefits.
o He started a small movement in Aligarh.
o He was thus able to form the MAO College.
o  Through this movement he tried to educate Muslims about Science and English language so that
communication with British becomes easy.
o He tried to educate Muslims in the European Style.

Two Nation Theory

Introduction The Two Nation theory in its simplest way means the dissimilarities between the two
major communities, Hindus and Muslim of the Sub Continent. These differences of outlook, in fact,
were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible
for the partition of India into two independent states.
Religious Differences Islam preaches Tawheed (Oneness of Allah) Hinduism: based on the concept
of multiple Gods.
Hindu Nationalism: The Hindu nationalist leaders totally ignored the great contribution made by the
Muslims in the Indian. Their writings and ideas flared up the communal discord between Hindus and
Muslims to further pollute the political condition.
Cultural Differences Hindus burnt their dead bodies while Muslim burred them. Hindus considered
the ‘Mother Cow’ as a sacred animal and worshiped it while Muslims slaughtered it. They performed
‘Sati’ while Muslims abhorred this tradition.
Economic Differences After 1857, the Muslim economic was crushed: were thrown out of
Government services and their estates and properties were confiscated. Hindus were provided with
ample opportunities to progress economically.
Educational Differences Hindus had advanced in the educational field because they quickly and
readily took to the English education. While Muslims did not receive modern education which
heavily affected their economic conditions.
Hindi Urdu Controversy 1867
Congress Attitude Congress claimed to represent all communities of India but oppressed all Muslim
ideas and supported the Hindus.
Why was Urdu Chosen as National Language?
Strong link to religion: Quran was translated into Urdu by son of Shah Wali Ullah. Many
religious books were written in Urdu. And it was widely spoken by Muslims.
Rich literary background:
o Poetry: Amir Khusrau/ Mir/ Dard/ Ghalib/ Sauda
o Writers: Majaz/ Jazbi/ Hasrat Mohani
o Early 18th century: Allama Iqbal/ Nasir Ahmed/ M. Hussain Azad/ Mulana Altaf Husain
Hali
o Aligarh University: a Centre of Urdu study Writers support created unity among Muslims
about Urdu
Symbol of unity: Jinnah was keen to support Urdu and Sir Syed set up a society to support
Urdu.
Widely used: Not only it was widely used in Mughals Period, but also by the end of 13th
century it became a common language amongst Muslim Armies. It soon became common
in Muslim dominant provinces.
Struggle to independence: In 1906, when League formed it aimed to protect Urdu…
Especially after the ‘Urdu-Hindi controversy’. Another Problem was that after War of
Independence British were no longer supporting Urdu.
What was the Urdu-Hindi Controversy?
Hindu wanted Hindi to be the official language while Muslim wanted Urdu as the official
language. The Hindu started campaigns against Urdu. Muslims thought that Hindus are
trying to destroy their identity by trying to harm Urdu. Muslims wanted a separate homeland
because their language was in danger. Muslims were horrified when Hindi was made the
official alongside English and Urdu. Muslims could not let harm come to
Urdu which was very close to Persian and Arabic.
 Disadvantages of choosing Urdu:
o Important reason or East Pakistan turning into Bangladesh
o No-support by non-Muslims
o New to Pakistan
o Relationship between Hindus and Muslims suffered ‘Urdu-Hindi controversy’ Despite this
oppositions, Urdu survived and it was successful.
Promotion of Languages after Independence
In Subcontinent, history indicates every ruler who came promote his own language/mother
language. Like, Arabic and Turkish. However, Persian had the greatest impact. It was
mostly used in books and communications. Scholars and Poets adopted it. And soon it was
the official language in Delhi Court.
Urdu: Was started in north-west India, as interactions of Punjabi, Turkish and Persian
o Medium of education in many schools
o Medium of radio and television
o Widely read: books, magazines, newspapers, novels
o A dictionary of office terms
Punjabi:
o It is the main language of Punjab Province. It is statistically spoken more than Urdu.
(48%)
o  Hafiz Barkhurdar has been the first person around 1080 AD to use the language by this
name.
o Punjabi is written in the same script as Arabic.
o It has a vast literature containing very famous folk tales like HEER-RANJHA, SASI-PUNU
and SOHNI-MAHIWAL
o It is the man language of Sufi Poets especially famous music literature includes Bulley
Shah and Baba Farid Ganjshakar.
o Punjabi has been used in very famous dramas, short stories and novels in 20th Century.
o Books in wide variety of Academic Subject have been published in Punjabi.
o Punjabi has been used in the writing style of contemporary age.
o Punjabi films have been made and it is popular language in theatres and radio.
Balochi
o Quetta TV, Radio Programs
o Poets: Atta Shad and Ishaq Shamin
o Writers Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din
o This is the language spoken in Baluchistan province.
o Basically spread by Nomadic tribes from Iran and North West Areas.
o Balochi literature is small but rich in folk tales passed on word of tongue.
o Balochi literature at the earliest has been recorded as famous folk songs especially of
Jam Darang.
o Balochi has seen little development.
o Radio Pakistan Karachi broadcasts in Balochi.
o Balochi Literary Association was set up to publish magazines and Balochi literature.
o Balochi folk tales have been brought down in writing.
o Quetta Television Studio Broadcasts in Balochi.
Sindhi: From the 12th century, it’s in the same form it was. It was influenced by Arabs
(Arabic) and Turk (Persian) rulers. Before this it was written in ‘Marwari’ and ‘Arz Nagari’.
Some peoples can be thought as developers:
o Qazi Qazan
o Makhdum Nuh
Promotion:
o Sindhi Literary Board was set up and has printed many books and magazines since then.
o Several important books on Sindhi Folk Literature have been written.
o 1954, Bazm-e-Talim-ul-Muala.
o Sarmast Academy and Sindhiology Department at Sindh University Jamshoru to promote
this language.
o Poets: Sachal Sarmast/ Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai
Pashto
o  Pashto is the main language of Northern regions and most tribes of NWFP though with
different dialects.
o Its first book on Sufism is Khair-ul-Biyan.
o It has recorded famous poets like Amir Khan and Bayazaid Ansari.
o  Pashto literature achieved its peak in Mughal period and the songs developed the theme
of nationalism.
o  The British Rule Period is considered its Golden Age when very high quality writing was
produced during this time. Pashto literature played an important role in British Opposition to
achieve independence.
o Peshawar University was established. Academy to promote Pashto literature was set up.
o A widely accepted Pashto Dictionary was produced by Molvi Abdul Qadir leading the
Pashto Academy.
o Post-graduate class in Pashto literature have been established at University level at
NWFP.
The Indian National Congress
At the end of 19th century: both the British and Indian resized that Indians need a political
body.
1833: Indian Association suggested ….British member of the Parliament wrote for the
Times newspaper. That Indians really need a Political Body.
Allan Octavian Hume (former Indian Civil Service member) wrote letters to all graduates of
Calcutta University, calling them to take a lead in setting up a political body. Set up Indian
National Union with branches in different cities.
28 December 1883: first Indian Nation Union conference Bombay
 -Second Conference was held in Calcutta
 under the name of Indian National Congress … marked the beginning … of first Indian
Political Body
Second meeting of India National Congress in 1886
     436 delegates who were representatives of their province were now in the Congress.
     Aim: United Party and one for all to promote our welfare and the welfare of our mother
country.
By educating the public in India and in Britain. Its resolution was printed in newspapers and
a British Committee of the Congress formed.
By persuading the British to end unfair practices
Congress had little success: persuade British to introduce Indian Councils Act 1892
(increased the number of Indians in the council).
Unrest developed
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak made impassionate speeches calling for ‘freedom’ of Indian
peoples. 1897, he was imprisoned for writing a provocative newspaper article
During 1870s, many secret societies sprung up aimed at ridding India of British
1897, British officer along with companion were assassinated.
These activities forced British to take some measures/actions. One of them was Partition of
Bengal.
Partition of Bengal
Partition reasons:
1.   Bengal was a very large province geographically and population (54 million total: 42
million Hindus and 12 million Muslims in East Bengal 31 million in West Bengal).
2.   It was the demand of Muslims for they wanted a separate province.
3.   Muslims wanted to cut the power of Indian National Congress which had started
speaking against British agitating people.
4.   British claimed that Bengal was too large to govern as a single province.
Terms
East Bengal & Assam: Dhaka as its capital. The eastern province would include Assam
and three districts previously considered to be a part of West Bengal, Dhaka, Chittagong
and Mymensingh. It had a population of 31million people out of which 18 million were
Muslims.
West Bengal: Calcutta its capital. It had a population of 54million out of which 45million
were Hindus.
Reactions
The Muslims greatly welcomed the partition and felt jubilant over it because in the newly
created East province, they were in majority. On 22nd October 1905 a large number of
Muslims met at Dhaka & appreciated thanks giving prayers to celebrate the establishment
of the new province. Now at last the Muslims had true recognition – a province in which they
were in the majority. This would enable millions of Muslims to escape from the oppression
of Hindu rule.
The Hindus on the other hand reacted violently to the partition because they had been
holding a privilege position in the socio-economic life of Bengal till the partition took place.
They now believed that they lose their status & declared that the partition was an attempt to
weaken & divide Bengal and called it “Divide and rule” policy of British. The Hindus greatly
opposed this partition & started a movement generally known as “Swadeshi Movement” in
which they boycotted all English goods. Many Hindus observed he partition day as the day
of National mourning. Even the Indian national congress supported the Hindus.
British Reaction against Hindu’s Reaction
1) Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings
2) Press Act 1908 (even greater control)
3) Prisons filed with ‘revolutionaries’
But soon they realized that attempts to crush Hindus are not sufficient thus reforms showed
up (Morley-Minto Reforms)
Reversal of Partition
Since 1908 the Congress leaders had been spreading the story that the government was
thinking
of ‘Dividing their Mother India. The government stood firm on its decision, which had taken
in
1905, but this did not discourage Hindus. They launched a movement for boycott the British
goods. The Muslims were also asked to participate in it but they refused to do so. Their
refusal caused more agitation among the Hindus & led to Hindu-Muslim riots. Even there
was an assassination attempt from Hindus on the future Viceroy Lord-Minto. The Muslims
who were only relying on the assurance given to them by the British which was soon
disillusioned when in 1910,
Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, made a proposal for the
capital of British Indian Empire to be shifted to Delhi from Calcutta and suggested that
partition of Bengal should be reversed. Lord Harding the new Viceroy agreed to reverse the
partition of Bengal. King George V, who was visiting India, announced the decision at a
Durbar in Delhi.
Muslims Reaction to Reversal of Partition
The reversal of the partition was bitterly opposed by the Muslims, but the British were not to
be
moved. The Muslims now realized just how vital it was that the Muslim league prospered if
Muslim were to receive fair treatment in India. They now had lost all their hopes & created
feeling of distrust among the Muslims about British. The deep disappointment caused by
annulment of the Partition, however indirectly served to quicken the growth of the Muslim
politics. They became politically more conscious. They came to the decision that they could
not trust the British Government for the protection of their rights.
Muslims lost faith in British to allow them any real power. Muslims also realized that Minto-
Morley reforms did not provide Indians any genuine voice, which resulted as Poor relations
between British and Muslims.
Simla Deputation
Deputation of prominent Muslims led by Aga Khan visited Viceroy-Minto at Simla.
Requested: Muslims’ position should be estimated by their political importance not on their
numerical strength. Due to the fact that Muslims were major land owners, and the
percentage of Muslims in army was very high. Without separate electorate there would be a
communal violence.
in all local/provincial elections Muslims should have their own representatives, elected by
Muslims in the council Muslims should have higher percentage of seats than their
percentage in population
Secretary of state: John Morley thought it was undemocratic
Lord-Minto agreed on separate representation for Muslims
Background
Muslims watched Hindus reaction on partition of Bengal and decided something had to be
done to protect their identity. Furthermore, National Congress was dominated by Hindus
thus Muslims needed a base of their own as their voice for the British (Hindus could not be
trusted to favor Muslims). Muslims wanted to stand up and have some rights (They needed
to get some reforms and right of separate electorate to protect their interests, religion and
language).
Moreover, the new British government (Liberal Party) had stated that they would increase
local participation in the government through elections Muslims feared that soon they would
be under Hindu dominance.
Thus, they formed they had a meeting with Viceroy Minto in Simla on 8th.
Importance
Showed that attempts of Sir Syed and others to restore relations had been successful
Muslims community had decided to ensure secure place in the constitution. Hindu- Muslim
rivalry now existed in constitution as well
Muslims had come to the idea that they are different and they should be treated different
Perhaps the first step on the road leading to the formation of Pakistan
All-India Muslim League
Aims:
     ‘Counter growing influence of Congress’
     Ensure Muslim’s views are presented to British
     To protect and advance Muslims’ political rights and interests
     Promote loyalty for British government
     To remove any misunderstanding amongst Muslims
     To prevent the rise of hostility in Muslims towards other communities
Causes:
A)   Hindu Urdu Controversy: In 1898 INC demanded that India should be treated as
cultural whole & Hindi should be declared as the official language of India. Some Muslim
leaders launched a movement against these actions of INC but no result.
B)    Behavior of different Hindu Organization: Hindu extremist group “ARYA SAMAJ”
demanded that Muslims should be forcibly converted into Hinduism.
C)   Hindu Muslim riots: The frequent and never ending riots between Hindus and Muslims
further strengthened the formation of separate political party for the Muslims. These riots
generated the spirit on Muslims Nationalism among the Indian Muslims.
D)   Reaction of the Hindus to the Partition of Bengal: The negative reaction of the
Hindus when the government declared the partition of Bengal in 1905 further convinced the
Muslims to establish their own separate political organizations.
E)    Simla Deputation (1906): Lord Minto became a Viceroy of India in 1906 & it was felt
that some constitution reforms would be introduced in India. Lord Minto was vacationing at
Simla where a delegation of Muslims leaders led by Sir Aga Khan met him in 1906. The
deputation demanded the seats in the legislatures, quota in government services & seats in
courts for the Muslims. They also demanded for separate electorate for the Muslims. Minto
accepted most of the demands & it was a great success for the Muslims. After the
acceptance of demands from Lord Minto, now Muslims of India realized that it’s high time to
organize a political party, which can protect the rights of Muslims in India.
Formation:
1906 at 20th session of the Muhammaden Educational Conference at Dhaka. It was chaired
by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk.
Morley Minto Reforms, 1909
Also known as the Indian Council Acts. Minto and Morley both believed that Indians’
demand is fully justified. Basically it increased representation of Hindus and Muslims in
different councils.
Reforms:
o Imperial Council increased to 60 members (non-official)
o Central Executive Council increased to 60 members (could discuss/advise government o
Provincial Council increased to 50 members in large province and 30 in small province o 
Muslims would be elected by separate electorates
Importance:
o appeared to give Indians more say, but they had no power, just an advisory role was
given
o British did not wanted to that locals have power to change law
o Imp: acceptance of separate electorates, it was major demands of Muslims
o Hindus believed that it was undemocratic
India Before First-World-War
1912-13: The British supported the Balkan states fighting against Turkey (who was a major
Islamic state). It showed up as a further example that how British had no interest in
supporting Muslims’ rights.
League’s resolution: now demanded for ‘a form of self-government
During this period War Improved League-Congress relations
The war years in India 1914-1918
War broke out in Europe in August 1914…resulting in mix views in India.
The supporters: British admitted ‘the war could have been longer and even not have been
won, without the Indian support. Many politicians/ people supported; desired to be rewarded
by reforms to give larger role in government for loyalty.
The opportunist: they saw British ‘necessity’ as India’s ‘opportunity’. ‘Anti-British group’
began to take action.
1913: Lala Hardayal (who was exile in America) set up a Mutiny Party. Sent arms to India
and arranged armed opposition. However, the supporters were betrayed and killed in a
battle with Indian police 1915 Sep.
1915: planned uprising by Indian ‘nationalists’ in Punjab…easily put down by British
A mutiny by Indian troops serving in the British army in Singapore was crushed.
‘Silk Letter Conspiracy’ in which anti-British Muslims proposed a general uprising by the
Muslims to free themselves from British rule… also went unsuccessful.
As a result of discontent within India British were forced to pass the Defense of India Act
(gave British extraordinary powers to deal with unrest. Hundreds were exiled or imprisoned
without proper trail.
The Lucknow Pact, 1916
Background
The failure of The British was to grant more rights moved Congress and League together.
1915: On the persuasion of Jinnah. The two organizations held meeting at Bombay. At the
same point a joint council was set up to improve common understanding
British realized they needed to take steps to face not serious political unrest and at the
same time they were fighting against Germany and its allies.
So in 1916 Oct: British let it be known that they were considering a group of proposal that
will lead to:
1.   At least half of the Executive Council members being elected
2.   Legislative Council having a majority of elected members
Both League and Congress agreed, which brought them further close together
Joint Demands
1916: annual session at city Lucknow. Jinnah represented Muslim League and Mahajan
represented Congress.   The Lucknow Pact was drown up. It showed that Congress is
ready to make concessions:
1.   Muslims had the right for separate electorates (for Imperial/ Provincial Legislative
Councils)
2.   Muslims would have 1/3 seats in the Councils (they represented ¼)
3.   No Act would be passed unless ¾ of that community’s member in the Council supported
Joined demands:
1.   Number of elected seats of the Council should be increased
2.   All provinces should have autonomy
3.   Minorities should be protected
4.   Motions which were passed by large minorities in the Councils should be accepted as
binding by the British government
Importance
It marked the first acceptance by the Hindus that a degree of partition would be necessary
The first Agreement between Congress and Muslim League
Sowed that Muslims; have acknowledged they stood more chance if worked with Congress
Marked a high-water marked on Hindu-Muslim unity
Possibility of self-government was now seen
During 1917: two Home Rule Leagues campaigned across India. One led by Tilak and the
other by Annie Besant (English woman).
It established Jinnah as the focal point for this agreement and showed his great political
abilities. It was done because the Muslim League felt that they needed the support of
Congress in its early years. Because they thought they could pressurize British together in
accepting their demands.
The Montague Chelmsford Reforms, 1919
Background and Proposal
November 1917: Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford, and Secretary of state, Lord Montague
carried out a fact finding tour of India. So in, July 1919: Montague-Chelmsford Report or
Mont- ford Report proposed:
1.   Legislative Council will be known as Legislative Assembly
2.   Legislative Assembly would have 145 members from which 103 would be elected for 3
years
3.   Legislative Assembly would hold separate electorate for Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs
4.   The Council of State would have 60 members; 33 would be elected
5.   A Council of Princes 180 member, no power a ‘talking shop’
6.   Role of central administration was further restricted by the power of Viceroy who could
pass any law if he felt it was necessary for India’s safety. Executive Council was made for
only nominated members ( though 3 were now to be Indians)
7.   Extended voting rights? Only 2% could vote
Diarchy System
This system was introduced in Provinces
 Reversed Subjects                                 Transferred Subjects
     Police                                                                           Education
     Revenue                                                                      Public Health
     Power Resources                                                        Public Works
     Press/ Publications                                                     Forests
Transferred Subjects?
Ministers chosen by Legislative Councils by Viceroy himself. Viceroy may also dismiss the
provincial Legislative Council. British maintained their grip of power by ensuring Viceroy
have authority.
Indian Reaction:
They were bitterly disappointed … because the outcome was not the much the expected
unexpected outcome! 
Rowlatt Act, 1919- ‘Prison without trial’
Background
This act was passed when the protest over the Mont-Ford reforms started and other
minorities began to demand separate electorate. In December 1917, a committee was
formed under Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary activity in India.
1919: The British had offered concessions in Montague Chelmsford Reforms, which they
hoped would win the support of the Indian people. However, they had every intention of
taking strong and effective action against any element in India, which opposed British rule.
Proposed
Report on April 1918. The Defense of India Act was passed allowing:
1.   Arrest without warrant
2.   Detention without bail
3.   Provincial government ordering people where to live.
Reaction:
M.A Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest
Gandhi called strikes against the proposals.
Amritsar Massacre
Strikes/ demonstrations caused British to forbid public meeting … the unrest continued…
10 April: two banks were attacked in the city of Amritsar. 5 Europeans were killed.
General Dyer: the British commander was determined to restore order. Banned all public
meetings.
Amritsar Massacre: A crowd of about 20,000 in number turned up for a peaceful protest at
Jilianwalah Bagh. The park surrounded by 5 foot wall with narrow entrance.
But the troops of Dayer, without warning shot 1600 rounds killing about 400 people and
making
1200 injured. It made sure that people of Punjab understood they should obey Dyer.