First Edition

Hamidah, Mohd Yuzha, Rahayu

JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

POLITEKNIK SULTAN MIZAN ZAINAL ABIDIN
 Fluid Mechanics
First Edition 2017
Second Edition 2018
Third Edition 2020
ISBN: 978-967-2099-00-0

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics

First Edition 2021
eISBN: 978-967-2099-60-4

Editor: Hamidah Zakaria, Mohd Yuzha Usoff, Rahayu Mhd Adnan

Cover Designer: Hamidah Zakaria

©Hamidah Zakaria, Mohd Yuzha Usoff, Rahayu Mhd Adnan

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in form or by
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Published by;
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam,
Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin,
KM 08, Jalan Paka, 23000 Dungun, Terengganu.
Tel: 09-8400 800 Fax: 09-8458 781
Email: webmaster@[Link]
 eISBN 978-967-2099-60-4

Hamidah Binti Zakaria

Mohd Yuzha Bin Usoff
Rahayu Binti Mhd Adnan

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam,

Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin
Dungun, Terengganu
2021
Alhamdulillah, we are grateful to Allah The Almighty for his help that enabled us to complete
the compilation of this book.
At a glance, the list of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics textbooks is unlimited. But, it turns out
that the need for a book that emphasizes the field of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics from the
aspect of Civil Engineering is very limited. By compiling of this book, it is intended to increase
the number of existing Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics books.
This book is written based on the curriculum as well as compilation of lecture notes by
polytechnic lecturers for the Diploma in Civil Engineering. This content covers a basic
background on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. It is also suitable as reference and exercise for
students and individuals who involved in the field of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. Each
chapter contains examples of problem solving as enhancement to increase students'
understanding in the field. In this book also included a list of bibliographies at the end of the
book for reference.
Furthermore, we would like to thank our colleagues in the Department of Civil Engineering,
Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Polytechnic who gave a lot of encouragement, support and
contributions in preparing this book until it was published.
May Allah The Almighty bless this effort and reward all the good that has been given in the
process of preparing and compiling this book.

ii
 PREFACE ii
CONTENTS iii - iv

1. FLUID CHARACTERISTICS 1-1 – 1-8

1.1 Fluids Mechanics
1.1.1 Definition of Fluids
1.1.2 Difference between Liquid and Gas
1.1.3 Fluid Properties
1.2 Viscosity in Fluid Flows
1.2.1 Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)
1.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity
1.2.3 Type of Fluids
2. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 2-1 – 2-15
2.1 Pressure
2.1.1 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
2.2 Absolute Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and Atmospheric Pressure
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.1 Barometer
2.3.2 Piezometer
2.3.3 U-tube Manometer
2.4 Differential Manometer
2.4.1 U-Tube Differential Manometer
2.4.2 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer
3. HYDRODYNAMICS 3-1 – 3-6
3.1 Types of Fluid Flows
3.2 Reynolds Number
3.2.1 Characteristics Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and Transition Flow
4. FLOW MEASUREMENT AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 4-1 – 4-22
4.1 Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q)
4.1.1 The Continuity Equation
4.2 Energy of a Liquid
4.2.1 Total Head of a Liquid
4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation
4.4 Venturi Meter
4.4.1 Discharge through a Venturi Meter
4.4.2 Value of ‘h’ Given by Differential U-Tube Manometer
4.5 Orifices
4.5.1 Jet of Water
4.5.2 Vena Contracta
4.5.3 Hydraulic Coefficients
4.5.4 Discharge Through a Small Orifice
4.5.5 Discharge Through Large Orifices
5. FLUID FLOW 5-1 – 5-21
5.1 Energy Losses
5.1.1 Major Loses and Minor Loses in Pipe System
5.1.2 Minor Energy Losses in Pipes

iii
 5.2 Darcy - Weisbach Equation
5.3 Hagen Poisseulle’s Equation
5.4 Using the Moody Diagram
5.5 Flow Through Pipes in Series
5.6 Flow Through Pipes in Paralel
6. MOMENTUM EQUATION 6-1 – 6-18
6.1 Momentum
6.1.1 Newton’s Second Law
6.1.2 Newton’s Third Law
6.2 Impact of Jet
6.2.1 Forces on Stationary Flat Plate
6.2.2 Force Exerted When a Jet Deflected by a Moving Flat Plate
6.2.3 Force on Curved Plate
6.2.4 Force Exerted When a Jet Deflected by a Moving Flat Plate
6.2.5 Force Exerted on Pipe Bends and Closed Conduits
7. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACE 7-1 – 7-19
7.1 Hydrostatic Force
7.1.1 Centroid and Centre of Pressure
7.2 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Plane Surface
7.2.1 Horizontal Plane Surface
7.2.2 Vertical Plane Surface
7.2.3 Inclined Plane Surface
7.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Force On Submerged Curved Surfaces
7.4 Pressure Diagram for the Hydrostatic Structure
8. BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION 8-1 – 8-14
8.1 Archimedes’ Principle
8.2 Stability
8.2.1 Stability of Immersed Bodies
8.2.2 Condition of Equilibrium of Immersed Bodies
8.2.3 Stability of Floating Bodies
8.2.4 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating Bodies
8.3 Meta Centric
8.3.1 Meta Centric Height
8.3.2 Analytical Method for Meta Centre Height

iv
 FLUID CHARACTERISTICS
1.1 Fluids Mechanics

Fluid mechanics it is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics).
Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids.

1.1.1 Definition of Fluids

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, however, small
the shear stress. A fluid may be either a liquid or a gas.

1.1.2 Difference between Liquid and Gas

Liquid
•A given of a liquid has a definite volume independent of the size
and shape of the container.
•A free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater
than that of the liquid.
•Liquids can be regarded as incompressible.
•Properties do not get affected due to change in temperature.

Gas
•A given mass of gas has no fixed volume.
•No free surface is formed.
•Gases are readily compressible.
•Properties get affected due to change in temperature.

1.1.3 Fluid Properties

Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid are called
basic properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed below.

a. Density or Mass Density, 

•Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to
its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. The unit of
mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre (kg/m3).

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
 = =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽

1-1
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

b. Specific Weight or Weight Density, 

•Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weights of a
fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight
density. The unit of specific weight in SI unit is N per cubic metre (N/m3).

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑾 𝒎𝒈
 = = = = 𝝆𝒈
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽 𝑽

c. Specific Gravity (Relative Density), s

•Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a
fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid.

𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆

𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = = =
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘

d. Specific Volume, Vs
•Specific Volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit
mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume.

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒔 = = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
=
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

EXAMPLE 1.1
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of 1 L of a liquid which weight 7 N.

Solution
Given; W = 7 N, V = 1 L - 1 x 10-3 m3

Specific weight:

𝜔 = 𝑊 ⁄𝑉
7
=
(1 𝑥 10−3 )
= 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟑

Density:

𝜌 = 𝜔 ⁄𝑔
7000
=
9.81
= 𝟕𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Specific gravity:

𝑠 = 𝜌⁄𝜌𝑤
713.558
=
1000
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒

1-2
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

EXAMPLE 1.2
Calculate density, specific weight and weight of 2.5 L of petrol of specific gravity is 0.7.

Solution
Given; V = 2.5 L - 2 x 10-3 m3, s = 0.7

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.7 𝑥 1000
= 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Specific weight:

𝜔=𝜌𝑥𝑔
= 700 𝑥 9.81
= 𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝑵/𝒎𝟑

Weight:

𝑊 =𝜔𝑥𝑉
= 6867 𝑥 (2.5 𝑥 10−3 )
= 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏𝟔𝟖 𝑵
EXAMPLE 1.3
A container of volume 3.0 m3 has 25.5 kN of an oil. Calculate specific weight, density and specific
gravity.

Solution
Given; V = 3.0 m3, W = 25.5 kN - 25.5 x 103 N

Specific weight:

𝜔 = 𝑊 ⁄𝑉
(25.5 𝑥 103 )
=
3.0
= 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟑

Density:

𝜌 = 𝜔 ⁄𝑔
8500
=
9.81
= 𝟖𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟔𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Specific gravity:

𝑠 = 𝜌⁄𝜌𝑤
866.463
=
1000
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
EXAMPLE 1.4
Mass of a liquid is 56.55 kg and 3300 L respectively. Determine weight, density and specific
volume.

1-3
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

Solution
Given; m = 56.55 kg, V = 3300 L - 3300 x 10-3 m3

Weight:

𝑊 =𝑚𝑥𝑔
= 56.55 𝑥 9.81
= 𝟓𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟔 𝑵

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑚 ⁄𝑉
56.55
=
(3300 𝑥 10−3 )
= 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Specific volume:

𝑉𝑠 = 1⁄𝜌
1
=
17.136
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈
EXAMPLE 1.5
1 L of crude oil weight 15.5 N. Calculate its specific weight, density, specific gravity and specific
volume.

Solution
Given; V = 1 L - 1 x 10-3 m3, W = 15.5 N

Specific weight:

𝜔 = 𝑊 ⁄𝑉
15.5
=
(1 𝑥 10−3 )
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟑

Density:

𝜌 = 𝜔 ⁄𝑔
15500
=
9.81
= 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Specific gravity:

𝑠 = 𝜌⁄𝜌𝑤
1580.02
=
1000
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟎

Specific volume:

𝑉𝑠 = 1⁄𝜌
1
=
1580.02
= 𝟔. 𝟑𝟐𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈

1-4
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

1.2 Viscosity in Fluid Flows

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It determines the fluid strain rate that is
generated by a given applied shear stress.

1.2.1 Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)

Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance.
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal
plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.

The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like:

𝒅𝒄
𝝉= 𝝁
𝒅𝒚

Where: τ = Shearing stress (Ns/m2)

 = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

1.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity and density of liquid.
𝝁
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝝑 =
𝝆
Where:  = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
 = Density of liquid (kg/m3)

1.2.3 Type of Fluids

The fluid may be classified into the following five types:

a. Ideal fluid
b. Real fluid
c. Newtonian fluids
d. Non-Newtonian fluids
e. Idea plastic fluid

Figure 1.1: Types of fluids

1-5
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

Ideal Fluid This fluid is incompressible and possesses no viscosity. Such a fluid
is only an imaginary fluid. All existing fluids have some viscosity.

Real Fluid A fluid that possesses viscosity is known as a real fluid. In actual
practice, all fluids are real fluids.

Newtonian Fluid A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is called Newtonian fluid.

Non-Newtonian
Fluids A real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate
of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is called non-newtonian fluid.

A real fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and the
Ideal Plastic Fluid shear stress is propertional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient) is called ideal plastic fluid.

1-6
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

EXERCISE 1
1. If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, find its specific weight, density, and relative density.
(Ans: 7833.333 N/m3, 798.505 kg/m3, 0.799)

2. 1 L crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density, and relative density.
(Ans: 9600 N/m3, 978.593 kg/m3, 0.979)

3. A liquid has a volume of 7.5 m3 and weight of 53 kN. Calculate:

i. The specific weight
ii. The density
iii. The specific gravity
iv. The specific volume
(Ans: 7066.667 N/m3, 720.353 kg/m3, 0.72, 1.388 x 10-3 m3/kg)

4. A drum of 1 m3 volume contains 8.5 kN an oil when full. Find the specific weight and specific
gravity.
(Ans: 8500 N/m3, 0.866)

5. If 4.8 m3 of oil weighs 30 kN, find its density and relative density.
(Ans: 637.105 kg/m3, 0.637)

6. Find the specific gravity of an oil whose specific weight is 7.85 kN/m3.
(Ans: 0.80)

7. A vessel of 4 m3 volume contains an oil, which weighs 30.2 kN. Determine the specific gravity
of the oil.
(Ans: 0.77)

8. If 550 L of certain oil has a mass of 8600 g, find its density.

(Ans: 15.636 kg/m3)

9. At 30oC, the kinematics viscosity and the specific weight of a fluid are 2.25 x 10-5 m2/s and
8.27 kN/m3 respectively. Calculate the:
i. Density (𝜌)
ii. Dynamic viscosity (𝜇)
iii. Specific gravity (𝑠)

(Ans: 843.017 kg/m3, 0.019 N/m3, 0.843)

10. A fluid of 5000 kg filled an open cylinder container with 150 cm diameter and 300 cm height.
Calculate the density of fluid and specific weight.
(Ans: 943.218 kg/m3, 9252.969 N/m3)

11. A fluid with a mass of 7500 kg filled an open cylinder container with 200 cm diameter and
300 cm height. Calculate the:
i. Density of the fluid
ii. Specific weight
iii. Specific volume
(Ans: 795.756 kg/m3, 7806.366 N/m2, 1.257 x 10-3 m3/ kg)

12. From an experiment, the weight of 1.5 m3 of a liquid was found to be 7500 N. Calculate the:
i. Specific weight of the liquid
ii. Density of the liquid
(Ans: 5000 N/m3, 509.684 kg/m3)

1-7
 Chapter 1 | Fluids Characteristics

13. A storage vessel for gasoline (sg. gr = 0.86) is a vertical cube (2.5 m x 2.5 m). If it is filled to
1.5 m depth, calculate the mass and weight of the gasoline.
(Ans: 8062.5 kg, 79093.125 N)

14. If 2.5 m3 of certain oil has a mass of 2500 kg, find its mass density.
(Ans: 1000 kg/m3)

15. The specific gravity of a liquid, having specific weight of 7360 N/m3?
(Ans: 0.75)

16. 8540 N fluid completely fills into a rectangular container. The container has a length of
110 cm, width of 80 cm and height of 150 cm. Calculate the fluids:
i. Mass
ii. Density
iii. Specific Weight
iv. Specific Gravity
(Ans: 870.54 kg, 659.5 kg/m3, 6469.697 N/m3, 0.66)

17. Mass of a liquid is 4000 kg and 3.2 m3 respectively. Determine:

i. Weight
ii. Density
iii. Specific Gravity
iv. Specific Weight
(Ans: 39240 N, 1250 kg/m3, 1.25, 12262.5 N/m3)

18. Mass of a liquid is 4500 kg and 3200 L respectively. Determine:

i. Weight
ii. Density
iii. Specific Weight
(Ans: 44145 N, 1406.25 kg/m3, 13795.313 N/m3)

19. The mass of a fluid of volume 0.25 m3 is 450.5 kg. Calculate the specific weight and the
specific gravity of the fluid.
(Ans: 1802 N/m3, 17677.62 N/m3, 1.802)

20. At certain temperature, the kinematics viscosity and the specific weight of a fluid are
3.26 x 10-5 m2/s and 9.47 kN/m3 respectively. Calculate the density, dynamic viscosity and
the specific gravity of the fluid.

(Ans: 965.341 kg/m3, 0.031 N/m.s, 0.965)

1-8
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
2.1 Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Units of pressure are N/m 2,
which is called a Pascal (Pa). It is denoted by P and is given by:

𝐅
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑷 =
𝐀

Where: F = Force (N)

A = Area (m2)

2.1.1 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Pressure at any point in a fluid is directly proportional to the density if the fluid and of the depth
in the fluid.

Consider a cubic containing some fluid as shown in figure 2.1. We know that the liquid will exert
pressure on all sides as well as bottom of the vessel. The pressure from the weight of a column of
liquid of area A and height h is:

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑊
=
𝐴
𝑚𝑔  𝑉𝑔
= =
𝐴 𝐴
𝑔𝐴ℎ
= = 𝒈𝒉
𝐴
𝑷 =  𝒈𝒉
Figure 2.1: Fluid Pressure

Where:  = Density of fluid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h = Height or depth of fluid (m)

EXAMPLE 2.1
Find the pressure at a point 4 m below the free surface of water.

Solution
Given; h = 4 m

Pressure:

𝑃=𝜌𝑥𝑔𝑥ℎ
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4
= 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

2-1
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

EXAMPLE 2.2
The gauge pressure in water mains is 50 kN/m2, what is the pressure head?

Solution
Given; P = 50 kN/m2 - 50 x 103 N/m2

Pressure head:

𝑃 =𝜌𝑥𝑔𝑥ℎ
𝑃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔
50 𝑥 103
=
(1000 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟓. 𝟎𝟗𝟕 𝒎
EXAMPLE 2.3
A steel plate is immersed in an oil of specific weight 7.5 kN/m3 up to a depth of 2.5 m. What is the
intensity of pressure on the plate due to the oil?

Solution
Given;  = 7.5 kN/m3 - 7.5 x 103 N/m3, h = 2.5 m

Pressure:

𝑃=𝜔𝑥ℎ
= (7.5 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 2.5
= 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.4
Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 m of:
i. Water
ii. Oil of sp. gr. 0.8
iii. Mercury of sp. gr. 13.6

Solution
Given; h = 0.3 m

i. For water; ρw = 1000 kg/m3

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑤
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

ii. For oil; so = 0.8

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑜
= 800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟒. 𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

iii. For mercury; sm = 13.6

𝜌𝑚 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

2-2
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑚
= 13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒. 𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.5
An open tank contains water up to a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of specific gravity 0.9 for a
depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity:
i. At the interface of the two liquid
ii. At the bottom of the tank.

Solution

Given; hw = 2 m, ho = 1 m, s = 0.9

i. At the interface of the two liquids:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑜
= 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.0
= 𝟖𝟖𝟐𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

ii. At the bottom of the tank:

𝑃 = (𝜌𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑜 ) + (𝜌𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑤 )
= 8829 + (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.0)
= 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟒𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

2.2 Absolute Pressure (Pabs), Gauge Pressure (Pg), and Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, if pressure is
measured above absolute zero (vacuum), it is called absolute pressure and other system, if
pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure, it is called positive gauge pressure. If
pressure is measured below atmospheric pressure, it is called negative gauge pressure.

Figure 2.2: Relationship between absolute pressure,

gauge pressure, and atmospheric pressure

2-3
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown:

i. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈

ii. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure − Vacuum pressure

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄

Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Gauge

( Patm ) Pressure, ( Pabs ) Pressure, ( Pg )
•It is also called as •It is pressure •This pressure,
barometric pressure which is atmospheric
because atmospheric measured with pressure is
pressure is measured by reference to consider zero,
a barometer. The absolute and this
atmospheric pressure at independent of pressure is
sea level is called the change in above
standard atmospheric atmospheric atmospheric
pressure. Standard pressure. It is pressure it's
atmospheric pressure measured above measured by
101.3 kN/m2 = 10.3 m of the absolute zero pressure
water = 760 mm of Hg. of pressure. gauge.

EXAMPLE 2.6
What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a
liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of
mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m3.

Solution
Given; h = 3 m, ρ = 1.53 x 103 kg/m3, hm = 750 mm - 0.75 m, sm = 13.6, ρw = 1000 kg/m3

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Gauge pressure:

𝑃𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ
= (1.53 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3
= 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟕. 𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Absolute pressure:

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑚
= 13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.75
= 100062 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔
= 100062 + 45027.9
= 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟗. 𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

EXAMPLE 2.7
Determine the gauge and absolute pressure at a point which 12 m below the free surface of water.
Take atmospheric pressure as 101.3 kN/m3.

Solution
Given; h = 12 m, Patm = 101.3 kN/m2 - 101.3 x 103 N/m2

Gauge pressure:

𝑃𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑤
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 12
= 117720 𝑁/𝑚2

Absolute pressure:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔
= (101.3 𝑥 103 ) + 117720
= 𝟐𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

2.3 Measurement of Pressure

The pressure of fluid is measured by:

Barometer Piezometer U-tube manometer

2.3.1 Barometer

A barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric or barometer pressure. A simple

barometer consists of an inverted glass tube filled with mercury with its open end submerged in a
mercury container.

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

Figure 2.3: Barometer

2-5
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

2.3.2 Piezometer

Piezometer tube is the simplest of the pressure measuring devices and consists of a vertical tube.
In its application one end is connected to the pressure to be measured while the other end is open
to the atmosphere as shown figure 2.4. Fluid pressure at A is PA given by:

𝑷𝑨 = 𝝆 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒉

Figure 2.4: Piezometer

2.3.3 U-tube Manometer

It consists of a U–shaped bend whose one end is attached to the gauge point ‘A’ and other end is
open to the atmosphere. It can measure both positive and negative pressures.
Choosing the line CD as the interface between the
measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2

Equating the two pressure:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷, 𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 Figure 2.5: U-tube
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 0 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 manometer
𝑷𝑨 = 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 − 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏
EXAMPLE 2.8
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere
while the left is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe
is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the
difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.

Solution
Given; s = 0.9, h1 = 20 − 12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m, h2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m

Density:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

The pressure of fluid in the pipe:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2
𝑃𝐴 + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.08) = 0 + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.2)
𝑃𝐴 + 706.32 = 26683.2
𝑃𝐴 = 26683.2 − 706.32
= 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟕𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.9
A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid specific
gravity 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs
is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.

Solution
Given; s = 0.8, h1 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, h2 = 40 cm - 0.4 m

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The pressure of fluid in the pipe:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝐴 + (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15) + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.4) = 0
𝑃𝐴 + 1177.2 + 53366.4 = 0
𝑃𝐴 + 54543.6 = 0
= −𝟓𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟑. 𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

2.4 Differential Manometer

Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a
pipe or in two different containers. There are two types of differential manometers:

U-tube differential Inverted U-tube differential

manometer manometer

2.4.1 U-Tube Differential Manometer

It consists of a u-tube, containing a heavy liquid. The two ends are connected to two different
points whose pressure difference is to be measured. Figure 2.6 shows a U-tube differential

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

manometer connected to the two points A and B. Consider the differential manometer shown in
figure 2.6 whose measuring points A and B are at different levels.

Choosing the line CD as the interface between the

measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3

Equating the two pressure:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷, 𝑃𝐷
Figure 2.6: U-tube differential
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
manometer
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝟑 𝒈𝒉𝟑 − 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏

EXAMPLE 2.10
A differential manometer, when connected to two pipes A and B, gives the readings as shown in
figure. Determine the pressure (kN/m2) in the tube A, if the pressure in the pipe B be 55 kN/m2.

Solution
Given; PB = 55 kN/m2 - 55 x 103 N/m2

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.85 𝑥 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.90 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌3 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The pressure (kN/m2) in the tube A:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 + (850 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 6.5) = (55 𝑥 103 ) + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.25) + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5)
𝑃𝐴 + 54200.25 = (55 𝑥 103 ) + 11036.25 + 66708
𝑃𝐴 = 132744.25 − 54200.25
= 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ≈ 𝟕𝟖. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.11
A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B of two pipes as shown in figure. The
pipe A contains a liquid of specific gravity is 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of specific gravity is
0.9. The pressure at A and B are 98.1 kN/m2 and 176.58 kN/m2 respectively. Find the difference
in mercury level in the differential manometer.

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

Solution
Given; s1 = 1.5, s2 = 0.9, PA = 98.1 kN/m2 - 98.1 x 103 N/m2, PB = 176.58 kN/m2 - 176.58 x 103 N/m3

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 1.5 𝑥 1000 = 1500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌3 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.90 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The difference in mercury level in the differential manometer:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 + (1500 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 5) + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (ℎ)) = 𝑃𝐵 + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (2 + ℎ))
(98.1 𝑥 103 ) + 73575 + 133416ℎ = (176.58 𝑥 103 ) + 17658 + 8829ℎ
133416ℎ − 8829ℎ = 194238 − 171675
124587ℎ = 22563
22563
ℎ =
124587
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝒎

2.4.2 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer

It consists of an inverter U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected
to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference
of low pressures. Figure 2.7 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the
two points A and B.

Consider the inverter U-tube differential manometer shown in figure 2.7 whose measuring points
A and B are at different levels.

Choosing the line CD as the interface between

the measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3

Equating the two pressure:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷, 𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 Figure 2.7: Inverted U-tube
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏 − 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 − 𝝆𝟑 𝒈𝒉𝟑 differential manometer

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

EXAMPLE 2.12
In below figure shows an inverted differential manometer connected to two pipes A and B
containing water. Find the differential of pressure between pipes A and B.

Solution

Density:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The differential of pressure between

pipes A and B:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 − (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2) = 𝑃𝐵 − (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) − (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5)
𝑃𝐴 − 19620 = 𝑃𝐵 − 9810 − 3924
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −13734 + 19620
= 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

2 - 10
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

EXERCISE 2
1. Calculate the pressure in N/m2 at 1.2 m depth from the surface of a liquid with a specific
gravity of 0.8.
(Ans: 9417.6 N/m2)

2. Determine the pressure in Pg at a depth of 6 m below the free surface of a body of water.
(Ans: 58860 N/m2)

3. Refer to question 2, calculate the absolute pressure, when the barometer reads 760 mm of
mercury.
(Ans: 160256.16 N/m2)

4. Determine the pressure at a depth of 10 m in oil relative density 0.75.

(Ans: 73575 N/m2)

5. A cylinder contains liquid which has gauge pressure of 165 kN/m2. Define the pressure in
terms of head of oil (sp. gr = 0.9), mercury and water.
(Ans: 18.688 m, 1.237 m, 16.820 m)

6. An object is located at a depth of 2 m from the surface of an oil with specific weight of
8.0 kN/m3. Calculate:
i. Intensity of pressure at the point.
ii. The height of water column corresponding to the value of pressure.
(Ans: 16000 N/m2, 1.631 m)

7. Using figure 1, calculate the pressure at point A.

(Ans: 29282.85 N/m2)

Figure 1

8. Figure 2, shown a pressure system. Liquid M has specific gravity as 1.20 and with liquid N
has specific gravity as 0.86. If the distance h1 = 150 mm and h2 = 350 mm. Calculated the
pressure in the pipe P.
(Ans: 4718.61 N/m2)

Figure 2

2 - 11
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

9. Figure 3, shown a pressure system. Liquid M has specific gravity as 1.20 liquid N has specific
gravity as 0.86 liquid L is mercury. If the distance h1 = 150 mm, h2 = 300 mm and
h3 = 350 mm. Calculated the pressure in the pipe P.
(Ans: 42879.51 N/m2)

Figure 3

10. The left limb of a U-tube mercury manometer shown in figure 4 connected to a pipeline
conveying water, with the level of mercury in the left limb being 55 cm below the centre of
the pipeline and right limb being open to atmosphere. The level of mercury in the right limb
is 45 cm above that of the left limb containing a liquid of specific gravity 0.87 to a height
35 cm. Find the pressure in the pipe.
(Ans: 57628.845 N/m2)

Figure 4

11. A U-tube differential manometer shown in figure 5 connects pipe A and B. Pipe A contains a
liquid of specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of 10.3 x 104 N/m2 and pipe B contains oil of
specific gravity 0.8 under a pressure 17.16 x 104 N/m2. Pipe A lies 2.5 m above pipe B. Find
the difference of pressure measured by mercury as the as the fluid-filling U-tube if the
mercury level in the left limb will remain 1.5 m below B.
(Ans: 0.142 m)

Figure 5

2 - 12
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

12. A differential manometer as shown in figure 6 is connected to pipe P and Q that flowing
water. Determine the differential pressure between the two pipes.
(Ans: 15303.6 N/m2)

Figure 6

13. A differential connected at the two pipe A and B at the same level in a pipe containing an oil
of specific gravity 0.8, shows a difference in mercury levels as 100 mm. Based on figure 7,
determine the difference in pressure at the two pipes.
(Ans: -13027.68 N/m2)

Figure 7

14. A differential manometer containing mercury was used to measure the difference of
pressure pipes containing water as shown in figure 8. Find the difference of pressure in the
pipes, if the manometer reading is 0.8 m.
(Ans: 96922.8 N/m2)

Figure 8

15. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in figure 9. At B air
is 9.81 N/cm2 (abs), find the absolute pressure at A.
(Ans: 88878.6 N/m2)

2 - 13
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

Figure 9

16. Based on figure 10 determine the gauge pressure at point A, if the gauge pressure at point B
is 25 kN/m2, with distances of z = 0.3 m and z1 = 0.6 m.
(Ans: 99167.405 N/m2)

Figure 10

17. A differential manometer assembled on two pipes as figure 11 below. Determine difference
between the pressure in A and B if specific gravity of liquid x is 3.1.
(Ans: 29135.7 N/m2)

Figure 11

18. In below figure 12 shows an inverted differential manometer connected to two pipes A and B
containing water. Find the differential of pressure between pipes A and B.
(Ans: 2550.6 N/m2)

2 - 14
 Chapter 2 | Measurement of Pressure

Figure 12

19. Figure 13 shows a differential manometer. Pipe A and B contains oil with specific gravity of
0.95. If the pressure at pipe A and B are 222.5 kN/m2 and 165.0 kN/m2 respectively,
calculate the value of h.
(Ans: -0.599 m)

Figure 13

20. An inverted U-tube manometer shown in figure 14 connected to pipes A and B with flowing a
water. An oil of specific gravity 0.85 is used as a gauge fluid. Determine the difference of
pressure between the pipes.
(Ans: -1277.775 N/m2)

Figure 14

2 - 15
 HYDRODYNAMICS
3.1 Types of Fluid Flows

The types of fluids flow are classified as:

a. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow
•Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point in space do not change with time.
Unsteady flow is that in which the above flow characteristics at a point in space
change with respect to time.

b. Uniform and non-uniform flows

•When certain fluid characteristics, like velocity, density and pressure do not
change with respect to space at a given time, the flow is uniform flow. If the
above flow characteristics or parameters change with space at a given time, the
flow is non-uniform flow.

c. Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and Transition Flow

•When fluid particles move along well-defined paths or streamlines and the paths
are parallel and straight, the is laminar. Thus particles move in laminar or layer
gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. Laminar flow generally happens when
dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities. If particles with higher velocity
move in a zig-zag manner and eddies are formed, the flow is called turbulent.
Turbulent flow happens in general at high flow rates and with larger pipes.
Turbulent flows are unsteady flows. Transitional flow occurs in a critical zone
where the average velocity changes the flow form laminar to turbulent.

3.2 Reynolds Number

Osborne Reynolds was the first to demonstrate that laminar or turbulent flow can be predicted is
the magnitude of a dimensionless number, now called the Reynolds number (Re), is known. The
following equation shows the basic definition of the Reynolds number:

𝝆𝒗𝒅 𝒗𝒅
𝑹𝒆 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁 𝝑

Where: ρ = Density (kg/m3)

μ = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
ϑ = Kinematic viscosity (m²/s)
v = Characteristic flow velocity (m/s)
d = Diameter of pipe (m)

The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transition or turbulent. This
flow is:

3-1
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

Laminar flow Transitional flow Turbulent flow

•Re < 2000 •2000 < Re < 4000 •Re > 4000

3.2.1 Characteristics Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and Transition Flow

Laminar flow Transition flow Turbulent flow

•Re < 2000 •2000 < Re < 4000 •Re > 4000
•‘Low’ velocity •‘Medium’ velocity •‘High’ velocity
•Dye does not mix •Filament oscillates •Dye mixes rapidly
with water and mixes slightly. and completely
•Fluid particles •Particle paths
move in straight completely
lines irregular

EXAMPLE 3.1
An oil having kinematic viscosity of 21.4 x 10-4 m2/s is flowing through a pipe of 300 mm
diameter. Determine the type of flow, if the discharge through the pipe is 15 litres/s.

Solution
Given; ϑ = 21.4 x 10-4 m2/s, d = 300 mm - 0.3 m, Q = 15 litres/s - 15 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.3)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4

Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
−3
15 𝑥 10 = 0.071 𝑥 𝑣
15 𝑥 10−3
𝑣=
0.071
= 0.211 𝑚/𝑠

Reynolds Number:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
(0.211 𝑥 0.3)
=
21.4 𝑥 10−4
= 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟕𝟗 (𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)

3-2
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

EXAMPLE 3.2
If Reynolds number for single stream in a pipe that having diameter 70 mm is 1950 and kinematic
viscosity 0.555 cm2/s, calculate velocity of oil in that pipe.

Solution
Given; ϑ = 0.555 cm2/s - 5.55 x 10-5 m2/s, d = 70 mm - 0.07 m, Re = 1950

Velocity:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
𝑣 𝑥 0.07
1950 =
5.55 𝑥 10−5
= 1261.261𝑣
1950
𝑣=
1261.261
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 3.3
A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows
through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the Reynolds number and
type of flow.

Solution
Given; μ = 0.38 Ns/m2, s = 0.91, d = 25 mm - 0.025 m, v = 2.6 m/s

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.91 𝑥 1000 = 910 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Reynolds Number:

𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
(910 𝑥 2.6 𝑥 0.025)
=
0.38
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟓𝟖 (𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)
EXAMPLE 3.4
An oil of specific gravity of 0.95 is flowing through a pipeline of 200 mm diameter at the rate of
50 litres/s. Find the type of flow if viscosity for the oil is 0.1 Ns/m2.

Solution
Given; μ = 0.1 Ns/m2, s = 0.95, d = 200 mm - 0.2 m, Q = 50 litres/s - 50 x 10-3 m3/s,

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.95 𝑥 1000 = 950 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4

3-3
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
50 𝑥 10−3 = 0.031 𝑥 𝑣
50 𝑥 10−3
𝑣=
0.031
= 1.613 𝑚/𝑠

Reynolds Number:

𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
(950 𝑥 1.613 𝑥 0.2)
=
0.1
= 𝟑𝟎𝟔𝟒. 𝟕 (𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)
EXAMPLE 3.5
A 45 cm diameter pipe discharge water at the rate of 0.025 m3/s. Find the type of flow, if the
kinematic viscosity is 1.14 mm2/s.
Solution
Given; ϑ = 1.14 mm2/s = 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s, d = 45 cm - 0.45 m, Q = 0.025 m3/s,

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.45)2 = 0.159 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
0.025 = 0.159 𝑥 𝑣
0.025
𝑣=
0.159
= 0.157 𝑚/𝑠

Reynolds Number:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
(0.157 𝑥 0.45)
=
1.14 𝑥 10−6
= 𝟔𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟑. 𝟔𝟖𝟒 (𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)

3-4
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

EXERCISE 3
1. A pipe with diameter 350 mm flows the oil with density 950 kg/m3, kinematic viscosity
2.5 x 10-4 m2/s and the discharge is 0.053 m3/s. Determine Reynolds number and types of
flow.
(Ans: 772.8, laminar flow)

2. If Reynolds number for single stream in a pipe that having diameter 65 mm is 1870 and
kinematic viscosity 0.652 cm2/s, calculate the mean velocity of oil in that pipe.
(Ans: 1.876 m/s)

3. An oil of viscosity 0.4 Ns/m2, density 900 kg/m3 and discharge 0.00002 m3/s through a
horizontal circular pipe of diameter 0.02 m. Calculate the average fluid velocity and Reynolds
number.
(Ans: 0.064 m/s, 2.88)

4. Water with a dynamic viscosity, µ = 1.49 x 10-3 Ns/m2 flows through a pipe of 0.3 cm in
diameter with a velocity of 0.9 m/s. Calculate the Reynold Number and state the type of flow.
(Ans: 1812.081, Laminar flow)

5. The Reynold Number for a flow in a pipe is 1900 and kinematics viscosity is
0.745 x 10-4 m2/s. Calculate the velocity of oil in the pipe, if the diameter of pipe is 30 cm.
(Ans: 0.472 m/s)

6. A 450 mm diameter pipe caries water of 0.053 m3/s. The density and kinematic viscosity of
the fluid are 950 kg/m3 and 2.1 x 10-4 m2/s respectively. Determine:
i. The velocity of the fluid flow.
ii. Reynold number of the fluid flow.
iii. The type of flow.
(Ans: 0.333 m/s, 713.571, Laminar flow)

7. An oil of specific gravity of 0.95 is following through a pipeline of 200 mm diameter at the
rate of 50 litre/s. Find the type of flow if dynamic viscosity for the oil is 0.1 Ns/m2.
(Ans: 3064.7, Transition flow)

8. A fluid with specific gravity 0.75 is flowing through a pipeline of 185 mm diameter at the rate
of 35 litre/s. Find the type of flow if dynamic viscosity for the fluid is 0.22 N.s/m2.
(Ans: 817.364, Laminar flow)

9. A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.38 N/m2 and a specific gravity of
0.91 flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Calculating Reynold
number.
(Ans: 155.658)

10. Find the Reynolds number if a fluid of viscosity 0.4 Ns/m2 and density of 900 kg/m3 though a
20 mm pipe with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
(Ans: 112.5)

11. A pipe with diameter 0.45 m flows the oil with specific gravity as 0.85, dynamic viscosity
1.49 x 10-3 Ns/m2 and the discharge is 53 L/s. Determine Reynolds number and types of flow.
(Ans: 85484.899, Turbulent flow)

12. Water with a dynamic viscosity, µ = 1.49 x 10-6 Ns/cm2 flows through a pipe of 45 mm in
diameter with a discharge of 35 L/m. Calculate the Reynold Number.
(Ans: 1108.389)

3-5
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

13. The Reynold Number for a flow in a pipe is 1500 and kinematics viscosity is 0.655 x 10-4
m2/s. Calculate the velocity and discharge (Litre/m) of oil in the pipe, if the diameter of pipe
is 30 cm.
(Ans: 1380 L/s)

14. A 45 cm diameter pipe caries water of 0.095 m3/s. The specific gravity and dynamic viscosity
of the fluid are 0.95 and 1.49 x 10-2 Ns/m2 respectively. Determine:
i. The velocity of the fluid flow.
ii. Reynold number of the fluid flow.
iii. The type of flow.
(Ans: 0.597 m/s, 17128.691, Turbulent flow)

15. If Reynolds number for single stream in a pipe that having diameter 650 cm is 3500 and
kinematic viscosity 0.55 cm2/s, calculate the mean velocity and discharge of oil in that pipe.
(Ans: 0.995 m3/s)

16. A fluid with density 990 kg/m3 is flowing through a pipeline of 45 cm diameter at the rate of
135 litre/m. Find the type of flow if dynamic viscosity for the fluid is 0.23 x 10 -3
N.s/m .2

(Ans: 27117.392, Turbulent flow)

17. Find the Reynolds number if a fluid of viscosity 118 mm2/s and density of 900 kg/m3 though
a 0.155 m pipe with a discharge of 95 x 10-3 m3/s.
(Ans: 6567.797)

18. An oil of specific gravity 0.85 is flowing through a pipeline of 250 mm at the rate of 50 litre/s.
Find the type of flow if dynamic viscosity for the oil is 0.11 Ns/m2.
(Ans: 1970.455, Laminar flow)

19. An oil of viscosity 0.4 x 10-4 Ns/m2, specific weight 5500 N/m3 and discharge 0.00002 m3/s
through a horizontal circular pipe of diameter 0.02 m. Calculate the average fluid velocity
and Reynolds number.
(Ans: 0.064 m/s, 17940.864)

20. A 250 mm diameter pipe caries water of 0.085 m3/s. The density and kinematic viscosity of
the fluid are 950 kg/m3 and 2.14 x 10-4 m2/s respectively. Determine:
i. The velocity of the fluid flow.
ii. Reynold number of the fluid flow.
(Ans: 1.735 m/s, 2026.869)

3-6
 FLOW MEASUREMENT AND
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
4.1 Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q)

The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second through a section of a pipe or a channel, is known as
the rate of discharge or simply discharge. It is generally denoted by Q. Now consider a liquid
flowing through a pipe. The unit of discharge is m3/s or litre/s.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑸 = 𝑨 𝒙 𝒗

Where: A = Cross-sectional area of pipe (m2)

v = Average velocity of fluid across the section (m/s)

4.1.1 The Continuity Equation

The equation of continuity states that in the steady flow of any liquid in a limited space, where the
parameters if state do not change in time, the rate of flow in any section of flow is the same. This
is known as the equation of continuity of a liquid flow. Consider a tapering pipe through which
some liquid is flowing as shown in figure 4.1(a).

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

Figure 4.1(a): Continuity of a liquid flow

A typical application of mass conservation is at pipe junctions:

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 + 𝐴3 𝑣3

Figure 4.1(b): Continuity of a liquid flow

EXAMPLE 4.1
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 15 cm and 25 cm respectively. Find the
discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5.5
m/s. Determine also the velocity at section 2.

4-1
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Solution
Given; d1 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, d2 = 25 cm - 0.25 m, v1 = 5.5 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 = 0.049 𝑚2
4

Velocity at section 2:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.018 𝑥 5.5
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.099 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.049𝑣2
0.099
𝑣2 =
0.049
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.2
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm respectively. Find the
discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s.
Determine also the velocity at section 2.

Solution
Given; d1 = 10 cm - 0.1 m, d2 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, v1 = 5 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4

Velocity at section 2:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= (7.854 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 5
= 0.039 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.039 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.018 𝑥 𝑣2
0.039
𝑣2 =
0.018
= 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.3
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipe of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm
respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in

4-2
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

the pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe
is 2 m/s.

Solution
Given; d1 = 30 cm - 0.3 m, d2 = 20 cm - 0.2 m, d3 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, v1 = 2.5 m/s, v2 = 2 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.30)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.20)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴3 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4

Discharge:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.071 𝑥 2.5
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.031 𝑥 2
= 0.062 𝑚3 /𝑠

Average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
0.178 = 0.062 + 𝑄3
= 0.178 − 0.062
= 0.116 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑥 𝑣3
0.116 = 0.018 𝑥 𝑣3
= 0.018𝑣3
0.116
𝑣3 =
0.018
= 𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.4
Water flows through a pipe AB with diameter 140 cm at 3.5 m/s and then passes through a pipe
BC with diameter of 165 cm. At C, the pipe is branches into pipe CD and CE. Given the diameter
and discharge of pipe CD is 100 cm and one-third of the discharge in pipe AB respectively. The
velocity in pipe CE is 5.0 m/s. Determine:
i. Discharge at pipe AB
ii. Velocity in BC
iii. Velocity in CD
iv. Diameter of CE

Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝐵 = (1.40)2 = 1.539 𝑚2
4

4-3
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

𝜋
𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (1.65)2 = 2.138 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴𝐶𝐷 = (1.00)2 = 0.785 𝑚2
4
i. Discharge at pipe AB:

𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝑥 𝑣𝐴𝐵

= 1.539 𝑥 3.5
= 𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

ii. Velocity in BC:

𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄𝐵𝐶
5.387 = 2.138 𝑥 𝑣𝐵𝐶
5.387
𝑣𝐵𝐶 =
2.138
= 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

iii. Velocity in CD:

𝑄𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐶𝐷 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐷

1
3
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 0.785 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐷
1
(5.387) = 0.785 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐷
3
1.796 = 0.785 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐷
1.796
𝑣𝐶𝐷 =
0.785
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

Discharge in CE:

𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄𝐶𝐷 + 𝑄𝐶𝐸

1
5.387 = 3 𝑄𝐴𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶𝐸
1
= 3 (5.387) + 𝑄𝐶𝐸
5.387 = 1.796 + 𝑄𝐶𝐸
𝑄𝐶𝐸 = 5.387 − 1.796
= 3.591 𝑚/𝑠

iv. Diameter of CE:

𝑄𝐶𝐸 = 𝐴𝐶𝐸 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐸

𝜋
3.591 = [ (𝑑𝐶𝐸 )2 ] 𝑥 5
4
= 3.927(𝑑𝐶𝐸 )2
3.591
𝑑𝐶𝐸 = √
3.927
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝒎

4.2 Energy of a Liquid

The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in
many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:

4-4
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

a. Potential Energy
•It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position. If a liquid
particle is Z metres above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the potential
energy of the particle will be Z metre-kilogram (briefly written as mkg) per kg of
the liquid. The potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z metres of the
liquid.

b. Kinetic Energy
•It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity.
If a liquid particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v metres per second, then
𝑣2
the kinetic energy of the particle will be 2𝑔 mkg per kg of the liquid. Velocity head
𝑣2
of the liquid, at that velocity, will be 2𝑔
metres of the liquid.

c. Pressure Energy
•It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If
a liquid particle is under a pressure of p kN/m2 (i.e. kPa), then pressure energy of
𝑃
the particle will be mkg per kg of the liquid, where w is the specific weight of
𝜔
𝑃
the liquid. Pressure head of the under that pressure will be metres of the
𝜔
liquid.

4.2.1 Total Head of a Liquid

The total head of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum its potential head, kinetic head and
pressure head. Mathematically, total head:

𝑷 𝒗𝟐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑯 = + +𝒁
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Where: P = Pressure (N/m2)

 = The density of liquid (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
v = Velocity of liquid (m/s)
Z = Potential energy (m)

Figure 4.2: Energy equation

EXAMPLE 4.5
Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a gauge pressure of 55 kPa, and with a
mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 5 metres above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 100 mm - 0.1 m, P = 55 kPa - 55 x 103 N/m2, v = 2.0 m/s, Z = 5 m

Total head:

𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻= + +𝑍
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(55 𝑥 103 ) (2.0)2
= + +5
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 5.607 + 0.204 + 5
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟏 𝒎

4-5
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

EXAMPLE 4.6
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm 2 (gauge) and
with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m
above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 5 cm - 0.05 m, P = 29.43 N/cm2 - 29.43 x 104 N/m2, v = 2.0 m/s, Z = 5 m

Total head:

𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻= + +𝑍
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(29.43 𝑥 104 ) (2.0)2
= + +5
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 30 + 0.204 + 5
= 𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒎
EXAMPLE 4.7
Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a pressure of 19.62 N/cm 2 with mean
velocity of flow 3 m/s. Find the total head of water at the cross-section, which is 8 m above the
datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 100 mm - 0.1 m, P = 19.62 N/cm2 - 19.62 x 104 N/m2, v = 3 m/s, Z = 8 m

Total head:

𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻= + +𝑍
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(19.62 𝑥 104 ) (3.0)2
= + +8
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 20 + 0.459 + 8
= 𝟐𝟖. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 4.8
Water is flowing through a pipe of 250 mm diameter under a gauge pressure of 65 kPa, and with a
mean velocity of 2.5 m/s. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 4.5 metres above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 250 mm - 0.25 m, P = 65 kPa - 65 x 103 N/m2, v = 2.5 m/s, Z = 4.5 m

Total head:

𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻= + +𝑍
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(65 𝑥 103 ) (2.5)2
= + + 4.5
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 6.626 + 0.319 + 4.5
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟓 𝒎
EXAMPLE 4.9
A circular pipe of 250 mm diameter carries an oil of specific gravity 0.8 at the rate of flow of
120 litres/s and under a pressure of 20 kPa. Calculate the total energy in metres at a point which
is 3 m above the datum line.

4-6
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Solution
Given; d = 250 mm - 0.25 m, P = 20 kPa - 20 x 103 N/m2, Q = 120 litres/s - 120 x 10-3 m3/s, Z = 3 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.25)2 = 0.049 𝑚2
4

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Velocity of oil:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
120 𝑥 10−3 = 0.049 𝑥 𝑣
120 𝑥 10−3
𝑣=
0.049
= 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

Total energy:

𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻= + +𝑍
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(20 𝑥 103 ) (2.449)2
= + +3
(800 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 2.548 + 0.306 + 3
= 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒎

4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total energy of a
practical remain the same, while the particle moves from one point to another.” This statement is
based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in the pipe. Consider a perfect
incompressible liquid, flowing through a non-uniform pipe as shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Bernoulli’s equation

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between two points 1 and 2 along the same streamline, we have:

𝑷𝟏 (𝒗𝟏 )𝟐 𝑷𝟐 (𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝟏 = + + 𝒁𝟐
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

EXAMPLE 4.10
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at section 1 respectively.
The rate of flow through pipe is 35 L/s. The section 1 is 6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m
above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at
section 2.

Solution
Given; d1 = 20 cm - 0.2 m, d2 = 10 cm - 0.1 m,
P = 39.24 N/cm2 - 39.24 x 104 N/m2,
Q = 35 L/s - 35 x 10-3 m3/s, Z1 = 6 m, Z2 = 4 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
35 𝑥 10−3 = 0.031 𝑥 𝑣1
35 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.031
= 1.129 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
35 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= (7.854 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 𝑣2
35 𝑥 10−3
𝑣2 =
(7.854 𝑥 10−3 )
= 4.456 𝑚/𝑠

Intensity of pressure at section 2:

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
39.24 𝑥 104 (1.129)2 𝑃2 (4.456)2
+ +6= + +4
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
𝑃2
40 + 0.065 + 6 = + 1.012 + 4
9810
𝑃2
46.065 = + 5.012
9810
𝑃2 = (46.065 − 5.012) 𝑥 9810
= 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟗. 𝟗𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 4.11
The diameter of a pipe changes from 300 mm at a section 7 metre above datum to 150 mm at a
section 2.5 metre above datum. The pressure of water at first section is 550 kN/m 2. If the velocity
of flow at the first section is 3.5 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at the second section.

Solution
Given; d1 = 300 mm - 0.3 m, d2 = 150 mm - 0.15 m, P1 = 550 kN/m2 - 550 x 103 N/m2, v = 3.5 m/s,
Z1 = 7 m, Z2 = 2.5 m

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.3)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.071 𝑥 3.5 = 0.018 𝑥 𝑣2
0.249 = 0.018𝑣2
0.249
𝑣2 =
0.018
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒎/𝒔

Intensity of pressure at the second section:

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
550 𝑥 103 (3.5)2 𝑃2 (13.833)2
+ +7 = + + 2.5
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
𝑃2
56.065 + 0.624 + 7 = + 9.753 + 2.5
9810
𝑃2
63.689 = + 12.253
9810
𝑃2 = (63.689 − 12.253) 𝑥 9810
= 𝟓𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟕. 𝟏𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 4.12
Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom and upper
end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 N/cm2 and the pressure at
the upper end is 9.81 N/cm2. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow through
pipe is 40 litres/s.

Solution
Given; d1 = 300 mm - 0.3 m, d2 = 200 mm - 0.2 m, P1 = 24. 525 N/cm2 - 24.525 x 104 N/m2,
P2 = 9.81 N/cm2 - 9.81 x 104 N/m2, Q = 40 litres/s - 0.04 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.3)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
0.040 = 0.071 𝑥 𝑣1
0.040
𝑣1 =
0.071
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟑 𝒎/𝒔

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.040 = 0.031 𝑥 𝑣2
0.040
𝑣2 =
0.031
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

Difference head:

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
24.525 𝑥 104 (0.563)2 9.81 𝑥 104 (1.290)2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
25 + 0.016 + 𝑍1 = 10 + 0.085 + 𝑍2
25.016 + 𝑍1 = 10.085 + 𝑍2
𝑍2 − 𝑍1 = 25.016 − 10.085
= 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝒎

4.4 Venturi meter

A venturi meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It
consists of three part:

A short converging part

Throat

Diverging part

Figure 4.4: A venturi meter

4.4.1 Discharge through a Venturi meter

Consider a venturi meter through which some liquid is flowing as shown in figure 4.5.

4 - 10
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Figure 4.5: Discharge through a Venturi

Meter

Discharge:
𝑨𝟏 𝒙 𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 𝒙 [ ] 𝒙 √𝟐𝒈𝑯
√(𝑨𝟏 )𝟐 − (𝑨𝟐 )𝟐

Where: Cd = Coefficient of venturi meter and it less than 1

A1 = Area of the venturi meter at section 1 (m2)
A2 = Area of the venturi meter at section 2 (m2)
H = Venturi head (m)

4.4.2 Value of ‘h’ Given by Differential U-Tube Manometer

•Case I. Let the differential 𝑺𝒉

𝑯= 𝟏− 𝒙 𝒉
manometer contains a liquid 𝑺𝒐
which is heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
•Case II. If the differential
𝑺𝒉 manometer contains a liquid
𝑯= −𝟏 𝒙 𝒉
𝑺𝒐 which is lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.

EXAMPLE 4.13
A horizontal venturi meter with an inlet diameter 30 cm and throat diameter 15 cm is used to
measure the flow of water. The reading in the differential manometer connected to the inlet and
throat is 10 cm of mercury. Determine the flow rate if the coefficient of venturi meter is 0.98.

Solution
Given; d1 = 30 cm - 0.3 m, d2 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, h = 10 cm - 0.1 m, Cd = 0.98

Area of inlet and throat:

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.30)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Venturi head:
𝑆ℎ
𝐻=[ −1] 𝑥ℎ
𝑆𝑜
13.6
=[ − 1 ] 𝑥 0.1 = 1.26 𝑚
1.0

Flow rate:

𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √2𝑔𝐻
√(𝐴1 )2 − (𝐴2 )2
(0.071)(0.018)
= 0.98 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.26)
√(0.071)2 − (0.018)2
(1.278 𝑥 10−3 )
= 0.98 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 4.972
0.069
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.14
A horizontal venturi meter 160 mm x 80 mm is used to measure the flow of an oil of specific
gravity 0.8. Determine the deflection of the oil mercury gauge, if the discharge of the oil is
50 litres/s. Take coefficient of venturi meter as 1.

Solution
Given; d1 = 160 mm - 0.16 m, d2 = 80 mm - 0.08 m, Cd = 1, So = 0.8, Q = 50 litres/s - 50 x 10-3 m3/s

Area of inlet and throat:

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.16)2 = 0.02 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.08)2 = 5.027 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Venturi head:

𝑆ℎ
𝐻=[ −1] 𝑥ℎ
𝑆𝑜
13.6
=[ − 1 ] 𝑥 ℎ = 16ℎ
0.8

Deflection of the oil mercury gauge:

𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √2𝑔𝐻
√(𝐴1 )2 − (𝐴2 )2
(0.02)(5.027 𝑥 10−3 )
50 𝑥 10−3 = 1.0 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 16ℎ)
√(0.02)2 − (5.027 𝑥 10−3 )2
(1.005 𝑥 10−4 )
= 1.0 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 17.718(ℎ)½
0.019
= 0.094(ℎ)½
2
50 𝑥 10−3
ℎ =[ ]
0.094
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝒎  𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝒎𝒎

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

EXAMPLE 4.15
A venturi meter with a 20 cm diameter at inlet and 10 cm at throat is laid with its axis horizontal
and is used for measuring the flow of oil specific gravity 0.8. The oil mercury differential
monometer shows a gauge difference of 30 cm. Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.98. Calculate
the discharge in L/s.

Solution
Given; d1 = 20 cm - 0.2 m, d2 = 10 cm - 0.1 m, h = 30 cm - 0.3 m, Cd = 0.98, Sh = 13.6, So = 0.8

Area of inlet and throat:

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4

Venturi head:

𝑆ℎ
𝐻=[ −1] 𝑥ℎ
𝑆𝑜
13.6
=[ − 1 ] 𝑥 0.3 = 4.8 𝑚
0.8
Discharge of the oil:

𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √2𝑔𝐻
√(𝐴1 )2 − (𝐴2 )2
(0.031)(7.854 𝑥 10−3 )
= 0.98 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4.8)
√(0.031)2 − (7.854 𝑥 10−3 )2
(2.435 𝑥 10−4 )
= 0.98 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 9.704
0.030
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔  𝟕𝟕 𝑳/𝒔

EXAMPLE 4.16
The diameter of a pipe changes from section of 100 mm to 50 mm, which recorded a discharge of
18 litres of water per second, when the mercury reading 350 mm. Calculate the value of venturi
meter coefficient?

Solution
Given; d1 = 100 mm - 0.1 m, d2 = 50 mm - 0.05 m, h = 350 mm - 0.35 m, So = 1,
Q = 18 litres = 18 x 10-3 m3/s

Area of inlet and throat:

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.05)2 = 1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Venturi head:

𝑆ℎ
𝐻 =[ −1] 𝑥ℎ
𝑆𝑜
13.6
=[ − 1 ] 𝑥 0.35 = 4.41 𝑚
1.0

Value of venturi meter coefficient:

𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √2𝑔𝐻
√(𝐴1 )2 − (𝐴2 )2
(7.854 𝑥 10−3 )(1.963 𝑥 10−3 )
18 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4.41)
√(7.854 𝑥 10−3 )2 − (1.963 𝑥 10−3 )2
(1.542 𝑥 10−5 )
= 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥 9.302
(7.605 𝑥 10−3 )
= 0.019(𝐶𝑑 )
18 𝑥 10−3
𝐶𝑑 =
0.019
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓

4.5 Orifices

An orifice is an opening, of any size or shape, in a pipe or at the bottom or side wall of a container
(water tank, reservoir, etc.), through which fluid is discharged.

Figure 4.6: Orifice

On the basis of the size of orifice and height of liquid from the center of the orifice, orifices are
classified as:
Small orifice

Large orifice

4.5.1 Jet of Water

The continuous stream of a liquid that comes out or flows out of an orifice, is known as the jet of
water (Figure 4.7).

4 - 14
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Figure 4.7: Jet of water Figure 4.8: Vena Contracta

4.5.2 Vena Contracta

When the liquid passes through the orifice in the from of jet, it lose some energy. It has been,
observed that the jet, after leaving the orifice, gets contracted. The maximum contraction takes
place at a section slightly on the downstream side of the orifice, where the jet more or less
horizontal. Such a section is known as Vena Contracta (Figure 4.8).

4.5.3 Hydraulic Coefficients

Hydraulic coefficients are:

Coefficient of contraction
•The ratio of area of the Jet, at Vena contracta, to the area of the Orifice. It is
donated by Cc. The value varies Cc is taken 0.61 - 0.69, where 0.64 is
considered as average value.

Mathematically coefficient of contraction:

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂 𝑨𝒋
𝑪𝒄 = =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒐

Coefficient of velocity
•The ratio of actual velocity of the jet at Vena contracta, to the theorical
velocity. It is denote by Cv. The value varies Cv is taken 0.95 - 0.99, where
0.97 is considered as average value.

Mathematically coefficient of velocity:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝒗 = =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒕𝒉𝒆

Coefficient of Dishcarge
•The ratio of the actual discharge an Orifice to the theorical discharge. It is
denoted by Cd. An average value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 -
0.64.

Mathematically coefficient of flow rate:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒙 𝑨𝒋

𝑪𝒅 = = = = 𝑪𝒗 𝒙 𝑪 𝒄
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑸𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒙 𝑨𝒐

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

4.5.4 Discharge through a Small Orifice

Orifice is a small opening of any cross-section (such as circular, triangular, rectangular etc.) on the
side or at the bottom of a tank, through which a fluid is flowing. If the head of liquid from the
center of orifice is more five times the depths of orifice, the orifice is called small orifice. It is used
for measuring the discharge of liquid. Discharge through a s orifice may be calculated from:

Velocity:

𝒗𝒕𝒉𝒆 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒗 𝒙 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Discharge through the orifice:

𝑸𝒕𝒉𝒆 = 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Where: Cv = Coefficient of velocity for the orifice

Cd = Coefficient of discharge for the orifice
Ao = Cross sectional area of the orifice
H = Height of the liquid above the center of the orifice

EXAMPLE 4.17
A 4 cm diameter orifice in the vertical side of a large tank discharges water under a head of 4 m.
The coefficient of contraction and velocity are 0.62 and 0.98 respectively. Determine:
i. The diameter of the jet at vena contracta
ii. The velocity of jet at vena contracta
iii. The discharge

Solution
Given; do = 4 cm - 0.04 m, Cc = 0.62, Cv = 0.98, H = 4 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (0.04)2 = 1.256 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
i. The diameter of the jet at vena contracta:

𝐴𝑗
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
𝜋 2
4
(𝑑𝑗 )
0.62 =
1.256 𝑥 10−3
2
0.785(𝑑𝑗 )
=
1.256 𝑥 10−3
2
= 625(𝑑𝑗 )

0.62
𝑑𝑗 = √
625
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏 𝒎

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 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

ii. Velocity of jet at vena contracta:

𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
= 0.98 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4)
= 𝟖. 𝟔𝟖𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
iii. Discharge:

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑥 𝐶𝑣
= 0.62 𝑥 0.98 = 0.608

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻
= 0.608 𝑥 (1.256 𝑥 10−3 )√(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4)
= 𝟔. 𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.18
A jet of water issues from an orifice of diameter 20 mm under a head of 1 m. What is the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice, if actual discharge is 0.85 L/s.

Solution
Given; d = 20 mm - 0.02 m, H = 1 m, Q = 0.85 litres/s - 0.85 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (0.02)2 = 3.142 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4
Coefficient of discharge:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻
0.85 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐶𝑑 (3.142 𝑥 10−4 ) √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1)
= (1.392 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
0.85 𝑥 10−3
𝐶𝑑 =
1.392 𝑥 10−3
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
EXAMPLE 4.19
An orifice with a diameter of 33 mm discharge water from a tank with a velocity of 8.3 m/s. The
water head above the orifice is 6.0 m. Calculate the coefficient of velocity (Cv), coefficient of
contraction (Cc) and the coefficient of discharge (Cd) if the actual flow rate is 0.008 m3/s.

Solution
Given; d = 33 mm - 0.033 m, v = 8.3 m/s, H = 6.0 m, Q = 0.008 m3/s.

Area:
𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (0.033)2 = 8.553 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4
Coefficient of discharge:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻
0.008 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 (8.553 𝑥 10−4 )√(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 6)
= (9.28 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
0.008
𝐶𝑑 =
(9.28 𝑥 10−3 )
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟑

4 - 17
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Coefficient of velocity:

𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
8.3 = 𝐶𝑣 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 6)
= 9.905(𝐶𝑣 )
8.3
𝐶𝑣 =
10.850
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓

Coefficient of contraction:

𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑣
0.863
=
0.765
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟖

4.5.5 Discharge through Large Orifices

If the head of the liquid is less than five times the depth of orifice, it is known as large orifice. For
the total discharge, integrating between the limit of H1 and H2, and introducing a coefficient:

𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑸 = 𝑪𝒅 𝒃 √𝟐𝒈 𝒙 [(𝑯𝟐 )𝟐 − (𝑯𝟏 )𝟐 ]
𝟑

Where: H1 = Height of liquid above the top of the orifice (m)

H2 = Height of liquid above the bottom of the orifice (m)
b = Length of the orifice (m)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge

Figure 4.9: Large orifices

EXAMPLE 4.20
A rectangular orifice of 1.5 m wide and 0.5 m deep is discharging water from a tank. If the level in
the tank is 3 m above the top of the orifice, find the discharge through the orifice. Take coefficient
of discharge for the orifice as 0.6.

Solution
Given; b = 1.5 m, d = 0.5 m, H1 = 3 m, Cd = 0.6

Height of liquid above the bottom edge of orifice:

𝐻2 = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 𝑚

4 - 18
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

Discharge through the orifice:

2 3 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏 √2𝑔 𝑥 [(𝐻2 )2 − (𝐻1 )2 ]
3
2 3 3
= (0.6 𝑥 1.5)√(2 𝑥 9.81) 𝑥 [(3.5)2 − (3.0)2 ]
3
= 0.6 𝑥 4.429 𝑥 1.352
= 𝟑. 𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.21
A rectangular orifice of width 1 m and height 1.5 m in the vertical side of a tank. The measured
discharge is 8.21 m3/s. If the bottom edge of the orifice is 5 m below the water level in the
reservoir, determine the coefficient of discharge of the orifice.

Solution
Given; b = 1 m, d = 1.5 m, H2 = 5 m, Q = 8.21 m3/s

Height of liquid above the top edge of orifice:

𝐻1 = 5 − 1.5 = 3.5 𝑚

Discharge through the orifice:

2 3 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏 √2𝑔 𝑥 [(𝐻2 )2 − (𝐻1 )2 ]
3
2 3 3
8.21 = 𝐶𝑑 (1) √(2 𝑥 9.81) 𝑥 [(5.0)2 − (3.5)2 ]
3
2
= (4.429𝐶𝑑 ) 𝑥 4.632
3
= 13.677𝐶𝑑
8.21
𝐶𝑑 =
13.677
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎

4 - 19
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

EXERCISE 4
1. A triangular channel carries a discharge of 2.25 m3/s. Determine the velocity if the depth of
flow is 3 m.
(Ans: 0.433 m/s)

Figure 1

2. Calculate the size of a pipe, if it has to discharge oil at the rate of 4.5 m 3/s and the velocity of
oil is 510 m/min.
(Ans: 0.821 m)

3. Calculate the size of a pipe, if it has to discharge oil at the rate of 2 m3/s and the velocity of oil
is 3 m/s.
(Ans: 0.921 m)

4. A pipe, through which water is flowing is having diameter 40 cm and 20 cm at the cross-
section 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is given 5.0 m/s. Find the rate
of flow and also velocity at the sections 2.
(Ans: 0.63 m3/s, 20.323 m/s)

5. Water is flowing through a pipe of 15 cm diameter at A to 90 cm at B. It is then branches into

2, one section with 5 cm diameter at C and another is 7 cm diameter at D. If the velocity at A
is 1.8 m/s and 3 m/s at D, calculate the discharge at C and D together with the velocity at B
and C. (Sketch and label the diagram).
(Ans: QD = 0.012 m3/s, QC = 0.02 m3/s, vB = 0.05 m/s, vC = 10.188 m/s)

6. Water is flowing through a pipe of 110 mm diameter in rate of flow 40 L /s and then flowing
through BC pipe that having diameter 180 mm. BC pipe branching to three pipes. There are
CD, CE and CF. CD diameter and CE are 50 mm and 40 mm respectively. Rate of flow inside
CD pipe is twofold rate of flow in CE pipe while rate of flow in CF pipe is 1/2 from rate of
flow CE pipe. Velocity of CF pipe is 2.5 m/s. Calculate:
i. Flow rate in CD, CE and CF pipe
ii. Velocity in BC, CD and CE pipe
iii. Diameter of CF pipe

(Ans: QCE = 0.011 m3/s, QCD = 0.022 m3/s, QCF = 5.5x10-3 m3/s, vBC = 1.6 m/s, vCD = 11.207 m/s, vCE =
8.758 m/s, dCF = 53 mm)

7. A pipe of 100 mm diameter branches into two pipes diameter of 100 mm and 50 mm
respectively. The flow in the larger branch pipe is 2/3 of the main pipe and the remaining
discharge is going through the smaller branch pipe. Determine the rate of flow in the smaller
pipe if the velocity at the main pipe is 17.66 m/s.
(Ans: 0.046 m3/s)

8. Water is flowing through a pipe of 70 mm diameter under a gauge pressure of 50 kPa, and
with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Neglecting friction, determine the total head, if the pipe is 7
metres above the datum line.
(Ans: 12.301 m)

4 - 20
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

9. The diameter of a pipe changes from 250 mm at a section 7 metre above datum to 100 mm at
a section 4 metre above datum. The pressure of water at first section is 500 kN/m 2. If the
velocity of flow at the first section is 2.5 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at the
second section.
(Ans: 409920.66 N/m2)

10. A pipe shown in figure below with diameter 250 mm flows water in value 8500 liter/minute
in pressure 920 kN/m2. That pipe linked up to main pipe that diameter 350 mm by pipe that
flows uniformly. This main pipe on the other hand rests with level 3.5 m overtop first pipe.
Calculate pressure in the main pipe.
(Ans: 888776.19 N/m2)

Figure 2

11. An oil of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a pipe having diameters 30 cm and 20 cm at
section 1 and 2 respectively as shown in figure Q2(b). The rate of flow through pipe is 50
liter/s. The section 1 is 9 m above datum and section 2 is 5 m above datum. If the pressure at
section 1 is 300 kN/m2, find the intensity of pressure at section 2.
(Ans: 334363.059 N/m2)

Figure 3

12. A diameter of a pipe change from 250 mm at section 1 to 150 mm at section 2. Given length
of pipe is 8 m and the pressure of water at section 1 is 500 kPa. If the velocity of flow at
section 1 is 1.5 m/s, calculate the intensity of pressure at the section 2.
(Ans: 519517.98 N/m2)

Figure 4

13. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 200 mm and 100 mm at section 1
respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 2.1 m3/min. The section 1 is 6 m above datum
and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 x 104 N/m2, find the
intensity of pressure at section 2.
(Ans: 402729.93 N/m2)

4 - 21
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's Equation

14. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 15 cm at sections 1 and 2
respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 40 L/s. The section 1 is 6 m above datum line
and section 2 is 3 m above the datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 29.43 N/cm 2, find the
intensity of pressure at section 2.
(Ans: 322091.73 N/m2)

15. A horizontal venturi meter with inlet and throat diameter 30 cm and 15 cm respectively is
used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to inlet
and throat is 10 cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.
(Ans: 0.09 m3/s)

16. A venturi meter with a diameter of 1.0 m at inlet and 0.6 m in the neck is measuring pressure
difference of 50 mm mercury. If the coefficient of discharge for the mercury is 0.98, compute
the flow rate through it.
(Ans: 1.045 m3/s)

17. A venturi meter with a 25 cm diameter at inlet and 15 cm at throat is laid with its axis
horizontal and is used for measuring the flow of oil specific gravity 0.85. The oil mercury
differential monometer shows a gauge difference of 40 cm. Assume coefficient of discharge
as 0.98. Calculate the discharge in litres per second.
(Ans: Q = 203.876 L/s)

18. A orifice that have diameter 550 mm flows water from a tank with water head as much as 6.5
m. Calculate the real flow rate and jet velocity at contraction vena. Given, Cd = 0.6, Cv = 0.9.
(Ans: Qac =1.613 m3/s, vac = 10.164 m/s)

19. A 64 mm diameter orifice is discharging water under a head of 8 m. Calculate the actual
discharge through the orifice in litres per second and actual velocity of the jet in metres per
second at vena contracta the orifice if Cd = 0.65 and Cv = 0.96.
(Ans: Qac =0.026 m3/s, vac = 12.027 m/s)

20. An orifice, 6 cm in diameter created head with a total of 7 m. Compute the real flow rate and
water jet velocity at vena contracta if given Cd = 0.55 and Cv = 0.8.
(Ans: 0.018 m3/s, 9.375 m/s)

4 - 22
 FLUID FLOW
5.1 Energy Losses

The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while the loss of energy
due to change of velocity of the following fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss of
energy.

5.1.1 Major Loses and Minor Loses in Pipe System

It is often necessary to determine the head loss, hL, that occurs in a pipe flow so that the energy
equation, can be used in the analysis of pipe flow problems. The overall head loss for the pipe
system consists of the head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes, termed the major loss
and denoted hL-major. The head loss in various pipe components termed the minor loss and
denoted hL-minor. The head loss designations of “major” and “minor” do not necessarily reflect the
relative importance of each type of loss. For a pipe system that contains many components and a
relatively short length of pipe, the minor loss may actually be larger than the major loss.

5.1.2 Minor Energy Losses in Pipes

The minor loss of energy includes the following cases:

1 Loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe.

2 Loss of head due to sudden contraction in a pipe.

3 Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe in a pipe.

4 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe.

5 Loss of head due to bend and pipe fittings.

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe

(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
𝒉𝑳 =
𝟐𝒈

5-1
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Loss of head due to sudden contraction in a pipe

𝟏 𝟐
(𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = [ −𝟏] 𝒙
𝑪𝒄 𝟐𝒈

Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe in a pipe

𝟐
𝟎. 𝟓(𝒗𝟏 )
𝒉𝑳 =
𝟐𝒈

Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

(𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
𝒉𝑳 =
𝟐𝒈

Loss of head due to bend and pipe fittings

𝟐
𝒌(𝒗)
𝒉𝑳 =
𝟐𝒈

Where:
v = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
k = Loss coefficient

5-2
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Table 5.1: Loss coefficients

Fitting Loss coefficient, k
Fully open angle valve 3.2
Fully open globe valve 0.1
Fully open gate valve 0.19
Standard tee 1.8
Standard elbow 0.9

EXAMPLE 5.1
A horizontal pipe of diameter 150 mm has velocity of the pipe is 3.0 m/s. Find the head lost at the
entrance of pipe if the entrance of pipe if square-edge inlet and the rate of flow.

Solution
Given; d = 150 mm - 0.15 m, v = 3.0 m/s

Head lost at the entrance of pipe:

0.5(𝑣1 )2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
0.5(3.0)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟗 𝒎
Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 m2
4
The rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.018 𝑥 3
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 EXAMPLE 5.2
Based in figure below, calculate the minor energy losses of flow due to sudden enlargement pipe
when the flow at a rate of 0.25 m3/s.

Solution
Given; Q = 0.25 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.153)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.305)2 = 0.073 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
0.25 = 0.018 𝑥 𝑣1
0.25
𝑣1 =
0.018
= 13.889 𝑚/𝑠

5-3
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.25 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.126 𝑥 𝑣2
0.25
𝑣2 =
0.073
= 3.425 𝑚/𝑠

Minor energy losses of flow due to sudden enlargement pipe:

(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
(13.889 − 3.425)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟓. 𝟓𝟖𝟏 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.3
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarges to a diameter of
400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 L/s.

Solution
Given; d1 = 200 mm - 0.20 m, d2 = 400 mm - 0.40 m, Q = 250 L/s - 250 x 10-3 m3/s

Area of pipe:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.4)2 = 0.126 𝑚2
4
Velocity of pipe:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
250 𝑥 10−3 = 0.031 𝑥 𝑣1
250 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.031
= 8.065 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
250 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.126 𝑥 𝑣2
250 𝑥 10−3
𝑣2 =
0.126
= 1.984 𝑚/𝑠

Loss of head due to enlargement:

(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
(8.065 − 1.984)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.4
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. Find the
loss of head due to contraction if Cc = 0.62. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 0.85 m3/s.

5-4
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.50 m, d2 = 250 mm - 0.25 m, Cc = 0.62, Q = 0.85 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 = 0.049 𝑚2
4
Velocity of pipe:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.85 = 0.049 𝑥 𝑣2
0.85
𝑣2 =
0.049
= 17.347 𝑚/𝑠

Head of loss due to contraction:

1 2
(𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 = [ −1] 𝑥
𝐶𝑐 2𝑔
2
1 (17.347)2
ℎ𝐿 = [ −1] 𝑥
0.62 (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 0.376 𝑥 15.337
= 𝟓. 𝟕𝟔𝟕 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.5
A horizontal pipe of diameter 200 mm has the rate of flow of 500 L/s. Find the velocity of the pipe
and the head lost at the end of pipe.

Solution
Given; d = 200 mm - 0.20 m; Q = 500 L/s - 500 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 = 0.031 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
500 𝑥 10−3 = 0.031 𝑥 𝑣1
500 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.031
= 𝟏𝟔. 𝟏𝟐𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

Head lost due at the exit of pipe:

(𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
(16.129)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.6
A galvanize pipe of diameter 150 mm with the rate of flow is 300 L/s bend at the end of edges
with the coefficient of bend, k = 0.33. Find the head lost due to bend of pipe.

5-5
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; d = 150 mm - 0.15 m, Q = 300 L/s - 300 x 10-3 m3/s, k = 0.33

Area;
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
Velocity;

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
300 𝑥 10−3 = 0.018 𝑥 𝑣1
300 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.018
= 16.667 𝑚/𝑠

Head lost due to bend of pipe;

𝑘(𝑣)2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
0.33(16.667)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
= 𝟒. 𝟔𝟕𝟐 𝒎

5.2 Darcy - Weisbach Equation

The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation
is given by:

𝟒𝒇𝑳𝒗𝟐 𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑜𝑟 𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝟑𝒅𝟓

Where: v = Average flow of velocity (m/s)

Q = Rate of flow (m3/s)
L = Pipe length (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
d = Diameter of pipe (m)
f = Friction factor
EXAMPLE 5.7
Calculate the energy loss due to friction in pipe, with the pipe length of 400 m and diameter of
0.15 m. Given velocity of water is 1.4 m/s and coefficient of friction = 0.01.

Solution
Given; L = 400 m, d = 0.15 m, f = 0.01, v = 1.4 m/s

4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑
4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 400 𝑥 (1.4)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15)
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.8
Calculate the head loss due to frictional resistance in a 350 m length pipe and 35 cm diameter
when the flow of rate is 165 L/s. Given f = 0.005.

5-6
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; L = 350 m, d = 35 cm - 0.35 m, f = 0.005, Q = 165 L/s - 165 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.35)2 = 0.096 𝑚2
4
Flow of rate:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
165 𝑥 10−3 = 0.096 𝑥 𝑣
165 𝑥 10−3
𝑣 =
0.096
= 1.719 𝑚/𝑠

Head loss:

4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑
4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 350 𝑥 (1.719)2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.35)
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.9
Calculate the discharge through a pipe of diameter 200 mm when the difference of pressure head
between the two ends of a pipe 500 m apart is 4 m of water. Take the value of f = 0.009 in the
formula Darcy Weisbach.

Solution
Given; d = 200 mm - 0.2 m, L = 500 m, f = 0.009, hf = 4 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.2)2 = 0.031 m2
4
Darcy formula:

4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑
4 𝑥 0.009 𝑥 500 𝑥 (𝑣)2
4=
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.2)
= 4.587(𝑣)2
4
𝑣=√
4.587
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Flow of rate:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
= 0.031 𝑥 0.934
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔  𝟐𝟗 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔/𝒔

5-7
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

5.3 Hagen Poisseulle’s Equation

For laminar flow the pipe-head loss by friction, hf represent by:

𝟑𝟐𝝁𝒗𝑳
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈𝒅𝟐

Where: μ = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

v = Average flow velocity (m/s)
L = Pipe length (m)
ρ = Fluid density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
d = Pipe inside diameter (m)

Loss of Pressure Head

𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝝁𝒗𝑳
= 𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈𝒅𝟐

Reynolds number is less than 2000

𝝆𝒗𝒅
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
EXAMPLE 5.10
A crude oil of viscosity 0.097 Ns/m2
and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal
circular pipe of diameter 100 mm and of length 10 m. Calculate the Reynolds number and
difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if flow rate of the oil is 0.0037 m3/s.

Solution
Given;  = 0.097 Ns/m2, s = 0.9, d = 100 mm - 0.1 m, L = 10 m, Q = 0.0037 m3/s.

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
0.0037 = (7.854 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 𝑣
0.0037
𝑣 =
(7.854 𝑥 10−3 )
= 0.471 𝑚/𝑠

Reynolds Number:
𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
(900 𝑥 0.471 𝑥 0.1)
=
0.097
= 𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟎𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟎𝟏𝟎 < 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 )

5-8
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Difference of pressure or (P1 – P2) for viscous or laminar flow is given by:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 32𝜇𝑣𝐿
=
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑑2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 (32 𝑥 0.097 𝑥 0.471 𝑥 10)
=
(900 𝑥 9.81) 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (0.1)2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= 0.166
8829
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 0.166 𝑥 8829
= 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 5.11
In a laboratory experiment, a crude oil is flowing through a pipe of 50 mm diameter with a
velocity of 1.5 m/s. During this experiment, a pressure drops of 18 kPa was recorded from two
pressure gauge 8 m apart. Find the viscosity of the flowing oil. (ρ = 800 kg/m3)

Solution
Given; d = 50 mm - 0.05 m, L = 8 m, v = 1.5 m/s, P1 − P1 = 18 kPA - 18 x 103 N/m2

Viscosity of the flowing oil by:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 32𝜇𝑣𝐿
=
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑑2
18 𝑥 10 3
32 𝑥 () 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 8
=
(800 𝑥 9.81) 800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (0.05)2
2.294 = 19.572()
2.294
 =
19.572
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟕 𝑵𝒔/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 5.12
An oil of viscosity 0.1 N.s/m2 and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a circular pipe of
diameter 50 mm and of length 300 m. The rate of flow of fluid through the pipe is 3.5 L/s. Find the
pressure drop in a length of 300 m.

Solution
Given;  = 0.1 N.s/m2, s = 0.9, d = 50 mm - 0.05 m, L = 300 m, Q = 3.5 L/s - 3.5 x 10-3 m3/s.

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.05)2 = 1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
3.5 𝑥 10−3 = (1.963 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 𝑣
3.5 𝑥 10−3
𝑣=
1.963 𝑥 10−3
= 1.783 𝑚/𝑠

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 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Pressure drops:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 32𝜇𝑣𝐿
=
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑑2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 (32 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 1.783 𝑥 300)
=
(900 𝑥 9.81) 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (0.05)2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= 77.548
8829
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 77.548 𝑥 8829
= 𝟔𝟖𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

5.4 Using the Moody Diagram

The Moody diagram gives the friction factor of a pipe. The factor can be determined by its
Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe. The rougher the pipe the more turbulent
the flow is through that pipe. By looking at the Moody diagram it shows that the right top corner
is completely turbulent and the left top is laminar (smooth flow). To determine the frictional
factor, find the relative roughness value for the pipe on the right. Then locate the pipes Reynolds
number on the bottom. Follow the relative roughness curve to where it crosses the determined
Reynolds number. Now at that point project a straight line to the left, the number determined on
the left is the frictional factor. The relative roughness of a pipe is given by:

𝒆
→ 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
𝒅

Where: e = Absolute roughness (m)

d = Diameter of pipe (m)

Figure 5.1: Moody Diagram

5 - 10
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

EXAMPLE 5.13
Find the frictional value, f for 1000 m pipe length with diameter of 0.25 m. The rate of flow of fluid
through the pipe is 0.051 m3/s and kinematic viscosity 1.306 x 10-6 m2/s. Given e = 0.0005 m. Use
Moody Diagram.

Solution
Given; L = 1000 m, d = 0.25 m, 𝜗 = 1.306 x 10-6 m2/s, e = 0.0005 m, Q = 0.051 m3/s

Find e:

𝑒 0.0005
= = 0.002
𝑑 0.25

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.25)2 = 0.049 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
0.05 = 0.049 𝑥 𝑣
0.051
𝑣=
0.049
= 1.041 𝑚/𝑠

Find Re:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
(1.041 𝑥 0.25)
=
(1.306 𝑥 10−6 )
= 199,272.588  200,000 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Take values e/d = 0.002 follow curve where Re = 200,000 is;  The answer is f = 0.024

EXAMPLE 5.14
Determine the friction factor if wastewater of kinematic viscosity 3.15 x 10-6 m2/s flowing at
10.5 m/s in a uncoated ductile iron pipe with inside diameter of 30 mm and roughness of the pipe
is 1.4 x 10-4 m. If the velocity reduces to 1.05 m/s with all other conditions being same, calculate
the friction factor.

Solution
Given;  = 3.15 x 10-6 m2/s, v1 = 10.5 m/s, e = 1.4 x 10-4 m, d = 30 mm - 0.03 m, v2 = 1.05 m/s

Find e:

𝑒 1.4 𝑥 10−4
= = 0.005
𝑑 0.03

Find Re:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗

5 - 11
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

(10.5 𝑥 0.03)
=
(3.15 𝑥 10−6 )
= 100,000  100 𝑥 103 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Take values e/d = 0.005 follow curve where Re = 100 x 103 is;  The answer is f = 0.032

Find Re:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜗
(1.05 𝑥 0.03)
=
(3.15 𝑥 10−6 )
= 10,000  10 𝑥 103 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Take values e/d = 0.005 follow curve where Re = 10 x 103 is;  The answer is f = 0.036

5.5 Flows through Pipes in Series

When pipes of different diameters are connected end to end to form a pipeline, they are said to be
in series. The total loss of energy (or head) will be the sum of the losses in each pipe plus local
losses at connections. Pipe in series or compound pipes is defined as the pipes of different lengths
and different diameters connected end to end (in series) to form a pipeline as shown above. The
discharge passing through each pipe is same.

Figure 5.3: Flow through pipes in series

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
From the Bernoulli’s Theorem

𝑷𝑨 (𝒗𝑨 )𝟐 𝑷𝑩 (𝒗𝑩 )𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝑨 = + + 𝒁𝑩 + 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
0 + 0 + 𝑍𝐴 = 0 + 0 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
2
0.5(𝑣1 )2 4𝑓1 𝐿1 (𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ) 4𝑓2 𝐿2 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 = + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔

Entrance Friction 1 Sudden Friction 2 Exit

enlargement
EXAMPLE 5.15
Find the rate of flow for the pipe that connected in series as below. Considered all the major and
minor losses.

5 - 12
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.3)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4

Bernoulli’s Equation:

𝑃𝐴 (𝑣𝐴 )2 𝑃𝐵 (𝑣𝐵 )2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
0.5(𝑣1 )2 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 )2
50 − 46 = + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔
0.5(𝑣1 )2 4 𝑥 0.0052 𝑥 400 𝑥 (𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 )2
= + +
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3) (2 𝑥 9.81)
4 = 0.025(𝑣1 )2 + 1.414(𝑣1 )2 + 0.051(𝑣1 )2
= 1.49(𝑣1 )2
4
𝑣1 = √
1.49
= 1.639 𝑚/𝑠

Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.071 𝑥 1.639
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.16
A horizontal pipeline 40 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and discharge freely into
the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of its length from the tank the pipe is 150 mm
diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is
8 m above the centre of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur, determine the rate of
flow. Take f = 0.01 for both sections of the pipe.

Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.30)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.018 𝑥 𝑣1 = 0.071 𝑥 𝑣2
0.071(𝑣2 )
𝑣1 =
0.018
= 3.944 (𝑣2 )

5 - 13
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Bernoulli’s Equation:

𝑃𝐴 (𝑣𝐵 )2 𝑃𝐵 (𝑣𝐵 )2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
0.5 (𝑣1 )2 4𝑓1 𝐿1 (𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
𝐻= + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔
0.5(3.944𝑣2 )2 4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 25 𝑥 (3.944𝑣2 )2 (3.944𝑣2 − 𝑣2 )2
8= + +
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15) (2 𝑥 9.81)
4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 15 𝑥 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
+
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 0.396(𝑣2 )2 + 5.285(𝑣2 )2 + 0.442(𝑣2 )2 + 0.102(𝑣2 )2 + 0.051(𝑣2 )2
= 6.276 (𝑣2 )2
8
𝑣2 = √
6.276
= 1.129 𝑚/𝑠
Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.071 𝑥 1.129
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.17
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. The
pressure intensities in the large and smaller pipe are given as 13.734 N/cm2 and 11.772 N/cm2
respectively. Find the loss of head due to contraction if Cc = 0.62, and also determine the rate of
flow of water.

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.50 m, d2 = 250 mm - 0.25 m, Cc = 0.62, P1 = 13.734 N/cm2 - 13.734 x 104 N/m2,
P2 = 11.772 N/cm2 - 11.772 x 104 N/m2

Area,
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.50)2 = 0.196 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 = 0.049 𝑚2
4
Velovity:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.196 𝑥 𝑣1 = 0.049 𝑥 𝑣2
0.049(𝑣2 )
𝑣1 =
0.196
= 0.25(𝑣2 )

1 2
(𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 = [ −1] 𝑥
𝐶𝑐 2𝑔
2
1 (𝑣2 )2
ℎ𝐿 = [ − 1] 𝑥
0.62 (2 𝑥 9.81)

5 - 14
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

0.376(𝑣2 )2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81)
ℎ𝐿 = 0.019(𝑣2 )2

Bernoulli’s Equation:

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(13.734 𝑥 104 ) (0.25𝑣2 )2 (11.772 𝑥 104 ) (𝑣2 )2
+ = + + 0.019(𝑣2 )2
(9.81 𝑥 1000) (2 𝑥 9.81) (9.81 𝑥 1000) (2 𝑥 9.81)
14 + (3.186 𝑥 10−3 )(𝑣2 )2 = 12 + 0.051(𝑣2 )2 + 0.019(𝑣2 )2
14 − 12 = 0.051(𝑣2 )2 + 0.019(𝑣2 )2 − (3.186 𝑥 10−3 )(𝑣2 )2
2 = 0.067(𝑣2 )2
2
𝑣2 = √
0.067
= 5.464 𝑚/𝑠
Loss of head due to contraction:

ℎ𝐿 = 0.019(𝑣2 )2
= 0.019 𝑥 (5.464)2
= 0.567 𝑚
Rate of flow of water:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.049 𝑥 5.464
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.18
Two reservoirs conveying water between two pipes in series of lengths 300 m and 400 m and of
diameters 0.3 m and 0.4 mm, respectively. The difference of head between the two surface is 8 m.
The friction factor for two pipes is 0.02 and 0.015 respectively. Determine the flow rate.

Solution
Given; L1 = 300 m, L2 = 400 m, d1 = 0.3 m, d2 = 0.4 m, f1 = 0.02, f2 = 0.015, H = 8 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.30)2 = 0.071 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.40)2 = 0.126 𝑚2
4
Velocity:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2

5 - 15
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

0.071 𝑥 𝑣1 = 0.126 𝑥 𝑣2
0.126(𝑣2 )
𝑣1 =
0.071
= 1.775 (𝑣2 )

Bernoulli’s Equation:

𝑃𝐴 (𝑣𝐵 )2 𝑃𝐵 (𝑣𝐵 )2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
0.5 (𝑣1 )2 4𝑓1 𝐿1 (𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
𝐻= + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔
0.5(1.775𝑣2 )2 4 𝑥 0.02 𝑥 300 𝑥 (1.775𝑣2 )2 (1.775𝑣2 − 𝑣2 )2
8= + +
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3) (2 𝑥 9.81)
4 𝑥 0.015 𝑥 400 𝑥 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
+
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.4) (2 𝑥 9.81)
= 0.08(𝑣2 )2 + 12.847(𝑣2 )2 + 0.031(𝑣2 )2 + 3.058(𝑣2 )2 + 0.051(𝑣2 )2
= 16.067 (𝑣2 )2
8
𝑣2 = √
16.067
= 0.706 𝑚/𝑠
Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.126 𝑥 0.706
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

5.6 Flows through Pipes in Parallel

The discharge through the main is increased by connecting pipes in parallel. The rate of flow in
the main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes. Hence, from figure 5.4, we
have:

Figure 5.4: Flow Through Pipes In Paralel

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐

In this, arrangement, the loss of head for each branch pipe is same. There for, loss of head for
branch pipe 1 = loss of head for branch pipe 2.

𝟒𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 (𝒗𝟏 )𝟐 𝟒𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐 (𝒗𝟐 )𝟐

=
𝟐𝒈𝒅𝟏 𝟐𝒈𝒅𝟐

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 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

EXAMPLE 5.19
A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe. The length and diameter
for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and 1.0 m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2 nd
parallel pipe are 2000 m and 0.8 m. Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe, if total flow in the
main is 3.0 m3/s. The coefficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same and equal to 0.005.

Solution
Given; L1 = 2000 m, d1 = 1.0 m, L2 = 2000 m, d2 = 0.8 m, f1 = 0.005, f2 = 0.005, Q = 3.0 m3/s

4𝑓1 𝐿1 (𝑣1 )2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 (𝑣2 )2

=
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2
2
4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 2000 𝑥 (𝑣1 ) 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 2000 𝑥 (𝑣2 )2
=
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.0) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.8)
2.039(𝑣1 )2 = 2.548(𝑣2 )2
2.548(𝑣2 )2
𝑣1 = √
2.039
= 1.118(𝑣2 )
Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (1.0)2 = 0.785 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.8)2 = 0.503 𝑚2
4
Discharge:

𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.785 𝑥 1.118(𝑣2 )
= 0.878(𝑣2 )

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503(𝑣2 )

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
3 = 0.878(𝑣2 ) + 0.503(𝑣2 )
= 1.381(𝑣2 )
3
𝑣2 =
1.381
= 2.172 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 0.878(𝑣2 )
= 0.878 𝑥 2.172
= 𝟏. 𝟗𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

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 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

𝑄2 = 0.503 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503 𝑥 2.172
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟑 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.20
Figure shows water flow from tank A to tank B through two parallel pipes. The length and
diameter of the pipes are given in table 1. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe. Given friction factor
= 0.005. Consider all head losses.

Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 = 0.018 𝑚2
4
Pipe 1:

𝑃𝐴 (𝑣𝐵 )2 𝑃𝐵 (𝑣𝐵 )2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
0.5(𝑣1 )2 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 )2
𝐻= + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔
0.5(𝑣1 )2 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 200 𝑥 (𝑣1 )2 (𝑣1 )2
12 = + +
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.1) (2 𝑥 9.81)
12 = 0.025(𝑣1 )2 + 2.039(𝑣1 )2 + 0.051(𝑣1 )2
= 2.115(𝑣1 )2
12
𝑣1 = √
2.115
= 2.382 𝑚/𝑠
Pipe 2:
0.5(𝑣2 )2 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
𝐻= + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔
0.5(𝑣2 )2 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 200 𝑥 (𝑣2 )2 (𝑣2 )2
12 = + +
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15) (2 𝑥 9.81)
12 = 0.025(𝑣2 )2 + 1.359(𝑣2 )2 + 0.051(𝑣2 )2
= 1.435(𝑣2 )2
12
𝑣2 = √
1.435
= 2.892 𝑚/𝑠

Rate of flow:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= (7.854 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 2.382
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.018 𝑥 2.892
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

5 - 18
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

EXERCISE 5
1. A pipe with 8 cm in diameter is connected in series with a pipe of 19 cm in diameter. The
discharge is 0.02 m3/s. Calculate the head loss.
(Ans: 0.543 m)

2. The discharge through a pipe is 400 L/s. Find the loss of head when the pipe is suddenly
enlarged from 130 mm to 300 mm diameter.
(Ans: 32.2 m)

3. The discharge through a pipe is 200 L/s. Find the loss of head when the pipe is suddenly
enlarged from 150 mm to 300 mm diameter.
(Ans: 3.506 m)

4. A horizontal pipe of diameter 450 mm is suddenly contracted to 145 mm. The pressure
intensities the large and smaller ends pipes are given 120 kPA and 95 kPA respectively. If
Cc = 0.67, find the loss of head due to sudden contraction. Also determine the discharge.
(Ans: 0.493 m, 0.109 m3/s)

5. A horizontal pipe of diameter 400 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 200 mm. the
pressure intensities in the large and smaller pipe is given as 14.715 N/cm2 and 12.753 N/cm2
respectively. If Cc = 0.62, find the loss of head due to contraction. Also determine the rate of
flow of water.
(Ans: 0.567 m, 0.169 m3/s)

6. Water is flowing through a pipe 2.5km long with a discharge of 3500 litre/min. What should
be the diameter of the pipe, if the loss of head due to friction is 13 m. Take f for the pipe as
0.05.
(Ans: 0.404 m)

7. Water with a dynamic,  = 1.49 x 10-3 Ns/m2 flow through a pipe of 0.3 cm in diameter with a
velocity of 0.9 m/s. The length of the pipe is 9 m. (f = 8.83 x 10-3)
i. Calculate the head loss due to friction, using Hagen – Poisseulle’s formula.
ii. Calculate the head loss due to friction, using Darcy – Weisbach formula.
(Ans: 4.374 m, 4.374 m)

8. Determine the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 30 cm and length 60 m when
one end of the pipe is connected to a tank other end of the pipe is open to the atmosphere.
The pipe horizontal and the height of water in the tank is 5 m above the centre of the pipe.
Neglect major losses.
(Ans: 0.576 m3/s)

9. A large water tank a supplying water into a tank B through a pipe length of 2200 m and a
diameter of 160 mm as shown in figure 1. The height difference of the water level in both
tanks is 18 m. Considering all of the head losses, calculate the water flowrate in the pipe if
friction coefficient, f = 0.008.
(Ans: 0.018 m3/s)

Figure 1

5 - 19
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

10. Determine the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 10 cm and length 60 m and
when one end of the pipe is connected to a tank and other end of the pipe is open to the
atmosphere. The height of water in the tank from the centre of the pipe is 5 m. Pipe is given
as horizontal and value of f = 0.01.
(Ans: 0.015 m3/s)

11. Determine the difference in the elevations between the water surfaces in the two tanks
which are connected by a horizontal pipe of diameter 400 mm and length 500 m. The
velocity of water through the pipe is 2.5 m/s. Consider all losses and take the value of
f = 0.009.
(Ans: 14.813 m)

12. Taking into account only the major energy loss, if velocity of water in the small pipe is 0.8
m/s. Calculate the difference in water level in the tank A and B. If the diameter of the first
pipe is 50 mm long is connected directly to the 20 m pipe a larger diameter 100 mm and
length 25 m. Friction factors of both pipelines is (f = 0.0058).
(Ans: 0.315 m)

13. A horizontal pipeline 50 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and discharges freely
into the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 30 m of its length from the tank, the pipe is
200 mm diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 400 mm. The height of water
level in the tank is 10 m above the centre of the pipe. Considering all losses, determine the
rate of flow. Take f = 0.01 for both section of the pipe.
(Ans: 0.161 m3/s)

14. Two reservoirs with 7 m of water level difference are connected by a pipeline. The first
0.2 km long pipe is of 200 mm diameter and the latter 0.3 km long pipe is of 400 mm
diameter. Considering all minor losses, compute the discharge (litre/sec) through the
pipeline if friction factor is 0.01 for both sections of the pipe.
(Ans: 341.838 L/s)

15. The difference in water surface level in two tanks, which are connected by two pipes in
series of lengths 0.2 km and 0.3 km and diameters 400 mm and 200 mm respectively is 10 m.
Considering all losses, determine the discharge of water if f = 0.01 and Cc = 0.62 of the pipes.
(Ans: 0.055 m3/s)

16. Two reservoirs are connected by series of line as shown in figure 2. Calculate the flow rate
(L/s) in the pipe the following data is given. Neglect all minor losses.
(Ans: 26.129 L/s)

Pipe Diameter, d (mm) Length, L (m) Friction Factor, f

AB 120 50 0.01
BC 150 50 0.01
Table 1

Figure 2

5 - 20
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

17. Two water tanks are connected by a series of pipe as shown in figure 3 below. Using these
data, calculate the flow rate by considering all head losses with a friction factor of 0.01 for
both pipes.
(Ans: 0.035 m3/s)
Pipe Diameter, d (mm) Length, L (km)
AB 100 0.05
BC 200 0.07
Table 2

Figure 3

18. Figure 4 shows water flow from tank A to tank B through two parallel pipes. The length and
diameter of the pipes are given in table 3. Calculate the flow rate in pipe. Given friction factor
is 0.008. Consider all head losses.
(Ans: 0.02 m3/s)
Pipe Diameter (mm) Length (m)
1 50 120
2 100 120
Table 3

Figure 4

19. The difference in water surface level in two tanks, which are connected by two pipes in
series of lengths 400 m and 600 m and diameters 350 mm and 150 mm respectively is 20 m.
Considering all losses, determine the discharge of water if f = 0.015 and Cc = 0.65 of the
pipes.
(Ans: 0.023 m3/s)

20. The main pipe into parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as shown in figure 5. If the total
rate of flow for the main is 2 m3/s, find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe.
(Ans: 1.345 m3/s, 0.655 m3/s)

Figure 5

5 - 21
 MOMENTUM EQUATION
6.1 Momentum

Momentum of a particle or object is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. Charge of
velocity (in magnitude and/or direction) will charge the momentum.

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 𝒙 𝒗

6.1.1 Newton’s Law

Figure 6.1: Newton’s Second Law Figure 6.2: Newton’s Third Law Displaced
Displaced
If the net force on an The resultant force The fluid will exert an
1st Law

3rt Law
2st Law

object is zero, it will acting on a fluid mass is equal force but in

remain either at rest or simply the product of opposite direction on
moving in a straight its mass and its the surroundings (solid
line at constant speed. acceleration. boundary or body of
fluid producing the
change of velocity).

From Newton’s 2nd law of motion states force equals mass, m times acceleration, a:
∆𝒗 ∆𝒗
𝑭=𝒎𝒙𝒂 → 𝒂 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒙
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝑚
In fluid problem, the term = can be interpreted as mass flow rate – amount of mass flowing in
∆𝑡
each of time therefore:

𝒎
𝑭= ∆𝒗 = 𝒎̇(𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 ) → 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
∆𝒕

𝑭 = 𝝆𝑸(𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 )

6-1
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Where: 𝑚̇ = mass flow rate of the jet

𝑣1 = velocity of the jet striking the plate
𝑣2 = velocity of the jet after impact

Force exerted by the fluid on the surroundings, and it is obtained by decomposing the momentum
equation into x, and y.

𝑭 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑸 (𝒗𝟏𝒙 − 𝒗𝟐𝒙 ) 𝑭𝒚 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒗𝟏𝒚 − 𝒗𝟐𝒚

6.2 Impact of Jet

The liquid comes out from the nozzle is in the form of a jet and if a plate or vane is placed in the
path of the liquid jet, it will exert a force on the plate. The force exerted by the liquid jet on the
plate is known as impact of jet and can be determined depending upon whether the plate is flat,
curved, stationary or moving. The following cases of the impact of jet, i.e., the force exerted by the
jet on a plate will be considered:

Forces on stationary flat plate

Forces on inclined plate

Forces on curved plate

Forces exerted when a jet is deflected by a moving flat

Force exerted on pipe bends and closed conduits

6.2.1 Forces on Stationary Flat Plate

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate ( = 90o)

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0

𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟐
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate (Inclined plate)

Force component in normal direction

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣1𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑣2𝑥 ) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0
𝑭𝒏 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Force component in x and y-direction

𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

6-2
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

6.2.2 Force Exerted When a Jet Deflected by a Moving Flat Plate

Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate ( = 90o).

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ] [(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑢)]
𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨 [ 𝒗 − 𝒖 ]𝟐
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate (Inclined plate)

Force component in normal direction

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0

𝑭𝒏 = 𝝆𝑨 (𝒗 − 𝒖)𝟐 (𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)

Force component in x and y-direction

𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

EXAMPLE 6.1
A flat plate is struck normally by a jet of water 50 mm in diameter. If the discharge is 0.353 m 3/s,
calculate the force on the plate when it is stationary.

Solution
Given; d = 50 mm - 0.05 m, Q = 0.353 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.05)2 = 1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄 0.353
𝑣 = =
𝐴 1.963 𝑥 10−3
= 179.827 𝑚/𝑠

Force on the plate:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
= 1000 𝑥 (1.963 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (179.827)2
= 𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟕𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.2
Water flowing at the rate of 0.03 m3/s strikes a plate held normal to its path. If the force exerted
on the plate in the direction of incoming water jet is 520 N, calculate the diameter of the stream of
water.

Solution
Given; Q = 0.03 m3/s, F = 520 N

6-3
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Velocity:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
= 𝜌𝑄𝑣
520 = 1000 𝑥 0.03 𝑥 (𝑣)
520
𝑣=
30
= 17.333 𝑚/𝑠

Diameter of the stream of water:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
𝜋
0.03 = ( 𝑑2 ) 𝑥 17.333
4
= 13.613𝑑2
0.03
𝑑=√
13.613
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕 𝒎 ≈ 𝟒𝟕 𝒎𝒎
EXAMPLE 6.3
The force exerted by a 25 mm diameter water jet against a flat plate held normally is 700 N.
Calculate the velocity of jet in m/s.

Solution
Given; d = 25 mm - 0.025 m, F = 700 N

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.025)2 = 4.909 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4

Velocity of jet in m/s:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
700 = 1000 𝑥 (4.909 𝑥 10−4 ) 𝑥 (𝑣)2
= 0.491(𝑣)2
700
𝑣=√
0.491
= 𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 6.4
A 75 mm diameter jet of an oil having specific gravity 0.8 strikes normally a stationary flat plate. If
the force exerted by the jet on the plate is 1200 N, find the volume flow rate of oil.

Solution
Given; d = 75 mm - 0.075 m, s = 0.8, F = 1200 N

Area:

𝜋
𝐴= (0.075)2 = 4.418 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

6-4
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Velocity of oil:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
1200 = 800 𝑥 (4.418 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (𝑣)2
= 3.534(𝑣)2
1200
𝑣 =√
3.534
= 18.427 𝑚/𝑠

Volume flow rate of oil:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
= (4.418 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 18.427
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 EXAMPLE 6.5
A jet water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a fixed plate in such a way
that the angle between the jet and the plate is 600. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate:
i. In the direction normal to the plate
ii. In the direction of the jet

Solution
Given; d = 75 mm - 0.075 m, v = 25 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.075)2 = 4.418 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
i. In the direction normal to the plate:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 1000 𝑥 (4.417 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (25)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜
= 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝑵

ii. In the direction of the jet:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 2390.771 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜
= 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝑵

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 2390.771 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60𝑜
= 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.6
A 12 cm diameter jet of water with a velocity of 15 m/s strikes a plate normally. If the plate is
moving with a velocity of 5 m/s in the direction of jet, find the force on the plate.

Solution
Given; d = 12 cm - 0.12 m, v = 15 m/s, u = 5 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.12)2 = 0.011 𝑚2
4

6-5
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Force on the plate:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ]2
= 1000 𝑥 (0.011) 𝑥 [ 15 − 5 ]2
= 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.7
A jet of water 70 mm diameter with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes normally a flat plate which is
moving with a velocity of 6 m/s in the direction of jet. Determine the force exerted by the jet on
the moving plate.

Solution
Given; d = 70 mm - 0.07 m, v = 20 m/s, u = 6 m/s

Area:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴= (𝑑)2 = (0.07)2 = 3.848 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ]2
= 1000 𝑥 (3.848 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 [20 − 6]2
= 𝟕𝟓𝟒. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.8
A jet oil (s = 0.85) of diameter 95 mm moving with a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a fixed plate at an
angle of 35o. Calculate the force exerted in the direction of the jet on the plate:

i. When the plate is stationary

ii. When the plate is moving at 15 m/s to the axis of the jet.

Solution
Given; s = 0.85, d = 95 mm - 0.095 m, v = 30 m/s, u = 15 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.095)2 = 7.088 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.85 𝑥 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

i. When the plate is stationary:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 850 𝑥 (7.088 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (30)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35𝑜
= 𝟑𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑵

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 3110.115 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35𝑜
= 𝟐𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟗 𝑵

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 3110.115 𝑐𝑜𝑠 35𝑜
= 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟓𝟕 𝑵

6-6
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

ii. When the plate is moving at 15 m/s in direction of the jet:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴 (𝑣 − 𝑢)2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
= 850 𝑥 (7.088 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (30 − 15)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35
= 𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝟐𝟗 𝑵

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 777.529 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35𝑜
= 𝟒𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝑵

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 777.529 𝑐𝑜𝑠 35𝑜
= 𝟔𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟒 𝑵

6.2.3 Force on Curved Plate

Force exerted by the jet in the x-direction

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ]

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ (𝑣1𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) − (−𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽) ]
𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗 [ (𝒗𝟏𝒙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜶) + (𝒗𝟐𝒙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜷) ]

Force exerted by the jet in the y-direction

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − 𝑣2𝑦 ]

𝑭𝒚 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗 [ (𝒗𝟏𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶) − (𝒗𝟐𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷) ]

6.2.4 Force Exerted When a Jet Deflected by a Moving Flat Plate

Force exerted by the jet in the x-direction

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ]

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑢)[ (𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑢) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − (− (𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑢) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽) ]
𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨(𝒗 − 𝒖)[ (𝒗𝟏𝒙 − 𝒖) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + (𝒗𝟐𝒙 − 𝒖) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜷 ]

Force exerted by the jet in the y-direction is

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [𝑣1𝑦 − 𝑣2𝑦 ]

𝑭𝒚 = 𝝆𝑨(𝒗 − 𝒖) [ (𝒗𝟏𝒚 − 𝒖) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 − (𝒗𝟐𝒚 − 𝒖) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 ]

Resultant force

2
𝑭𝑹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )

Direction angle (with horizontal direction)

𝑭𝒚
𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑭𝒙

6-7
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

EXAMPLE 6.9
A jet of water having a velocity of 20 m/s enters tangentially a stationary curved vane without
shock and is deflected through an angle of 150o. If the volume flow rate of water is 0.002 m3/s,
find the resultant force on the vane.

Solution
Given; v = 20 m/s, Q = 0.002 m3/s,  = 30o

Force exerted by the jet in the x and y-direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − (−𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)]

= 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑥 + (𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)]
= 1000 𝑥 (0.002) 𝑥 [(20) + (20 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30𝑜 )]
= 74.641 𝑁 ( → )

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) ]

= 1000 𝑥 (0.002) 𝑥 [ 0 − (20 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 ) ]
= −20 𝑁 ( ↓ )

Resultant force on the vane:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(74.641)2 + (20)2
= 𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟕𝟒 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.10
An oil jet (sp. gr = 0.8) exits from a 6 cm nozzle with velocity 15 m/s and hits stationary curved
blade as shown in the figure. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force at the
blade.

Solution
Given; sp. gr = 0.8, d = 6 cm – 0.06 m,
v1 = 15 m/s, v2 = 12 m/s,  = 50o

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.06)2 = 2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Density:

𝜌 = 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Force exerted by the jet in the x-direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − (𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) ]

= 800 𝑥 (2.827 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 15 𝑥 [ 15 − (12 𝑐𝑜𝑠 500 )]
= 𝟐𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟖𝟗 𝑵 (→)

Force exerted by the jet in the y-direction:

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) ]

= 800 𝑥 (2.827 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 15 𝑥 [ 0 − (12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 500 )]
= −𝟑𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑵 (↓)

6-8
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Resultant force at the blade:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(247.189)2 + (311.848)2
= 𝟑𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟑𝟒 𝑵

Direction angle with horizontal:

𝐹𝑦
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝑥
311.848
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
247.189
= 𝟓𝟐𝒐
EXAMPLE 6.11
A jet of water 75 cm in diameter enters a fixed curved vane a discharge of 650 L/s at an angle of
30o to the horizontal. The jet leaves the vane at an angle 20o to the horizontal. Determine the
resultant force on the vane if the vane is stationary.

Solution
Given; d = 75 cm - 0.75 m, Q = 650 L/s - 650 x 10-3 m3/s,  = 30o,  = 20o

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.75)2 = 0.442 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
650 𝑥 10−3 = 0.442 𝑥 𝑣1
650 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.442
= 1.471 𝑚/𝑠

Force exerted by the jet in the x and y-direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 𝑥 [ (𝑣1𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) − (−𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽) ]

= 1000 𝑥 0.442 𝑥 1.471 𝑥 [(1.471 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30𝑜 ) + (1.471 𝑐𝑜𝑠 20𝑜 ) ]
= 1727.021 𝑁 ( → )

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 𝑥 [ (𝑣1𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼) − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽) ]

= 1000 𝑥 0.442 𝑥 1.471 𝑥 [(1.471 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 ) − (1.471 𝑠𝑖𝑛 20𝑜 ) ]
= 151.095 𝑁 ( ↑ )

Resultant force on the vane if the vane:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(1727.021 )2 + (151.095)2
= 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.12
A 25 mm diameter jet of water having a velocity of 6 m/s is deflected 90° by a curved vane, as
shown in figure. The jet flows freely in the atmosphere in a horizontal plane. Calculate the x and y
forces exerted on the water by the vane.

6-9
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Solution
Given; d = 25 mm - 0.025 m, v = 6 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.025)2 = 4.909 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4
Force exerted by the jet in the x-direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 ]

= 1000 𝑥 (4.909 𝑥 10−4 ) 𝑥 (6) 𝑥 [ (−6) − 0 ]
= −𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟕𝟐 𝑵 ( → )

Force exerted by the jet in the y-direction:

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − 𝑣2𝑦 ]

= 1000 𝑥 (4.909 𝑥 10−4 ) 𝑥 (6) 𝑥 [ 0 − 6 ]
= −𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟕𝟐 𝑵 ( ↓ )
EXAMPLE 6.13
A jet of water 50 mm diameter and having a velocity of 30 m/s enters tangentially a curved vane
which is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s in the direction of jet. The jet is deflection through an
angle 150o. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the vane.

Solution
Given; d = 50 mm - 0.05 m, v = 30 m/s, u = 10 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (0.05)2 = 1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4
Forces in x and y direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑢) [ (𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑢) − (−𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑢) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ]

= 1000 𝑥 (1.963 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (30 − 10) 𝑥 [(30 − 10) + (30 − 10) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30𝑜 ]
= 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟑 𝑵 ( → )

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑢)[ (𝑣1𝑦 − 𝑢) − (𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑢) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ]

= 1000 𝑥 (1.963 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 (30 − 10) 𝑥 [ 0 − (30 − 10) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 ]
= −𝟑𝟗𝟐. 𝟔 𝑵 ( ↓ )

Resultant force on the vane:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(1465.203)2 + (392.6)2
= 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟔. 𝟖𝟗𝟎 𝑵

Direction angle with horizontal:

𝐹𝑦
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝑥
392.6
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
1465.203
𝒐
= 𝟏𝟓

6 - 10
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

6.2.5 Force Exerted on Pipe Bends and Closed Conduits

Bernoulli’s equation can be used to find P2

𝑷𝟏 (𝒗𝟏 )𝟐 𝑷𝟐 (𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝟏 = + + 𝒁𝟐
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Force exerted by the jet in the x-direction

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 (𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥 )
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − (𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) ] + 𝑃1𝑥 𝐴1𝑥 + (−𝑃2𝑥 𝐴2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑸 [ 𝒗𝟏𝒙 − (𝒗𝟐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) ] + 𝑷𝟏𝒙 𝑨𝟏𝒙 − (𝑷𝟐𝒙 𝑨𝟐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)

Force exerted by the jet in the y-direction

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 (𝑣1𝑦 − 𝑣2𝑦 )
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) ] + 𝑃1𝑦 𝐴1𝑦 + (−𝑃2𝑦 𝐴2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
𝑭𝒚 = −𝝆𝑸(𝒗𝟐𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽) − 𝑷𝟐𝒚 𝑨𝟐𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Resultant force

2
𝑭𝑹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )

Direction angle (with horizontal direction)

𝑭𝒚
𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑭𝒙
EXAMPLE 6.14
A curved pipe was deflected to reduce the pipe diameter from 500 mm to 250 mm. The deflection
of fluid is 60o. The pressure at the bend 160 kN/m2. The flow rate is 0.70 m3/s. Based in figure,
Calculate the x and y forces exerted on the pipe bend.

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.5 m, d2 = 250 mm - 0.25 m, P1 = 160 kN/m2 - 160 x 103 N/m2, Q = 0.70 m3/s

Area:

𝜋(0.5)2
𝐴1 = = 0.196 𝑚2
4
𝜋(0.25)2
𝐴2 = = 0.049 𝑚2
4

6 - 11
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
0.70 = 0.196 𝑥 (𝑣1 )
0.70
𝑣1 =
0.196
= 3.571 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.70 = 0.049 𝑥 (𝑣2 )
0.70
𝑣2 =
0.049
= 14.286 𝑚/𝑠

Bernoulli’s equation:

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
160 𝑥 103 (3.571)2 𝑃2 (14.286)2
+ +0= + +0
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
𝑃2
16.310 + 0.650 = + 10.402
(9810)
𝑃2
= 16.310 + 0.650 − 10.402
(9810)
𝑃2 = 6.558 𝑥 9810
= 64333.98 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑃1 𝐴1 = (160 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 0.196 = 31360 𝑁

𝑃2 𝐴2 = 64333.98 𝑥 0.049 = 3152.365 𝑁

The x and y forces exerted on the pipe bend:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄[ 𝑣1𝑥 − (𝑣2𝑥 𝑘𝑜𝑠 𝜃)] + 𝑃1𝑥 𝐴1𝑥 + (−𝑃2𝑥 𝐴2𝑥 𝑘𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
= 1000 𝑥 0.70 𝑥 [ 3.571 − (14.286 𝑘𝑜𝑠 60𝑜 )] + [ 31360 − (3152.365 𝑘𝑜𝑠 60𝑜 )]
= 𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟖𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟖 𝑵 (→)

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)] + 𝑃1𝑦 𝐴1𝑦 + (− 𝑃2𝑦 𝐴2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

= 1000 𝑥 0.70 𝑥 [ 0 − (14.286 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜 )] + [ 0 − 3152.365 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜 ]
= −𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝑵 (↓)
EXAMPLE 6.15
100 L/s of oil (sp. gr = 0.99) is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 45 cm. If the pipe is bent by
135o, find the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of oil flowing is 125 kPa.

Solution
Given; d1 & d2 = 45 cm – 0.45 m, Q = 100 L/s – 100 x 10-3 m3/s, P = 125 kPa - 125 x 103 N/m3, s = 0.99

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 & 𝐴2 = (0.45)2 = 0.159 𝑚2
4
Density:

𝜌 = 0.99 𝑥 1000 = 990 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

6 - 12
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
100 𝑥 10−3 = 0.159 𝑥 𝑣1
100 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.159
= 0.629 𝑚/𝑠

𝑃1 𝐴1 & 𝑃2 𝐴2 = (125 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 0.159 = 19875 𝑁

Force exerted by the jet in the x and y-direction:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄[ 𝑣1𝑥 − (−𝑣2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)] + 𝑃1𝑥 𝐴1𝑥 + 𝑃2𝑥 𝐴2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 990 𝑥 (100 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 [ 0.629 + (0.629 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45𝑜 )] + 19875 + (19875 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45𝑜 )
= 34035.05 𝑁 (→)

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑥 [ 𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)] + 𝑃1𝑦 𝐴1𝑦 + (−𝑃2𝑦 𝐴2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

= 990 𝑥 (100 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 [ 0 − (0.629 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45𝑜 )] + [ 0 − (19875 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45𝑜 )]
= −14097.780 𝑁 (↓)

Resultant force on the bend:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(34035.05)2 + (14097.780)2
= 𝟑𝟔𝟖𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.16
A tapering pipe bend, from 500 mm to 300 mm in diameter, is installed to deviate the flow in a
horizontal pipeline as shown in figure below. The pressure at the inlet is 120 kPa and the rate of
flow is 500 L/sec. Determine magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the pipe
bend.

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.5 m, d2 = 300 mm - 0.3 m, P1 = 120 kPa = 120 x 103 N/m2, Q = 500 L/s - 500 x
10-3 m3/s

Area:

𝜋(0.5)2
𝐴1 = = 0.196 𝑚2
4
𝜋(0.3)2
𝐴2 = = 0.071 𝑚2
4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
500 𝑥 10−3 = 0.196 𝑥 (𝑣1 )
500 𝑥 10−3
𝑣1 =
0.196
= 2.551 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
500 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2

6 - 13
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

500 𝑥 10−3
𝑣2 =
0.071
= 7.042 𝑚/𝑠

Bernoulli’s equation, P2

𝑃1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑣2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
120 𝑥 103 (2.551)2 𝑃2 (7.042)2
+ +0 = + +0
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81)
𝑃2
12.232 + 0.332 = + 2.528
(9810)
𝑃2
= 12.232 + 0.332 − 2.528
(9810)
𝑃2 = 10.036 𝑥 9810
= 98453.16 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑃1 𝐴1 = (120 𝑥 103 ) 𝑥 0.196 = 23520 𝑁

𝑃2 𝐴2 = 98453.16 𝑥 0.071 = 6990.174 𝑁

Force in x and y direction:

−𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 [ 𝑣1𝑥 − (𝑣2𝑥 𝑘𝑜𝑠 𝜃)] + 𝑃1 𝐴1 + (− 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑘𝑜𝑠 𝜃)

= 1000 𝑥 (500 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 [ 2.551 − (7.042 𝑘𝑜𝑠 60𝑜 )] + 23520 − (6990.174 𝑘𝑜𝑠 60𝑜 )
= −195539.913 𝑁 (←)

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 [𝑣1𝑦 − (𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)] + 𝑃1 𝐴1 + (− 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

= 1000 𝑥 (500 𝑥 10−3 ) 𝑥 [ 0 − (7.042 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜 )] + [ 0 − 6990.174 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜 ]
= −9102.944 𝑁 (↓)

Resultant force acting on the pipe bend:

2
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )
= √(195539.914)2 + (9102.943)2
= 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟓𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟑 𝑵

Direction angle with horizontal:

𝐹𝑦
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝑥
9102.944
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
195539.913
= 𝟑𝒐

6 - 14
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

EXERCISE 6
1. A jet of water 10 cm diameter having a velocity of 15 m/s strikes normally a vertical flat
plate. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate.
(Ans: 1767.15 N)

Figure 1

2. The force exerted by a 25 cm diameter water jet against a flat plate held normally is 7.5 kN.
Calculate the velocity of jet in m/s.
(Ans: 12.372 m/s)

3. A 55 cm diameter water jet moves with the velocity of 15 m/s. Determine the force produced
if the jet hits in a normal condition to a series of plat moving the velocity 7.5 m/s.
(Ans: 13387.5 N)

4. An 85 mm diameter jet has a velocity of 40 meters per second strikes a flat plate. Calculate
the normal pressure on the plate if:
i. The plate is static.
ii. The plate is moving with a velocity of 25 m/s and away from the jet.
(Ans: 9080 N, 1276.875 N)

5. A jet of water 50 mm diameter is discharging under a constant head of 70 m. Find the force
by the jet on a fixed plate. Take coefficient velocity as 0.9
(Ans: 2183.686 N)

6. A jet of water of 100 mm diameter impinges normally on a fixed plate with a velocity of
30 m/s. Find the force exerted on the plate.
(Ans: 7068.583 N)

7. A jet of water of 10 cm diameter impinges normally on a fixed plate with velocity of 20 m/s.
Find the force exerted on the plate.
(Ans: 3141.60 N)

8. A jet of water of 10 cm diameter is discharging under a constant head of 100 m. Find the
force exerted by the jet on a fixed plate. Take coefficient of velocity 0.9.
(Ans: 12481.720 N)

9. A 55 cm diameter water jet moves with the velocity of 15 m/s. Determine the force produced
if the jet hits in a normal condition to a series of plat moving the velocity 7.5 m/s.
(Ans: 13387.5 N)

10. A 125 mm diameter jet having a velocity of 65 m/s strikes a flat plate. Calculate normal
pressure on the plate.
i. When the plate is stationary.
ii. When the plate is moving with a velocity of 35 m/s and away from the jet.
iii. If the plate is inclined at the angle of 40o to the axis of the jet.
iv. If the plate is inclined at the angle of 40o to the axis of the jet and the plate is moving
with a velocity of 35 m/s.
(Ans: 50700 N, 10800 N, 32589.332 N, 6942.106 N)

6 - 15
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

11. A jet oil (s = 0.80) of diameter 50 mm moving with a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a fixed plate in
such a way that angle between the jet and the plate is 30o. Calculate the force exerted by the
jet on the plate.
i. When the plate stationary.
ii. When the plate is moving at 5 m/s in direction of the water jet.
iii. If the plate is inclined to the axis of the jet.
iv. If the plate is inclined to the axis of the jet and the plate is moving with a velocity of 5
m/s.
(Ans: 1413.36 N, 981.5 N, 353.34 N, 612.003 N, 245.375 N, 425.002 N)

12. A jet of water 50 mm in diameter enters a fixed curved vane a velocity of 25 m/s at an angle
of 40o to the horizontal. The jet leaves the vane at an angle 30o to the horizontal. Assuming
there is no loss of energy due to impact and friction in the blade passage, determine the force
exerted by the jet in the horizontal and vertical direction.
(Ans: 2002.346 N, 175.183 N)

Figure 2

13. A jet of water from a nozzle is deflected through 60o from its original direction by a curved
plate which it enters tangential without shock with a velocity of 30 m/s and leaves with a
mean velocity of 25 m/s. If the discharge from the nozzle is 0.8 L/s, calculate the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force on the vane if the vane is stationary.
(Ans: 22.271 N, 51o)

Figure 3

14. A 55 mm diameter jet of an oil having a velocity of 35 m/s enters tangentially a stationary
curved vane without shock and is deflected though an angle of 45o. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force on the vane. Take specific gravity = 0.9
(Ans: 2004.909 N, 67o)

Figure 4

6 - 16
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

15. Figure 5 shows a jet of water with a velocity v1 striking a vane that is moving with a velocity
v0. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force exerted by the vane on the
water if v1 = 20 m/s and v0 = 8 m/s. The jet is 50 mm in diameter.
(Ans: 523.233 N, 22o)

Figure 5

16. A curved pipe was deflected to reduce the pipe diameter from 500 mm to 300 mm. The
deflection of fluid is 60o. The pressure at the bend = 175 kN/m2 and 45 kN/m2. The flow rate
is 65 L/s. Based in figure below, calculate magnitude and direction of the resultant force on
the vane.
(Ans: 32815.601 N, 5o)

Figure 6

17. Linseed oil with specific gravity of 0.93 enters the reducing bend shown in figure with a
velocity of 3 m/s and a pressure of 275 kPa. The bend is in a horizontal plane. Calculate the x
and y forces exerted on the water by the vane.
(Ans: -4330.570 N, -1333.835 N)

Figure 7

18. A 45° pipe junction discharge 0.455 m3/s flow of water. The water flows from 550 mm
diameter suction pipe to 330 mm diameter delivery pipe as shown in figure below. The water
pressure of the suction pipe is 145 kPa. Assume the position of the pipe junction is on the
horizontal axis, calculate the resultant force and its direction.
(Ans: 25600.276 N, -9779.683 N, 27404.677 N, 21o)

6 - 17
 Chapter 6 | Momentum Equation

Figure 8

19. A curved pipe was deflected to reduce the pipe diameter from 1.5 m to 0.5 m. The deflection
of fluid is 60o. The pressure at the bend = 555 kN/m2 and 255 kN/m2. The flow rate is 25 L/s.
Based in figure 9, calculate magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the vane.
(Ans: 29534.856 N, 73o)

Figure 9

20. A 400 mm diameter pipe carries water under a head of 30 m with a velocity of 3.5 m/s. If the
axis of the pipe turns through 46o, calculate the resultant force exerted by the water. The
pressure of water flowing is 294.3 kPa.
(Ans: 30184.214 N)

Figure 10

6 - 18
 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON
SURFACE
7.1 Hydrostatic Force

Force due to the pressure of a fluid at rest. E.g.: force exerted on the wall of storage tanks, dams,
and ships. Basic conditions for a plane surface submerged in a fluid:

• Force on the surface: Perpendicular to the surface

• Pressure: Linearly dependent only to the vertical depth

7.1.1 Centroid and Centre of Pressure

Centroid, (Cg) Centre of pressure, (Cp)

•Centroid mean centre of •Is defined as the point of

the point where his application of the total
body weight acts. pressure on the surface.

Figure 7.1: Centroid and Centre of Pressure

7.2 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Plane Surface

Hydrostatic force due to the fluid acting on the submerged plane surface. The unit is Newton (N)
or kg.m/s2.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

=𝑃𝑥𝐴
= 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝑨

The position of the submerged plane surface may be:

1. Horizontal plane surface

2. Vertical plane surface
3. Inclined plane surface

7-1
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

7.2.1 Horizontal Plane Surface

For horizontal surface, the equations for inclined surface can be used where  = 0.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

Where:  = Density of the liquid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity
(m/s2)
hcg = Height from the fluid surface
to the center of gravity of the
Figure 7.2: Horizontal plane surface submerged plane surface (m)
A = Area of the submerged surface (m2)

7.2.2 Vertical Plane Surface

For vertical surface, the equations for inclined surface can be used where  = 90o.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑰𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒉𝒄𝒑 = + 𝒉𝒄𝒈
𝑨 𝒉𝒄𝒈

Where: Ic = Moment of inertia about Figure 7.3: Vertical plane surface

the horizontal line though
the center of gravity of the submerged surface (m4) – see table 3.1
 = The inclined angle – see figure

7.2.3 Inclined Plane Surface

𝐹𝑅 is acting the center of pressure that is at a vertical distance ℎ𝑐𝑝 from the fluid surface where:

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑰𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒉𝒄𝒑 = + 𝒉𝒄𝒈
𝑨 𝒉𝒄𝒈

Figure 7.4: Inclined plane surface

7-2
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Table 7.1: Geometric Properties of Plane Surface

Square Rectangle Triangle Circle

Shape

𝟏 𝝅𝒅𝟐
Area 𝑨 = 𝑩𝟐 𝑨 = 𝑩𝑫 𝑨= 𝑩𝑯 𝑨=
𝟐 𝟒
𝑩𝟒 𝑩𝑫𝟑 𝑩𝑯𝟑 𝝅𝒅𝟒
Ic 𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄 =
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟔 𝟔𝟒
(Source: A textbook of hydraulics, fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines, R.S Khurmi)

EXAMPLE 7.1
A rectangular gate of 2 m base and 4 m depth is immersed vertically in an oil of density of
840 kg/m3 as shown in figure below. Find the resultant force on the gate.

Solution
Given; b = 2 m, d = 4 m,  = 840 kg/m3

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 4 = 8 𝑚2

Resultant force on the gate:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 840 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.5 𝑥 8
= 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟏. 𝟐 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.2
A circular gate of 2 m diameter is immersed vertically in an oil of density of 900 kg/m3. Find the
oil pressure on the gate and position of the centre of pressure on the gate.

Solution
Given; d = 2 m,  = 900 kg/m3

Area:
𝜋
𝐴= (2)2 = 3.142 𝑚2
4
Pressure on the gate:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3 𝑥 3.142
= 𝟖𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟒 𝑵

Position of the centre of pressure on the gate:

𝜋(2)4
𝐼𝑐 = = 0.785 𝑚4
64

7-3
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝑔
0.785 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (90𝑜 )
= +3
(3.142 𝑥 3)
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.3
A triangular plate plane of height 3.6 m and base 2.5 m is submerged in water with its vertex at
the water surface. Find the resultant force on the plate and the height of the centre of gravity.

Solution
Given; h = 3.6 m, b = 2.5 m

Area:

1
𝐴 = (2.5 𝑥 3.6) = 4.5 𝑚2
2

Resultant force on the plate:

2 2
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 𝐻 = (3.6) = 2.4 𝑚
3 3

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.4 𝑥 4.5
= 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟖 𝑵

Position of the centre of pressure on the gate:

2.5(3.6)3
𝐼𝑐 = = 3.24 𝑚4
36

𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝑔
3.24 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (90𝑜 )
= + 2.4
(4.5 𝑥 2.4)
= 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.4
A circular plate of 2 m diameter is submerged in water. The greatest and least of the plate are 2 m
and 1 m respectively. Find total pressure on the plate and position of the center of pressure.

Solution
Given; d = 2 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (2)2 = 3.142 𝑚2
4
Total pressure on the plate:

(1 + 2)
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = = 1.5 𝑚
2

7-4
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 3.142
= 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 𝑵

Position of the center of pressure:

o
1m
𝜋(2)4 𝑂
𝐼𝑐 = = 0.785 𝑚4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2m
64 𝐻
1
𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = + ℎ𝑐𝑔 2
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝑔 1
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
0.785 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (30𝑜 ) 2
= + 1.5 𝜃 = 30𝑜
(3.142 𝑥 1.5)
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.5
A triangular plate of 1 m base and 1.8 m altitude is immersed in water. The plane of the plate is
inclined at 30o with the free surface of water and the base is parallel to and at a depth of 2 m from
water surface. Find the total pressure on the plate and position of the center of pressure.

Solution
Given; b = 1 m, h = 1.8 m

Area:

1
𝐴= (1 𝑥 1.8) = 0.9 𝑚2
2
The total pressure on the plate:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 2 + 0.3 = 2.3 𝑚

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴 30o
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.3 𝑥 0.9
= 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟔. 𝟕 𝑵 0.6 m

Position of the center of pressure: 𝐿

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
0.6
1(1.8)3 𝐿 = 0.6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜
𝐼𝑐 = = 0.162 𝑚4
36 𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚
𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝑔
0.162 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (30𝑜 )
= + 2.3
(0.9 𝑥 2.3)
= 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.6
A rectangular plate 2 m wide and 4 m deep is immersed in water in such a way that its plane
makes an angle of 25o with the water surface. Determine the resultant force on the plate and the
position of the centre of pressure.

Solution
Given; b = 2 m, d = 4 m,  = 25o

7-5
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 4 = 8 𝑚2

the resultant force on the plate:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 1.8 + 0.845 = 2.645 𝑚

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.645 𝑥 8
= 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟕𝟗. 𝟔 𝑵
25o
Position of the centre of pressure:
2m
2(4)3 𝐿
𝐼𝑐 = = 10.667 𝑚4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
12 2
𝐿 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 25𝑜
𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝐿 = 0.845 𝑚
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝑔
10.667 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (25𝑜 )
= + 2.645
(8 𝑥 2.645)
= 𝟐. 𝟕𝟑𝟓 𝒎

7.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on Submerged Curved Surfaces

Curved surface CD submerged in a fluid are as shown in the following figures. Two force
components: FH and FV.

The vertical plane surface

projected from the curved
surface (the image)

Horizontal Force, FH :
•FH is the force equivalent to the force acting on the vertical plane surface
projected from the curved surface (the rectangular image).

Vertical Force, FV :
•FV is the force equivalent to the weight of the fluid above the curved surface.

7-6
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

•Horizontal Force 𝑭𝑯 = 𝝆 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝒙 𝑨

•Vertical Force 𝑭𝑽 = 𝝆 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝑽

Where:  = Density of the liquid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
hcg = Height from the fluid surface to the center of gravity of the
submerged plane surface (m)
A = Area of the submerged surface (m2)

Resultant force on the plate

𝑭𝑹 = √(𝑭𝑯 )𝟐 + (𝑭𝑽 )𝟐

Resultant force acting at an angle from horizontal

𝑭𝑽
𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑭𝑯
EXAMPLE 7.7
Determine the total pressure acting on the curved gate AB, per metre length, which is quadrant of
a cylinder of radius 1 m. Also determine the angle at which the total pressure will act.

Solution
Given; r = 1 m

Area:

𝐴 = 1 𝑥 1 = 1 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

1
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = + 1 = 1.5 𝑚
2
𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 1
= 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝜋𝑟 2
= (𝐿 𝑥 𝑊 𝑥 𝐻) + ( 𝑥 𝐿)
4
𝜋(1)2
= (1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1) + ( 𝑥 1) = 1.785 𝑚3
4

𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.785
= 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝑵

7-7
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Total pressure acting on the curved gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(14715)2 + (17510.85)2
= 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝑵

Angle at which the total pressure will act:

𝐹𝑉
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝐻
17510.85
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝟓𝟎𝒐
14715
EXAMPLE 7.8
Determine the total pressure acting on the curved gate of 2 m radius and 2 m length of the pool as
illustrated in figure.

Solution
Given; r = 2 m, L = 2 m

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 2 = 4 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

2
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = + 1.5 = 2.5 𝑚
2
𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.5 𝑥 4
= 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝜋𝑟 2
= (𝐿 𝑥 𝑊 𝑥 𝐻) + ( 𝑥 𝐿)
4
𝜋(2)2
= (2 𝑥 2 𝑥 1.5) + ( 𝑥 2) = 12.283 𝑚3
4

𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 12.283
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝟑 𝑵

Total pressure acting on the curved gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(98100)2 + (120496.23)2
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟖𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.9
A 1.5 m long curved gate in the form of a quadrant of a circle is located in the side of tank
containing water as shown in figure below. Calculate the resultant force acting on the gate and the
position of centre of pressure.

7-8
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Solution
Given; r = 2 m, L = 1.5 m

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 1.5 = 3 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:
2
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = +3 =4𝑚
2
𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4 𝑥 3
= 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝜋(2)2
= (1.5 𝑥 2 𝑥 5) − ( 𝑥 1.5)
4
= 10.288 𝑚3

𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 10.288
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟖 𝑵

Resultant force acting on the gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(117720)2 + (100925.28)2
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎 𝑵

Position of centre of pressure:

𝐹𝑉
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝐻
100925.28
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝟒𝟏𝒐
117720
EXAMPLE 7.10
A roller gate of cylindrical form 3.0 m in diameter has a span of 10 m. Find the horizontal force
and vertical force acting on the gate, when it is placed on the dam and the water level is such that
it is going to spill.

Solution
Given; r = 3 m, L = 10 m

Area:

𝐴 = 10 𝑥 3 = 30 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:
3
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = = 1.5 𝑚
2

7-9
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 30
= 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑵

Vertical Force:

1 𝜋𝑑 2
𝑉= 𝑥( ) 𝑥𝐿
2 4
1 𝜋(3)2
= 𝑥( ) 𝑥 10 = 35.343 𝑚3
2 4

𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 35.343
= 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.11
Find the resultant pressure due to water per metre length, acting on the circular gate of radius
3 metres.

Solution
Given; r = 3 m

Area:

𝐴 = 1 𝑥 3 = 3 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

3
ℎ𝑐𝑔 = = 1.5 𝑚
2

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 3
= 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝜋𝑟 2
𝑉=( 𝑥 𝐿)
4
𝜋(3)2
=( 𝑥 1) = 7.069 𝑚3
4

𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 7.069
= 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝑵

Resultant pressure due to water per metre length:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(44145)2 + (69346.89)2
= 𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝑵

7 - 10
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

7.4 Pressure Diagram for the Hydrostatic Structure

a. Pressure due to one kind of liquid on one side.

Resultant Force

𝟏
𝑭𝑹 = ( 𝝆𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝑯 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐

Height of Centre of Pressure

𝟐
𝒉𝒄𝒑 = 𝑯
𝟑

b. Pressure due to one kind of liquid over another on one side.

Force
𝟏
𝑭𝟏 = ( 𝝆 𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟏 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

𝑭𝟐 = ( 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒙 𝑳

𝟏
𝑭𝟑 = ( 𝝆 𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Resultant Force
𝑭𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭 𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑
Height of Centre of Pressure
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑭𝟏 ( 𝟑 𝒉𝟏 ) + 𝑭𝟐 ( 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟏 ) + 𝑭𝟑 ( 𝟑 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟏 )
𝒉𝒄𝒑 =
𝑭𝑹

c. Pressure due to liquid on both sides.

Force

𝟏
𝑭𝟏 = ( 𝝆 𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟏 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
𝑭𝟐 = ( 𝝆 𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Resultant Force

𝑭 𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 − 𝑭𝟐

Height of Centre of Pressure

𝟐 𝟐
𝑭𝟏 ( 𝟑 𝒉𝟏 ) − 𝑭𝟐 ( 𝟑 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒉𝒄𝒑 =
𝑭𝑹

7 - 11
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

EXAMPLE 7.12
A swimming pool contains 3.6 m deep water in one its sides. If the pool is 10 m wide on this side,
calculate resultant force of the act on the vertical side of the pool. Also calculate the point where
the resultant force acts on the wall.

Solution
Given; d = 3.6 m, L = 10 m

Resultant force of the act on the vertical side of the pool:

1
𝐹 = ( 𝜌𝑔ℎ ) 𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.6) 𝑥 3.6 𝑥 10
2
= 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝑵

Point where the resultant force acts on the wall:

2 2
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = 𝐻 = 𝑥 (3.6)
3 3
= 𝟐. 𝟒 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.13
Find the magnitude and line of the resultant force exerted on the side of a tank, which 1.5 m
square and 1 m deep. The tank is filled half full of a liquid having specific gravity of 2, while the
remainder is filled with a liquid having a specific gravity of 1.

Solution
Given; L = 1.5 m, H = 1 m, s1 = 1, s2 = 2

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 1 𝑥 1000 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 2 𝑥 1000 = 2000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Force:

1
𝐹1 = ( 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ1 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 1.5
2
= 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝑵

𝐹2 = ( 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
= (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 1.5
= 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑵

1
𝐹3 = ( 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (2000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 1.5
2
= 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑵

7 - 12
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Resultant force per metre length of the tank:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
= 1839.375 + 3678.75 + 3678.75
= 𝟗𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑵

Height of Centre of Pressure:

2 1 2
𝐹1 ( ℎ1 ) + 𝐹2 ( ℎ2 + ℎ1 ) + 𝐹3 ( ℎ2 + ℎ1 )
3 2 3
ℎ𝑐𝑝 =
𝐹𝑅
2 1 2
1839.375 ( 𝑥 0.5) + 3678.75 ( 𝑥 0.5 + (0.5)) + 3678.75 ( 𝑥 0.5 + (0.5))
3 2 3
=
9196.875
= 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.14
A tank contains water a height of 0.5 m and an immiscible liquid of density is 800 kg/m3 above
the water for a height of 1 m. Find the resultant force per metre length of the tank.

Solution
Given; h = 0.5 m, hw = 1 m

Force:

1
𝐹1 = ( 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ1 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) 𝑥 1 𝑥 1
2
= 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵

𝐹2 = ( 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
= (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 1
= 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵

1
𝐹3 = ( 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 1
2
= 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝑵

Resultant force per metre length of the tank:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
= 3924 + 3924 + 1226.25
= 𝟗𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.15
A bulkhead 3m long divides a storage tank. One side, there is a petrol of specific gravity 0.78
stored to a depth of 1.8 m, while on the other side is an oil of specific gravity 0.80 stored to a
depth of 0.9 m. Determine the resultant force on the bulkhead at which it acts.

Solution
Given; L = 3 m, s = 0.78, s = 0.80, h1 = 1.8 m, h2 = 0.9 m

7 - 13
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.78 𝑥 1000 = 780 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.80 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Force:

1
𝐹1 = ( 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ1 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (780 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.8) 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 3
2
= 𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟕𝟒𝟖 𝑵

1
𝐹2 = ( 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
2
1
= (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.9) 𝑥 0.9 𝑥 3
2
= 𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 𝑵

Resultant force on the bulkhead:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2
= 37187.748 − 9535.32
= 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝑵

7 - 14
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

EXERCISE 7
1. An isosceles triangular plate of base 3 metres and altitude 3 metres is immersed vertically in
water as shown in figure 1. Determine the total pressure.
(Ans: 44145 N)

Figure 1

2. A circular plate of diameter 2 m is submerged in water vertically such that its top surface is
1 m below the free surface of the water. Determine the total pressure force on the plate and
the position of the centre of pressure.
(Ans: 61646.04 N, 2.125 m)

Figure 2

3. A rectangular plate 1.5 m wide and 2 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes
an angle of 30o with the surface of water. Determine the total pressure force and position of
centre of pressure when the upper edge of the plate is 1 m below the free surface.
(Ans: 44145 N, 1.556 m)

Figure 3

4. A circular plate 3.5 m in diameter is submerged in water in such a way that least and greatest
depths of the plate below free surface of water are 2.5 m and 4 m, respectively. Find the total
pressure force on the plate and the position of centre of pressure.
(Ans: 306741.533 N, 3.292 m)

Figure 4

7 - 15
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

5. By refering to the water gate as shown in figure 5 below, calculate the height from the centre
of gravity to the water surface.
(Ans: 4 m)

Figure 5

6. A gate has been installed at inclined outletof water reservoir. This is a rounded door as
shown in figure 6 below. Calculate the total of hydrostatic force (F), and determine the
location for the center of pressure against the door.
(Ans: 14885.743 N, 1.957 m)

Figure 6

7. An inclined rectangular gate (1.5 m wide) contains water on one side. Determine the total
resultant force acting on the gate and the location of center of pressure.
(Ans: 47676.6 N, 2.711 m)

Figure 7

8. A 2 m long curved gate in the form of a quadrant of a circle is locate in the side of tank
containing water as shown in figure 8 below. Compute the horizontal, vertical and resultant
force on the curved gate.
(Ans: 323730 N, 374123.97 N, 494742.214 N)

Figure 8

7 - 16
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

9. A curve gate AB is submerged in a water as shown in figure 9. Determine the magnitude and
resultant force required to keep the gate closed.
(Ans: 192919.669 N, 36o)

Figure 9

10. Find the horizontal and vertical forces on a curved surface AB, which is in the form of a
quadrant of a circle as shown in figure 10. The width of the gate is 3 m.
(Ans: 235440 N, 369827.19 N)

Figure 10

11. A curved water gate with 3 m radius as shown in Figure below. Calculate the resultant force
due to the action of the sea water. Assume the long of the water gate is 4 m and the density of
sea water is ( = 1025 kg/m3).
(Ans: 698674.420 N)

Figure 11

12. A curve gate AB is submerged in a liquid as shown in figure 12. Determine the resultant force
due to water per meter length, acting on the 3 m radius curve gate AB as shown in figure
below.
(Ans: 283124.494 N)

Figure 12

7 - 17
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

13. Determine the resultant force acting on the curved gate AB shown in figure 13. Length of the
gate is 2 m.
(Ans: 384462.244 N)

Figure 13

14. Calculate the horizontal force and vertical force acting on the curved plates per meter length
(3 m) as shown in the figure 14 below.
(Ans: 3884760 N, 2675265.48 N)

Figure 14

15. A water tank contains 175 cm deep water (sp. gr = 0.75). Determine the resultant force and
the position at which it acts.
(Ans: 11266.172 N, 1.167 m)

16. A tank filled with two types of liquid with the value of density is 800 kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3.
The height of the bottom liquid is 50 cm. Find the resultant pressure per meter length of the
tank.
(Ans: 3423.69 N)

Figure 15

17. A cubical tank of 2.1 m height and 1.0 m width contains 2 types of liquid. A depth of oil with
specific gravity 0.9 is 0.8 m and a depth of water is 1.3 m.
i. Sketch and label the distribution pressure diagram at the wall tank surface.
ii. Calculate the hydrostatic force (total pressure), R.
iii. Determine the depth of centre of pressure on one vertical side.
(Ans: 20296.89 N, 1.419 m)

7 - 18
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on Surface

18. A bulkhead long divides a storage tank. On the side, there is a petrol of specific gravity 0.68
stored to a depth of 2.1 m, while on the other side there is an oil of specific gravity 0.9 stored
to a depth of 1.2 m.
i. Sketch Pressure Diagram.
ii. Calculate the Resultant Pressure of the partition wall.
iii. Find the position of the Resultant Pressure.
(Ans: 8352.234 N, 1.857 m)

19. Find the magnitude and line of action of the pressure exerted on the side of a tank, which has
a 1.5 m length and 1 metre depth. The tank is filled half full of liquid of specific gravity 0.85,
while the remainder is filled with liquid of specific gravity 0.65.
(Ans: 5150.251 N, 0.679 m)

Figure 16

20. A bulkhead 5 m long divides a storage tank. One side, there is a petrol of specific gravity 1.03
stored to a depth of 8.5 m, while on the other side is an water of specific gravity 1.0 stored to
a depth of 6.5 m. Determine the resultant force on the bulkhead and the position at which it
acts.
(Ans: 788907.938 N, 7.418 m)

7 - 19
 BUOYANCY AND
FLOATATION
8.1 Archimedes’ Principle

Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid it is acted by a vertical upward liquid
thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.

Figure 8.1: Volume of Water Displaced

Buoyancy
•When a body is immersed in fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the
body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Centre of Buoyancy
•The buoyancy force act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid and is
called the centre of buoyancy.

Center of Gravity
•Center of gravity refers to the mean location of the gravitational force acting on a
body.

We see that whenever a body is placed over a liquid, either it sinks down or floats on the liquid. If
we analyze the phenomenon of floatation, we find that the body, placed over a liquid, is subjected
to the following two forces:

1. Gravitational Force (Weight of body, W)

2. Up thrust of the liquid (FB )

8-1
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

W < FB W > FB

Float Immersed

Weight of Body, W = Buoyant Force, FB

𝑾 = 𝝆𝒃 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝑽𝒃 𝑭𝒃 = 𝝆𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝑽𝒅

Where: b = Density of the bodies (kg/m3)

f = Density of the fluid (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Vb = Volume of the bodies (m3)
Vd = Displaced volume of the fluid (m3)
EXAMPLE 8.1
A uniform body 3 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep floats in water. If the depth of immersion is
0.6 m, what is the weight of the body?

Solution
Given; L = 3 m, W = 2 m, H = 1 m, h= 0.6 m

Buoyant force:

𝑉𝑑 = 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 0.6 = 3.6 𝑚3

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.6
= 35316 𝑁

Weight of the body:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
𝑊 = 𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝑵
EXAMPLE 8.2
If a piece of irregular metal weighting 300 N in air, is completely submerged in water, it weighs
232.5 N. Calculate the volume of the metal.

Solution
Given; Wair = 300 N, Wwater = 232.5 N

Weight of body:

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 300 − 232.5 = 67.5 𝑁

8-2
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

Volume of the metal:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
67.5 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
67.5 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 𝑉𝑑
67.5
𝑉𝑑 =
9810
= 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑
EXAMPLE 8.3
A wood block measuring 0.4 m x 0.3 m x 0.2 m is floating in the water. The wood density is
600 kg/m3. Determine the value h.

Solution
Given; L = 0.4 m, W = 0.3 m, H = 0.2 m,  = 600 kg/m3

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 0.4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 0.2 = 0.024 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.024
= 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝑵

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 0.4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 ℎ = 0.12ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
141.264 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
141.264 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.12ℎ
141.264
ℎ=
1177.2
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.4
A rectangular block floating in the water with the dimension of 0.3 m x 0.4 m x 0.3 m (length x
width x height). Calculate the distance of the center of buoyancy and center of gravity of the
rectangular block when the depth of immersion is 0.09 m.

Solution
Given; L = 0.3 m, W= 0.4 m, H = 0.3 m, h = 0.09

Distance OB and OG:

ℎ 0.09
𝑂𝐵 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓 𝒎
2 2
𝐻 0.3
𝑂𝐺 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎
2 2 EXAMPLE 8.5
A block of wood 4 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep is floating horizontally in water. If the density of
the wood be 6.87 kg/m3, find the volume of the water displaced and the center of buoyancy
position.

Solution
Given; L = 4 m, W = 2 m, H = 1 m,  = 6.87 kg/m3

8-3
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 = 8 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 6.87 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 8
= 𝟓𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑵

Volume of the water displaced:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
539.158 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
539.158 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 𝑉𝑑
539.158
𝑉𝑑 =
9810
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝟑

Center of buoyancy position:

𝑉𝑑 = 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 ℎ
0.055 = 8ℎ
0.055
ℎ=
8
= 𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎

ℎ 6.875 𝑥 10−3
𝑂𝐵 = =
2 2
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒎

8.2 Stability

The stability of a body can be determined by considering what happens when it is displaced from
its equilibrium.

8.2.1 Stability of Immersed Bodies

When a body is completely immersed in a liquid, its stability depends on the relative positions of
the centre of gravity of the body and the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid, which is called
the centre of buoyancy. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in case of a
completely submerged are fixed.

8.2.2 Conditions of Equilibrium of Immersed Bodies

Stable Equilibrium
•When W = FB and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium.

Unstable Equilibrium
•If W = FB, but the B is below G the body is in unstable equilibrium. Thus the
body does not return to its original position and hence the body is in unstable
equilibrium.

Neutral Equibrium
•If FB = W and B and G are at the same point.

8-4
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

8.2.3 Stability of Floating Bodies

The stability of a floating body is determined from the position of metacentric (M). In case of
floating body, the weight of body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. The centre of
buoyancy may take different position centre of gravity, depending on the shape of the body and
the position in which it is floating.

8.2.4 Condition of Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

Stable Equilibrium
•If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium. MG is
positif.

Unstable Equilibrium
•If the point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilibrium. MG
is negetive.

Neutral Equibrium
•If the point M is at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will be in
neutral equilibrium.

Figure 8.3: Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

8.3 Meta Centric

It is defined as the point about which a body stars oscillating when the body is tilted by a small
angle. It is the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis
of the body when the body is given small angular displacement.

8.3.1 Metacentric Height

The distance between the metacentric of a floating body and the centre of gravity body is called
Metacentric Height, (GM).

8-5
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

Figure 8.4: Metacentric Height

8.3.2 Analytical Method for Metacentric Height

i. For equilibrium

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚, 𝑾 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅, 𝑭𝑩

𝝆𝒃 𝒈 𝑽𝒃 = 𝝆𝒇 𝒈 𝑽𝒅

ii. Distance between the centre of gravity body (OG) and the centre of buoyancy (OB)
from the bottom

𝑩𝑮 = 𝑶𝑮 − 𝑶𝑩
𝑯 𝒉
= −
𝟐 𝟐

iii. Distance between the centre of buoyancy

and the meta centre of a floating body

𝑰𝑪
𝑩𝑴 =
𝑽𝒅

Where: IC = Moment of inertia of the plan (m4) – see table 7.1

Vd = Volume of the water displaced (m3)

iv. Metacentric Height

𝑮𝑴 = 𝑩𝑴 − 𝑩𝑮
EXAMPLE 8.6
A block of wood of specific gravity 0.7 floats in water. Determine the metacentric height of the
block if its size is 2 m x 1 m x 0.8 m.

Solution
Given; s = 0.7, L = 2 m, W = 1 m, H = 0.8 m

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.7 𝑥 1000 = 700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

8-6
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.8 = 1.6 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 700 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.6
= 10987.2 𝑁

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 ℎ = 2ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
10987.2 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
10987.2 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2ℎ
10987.2
ℎ=
19620
= 0.56 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
0.8 0.56
= − = 0.12 𝑚
2 2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝑏𝑑3 2(1)3
𝐼𝐶 = = = 0.167 𝑚4
12 12
𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.56 = 1.12 𝑚3
0.167
=
1.12
= 0.149 𝑚

Metacentric height of the block:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.149 − 0.12
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.7
A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 3.0 m. Find the metacentric height of the
cylinder when it is floating in water with its axis vertical. The specific gravity of the cylinder = 0.6.

Solution
Given; d = 4.0 m, H = 3.0 m, s = 0.6

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.6 𝑥 1000 = 600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Weight of body:
𝜋
𝑉𝑏 = (4)2 𝑥 3 = 37.699 m3
4

8-7
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 37.699
= 221896.314 𝑁
Value h:
𝜋
𝑉𝑑 = (4)2 𝑥 ℎ = 12.566ℎ
4
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
221896.314 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
221896.314 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 12.566ℎ
221896.314
ℎ=
123272.46
= 1.8 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
3 1.8
= − = 0.6 𝑚
2 2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝜋(𝑑)4 𝜋(4)4
𝐼𝐶 = = = 12.566 𝑚4
64 64
𝜋(4)2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑥 1.8 = 22.619 𝑚3
4
12.567
=
22.607
= 0.556 𝑚

Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.556 − 0.6
= −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.8
A rectangular timber block 2 m long 1.8 m wide and 1.2 m deep is immersed in water. If the
specific gravity of the timber is 0.65, prove that it is in a stable equilibrium.

Solution
Given; L = 2 m, W = 1.8 m, h = 1.2 m, s = 0.65

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.65 𝑥 1000 = 650 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 1.2 = 4.32 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 650 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4.32
= 27546.48 𝑁

8-8
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 ℎ = 3.6ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
27546.48 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
27546.48 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.6ℎ
27546.48
ℎ=
35316
= 0.78 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
1.2 0.78
= − = 0.21 𝑚
2 2

𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝑏𝑑3 2(1. 8)3
𝐼𝐶 = = = 0.972 𝑚4
12 12
𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 0.78 = 2.808 𝑚3
0.972
=
2.808
= 0.346 𝑚

Metacentric height of the block:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.346 − 0.21
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒎 (stable equilibrium)
EXAMPLE 8.9
A rectangular pontoon with a mass of 20 tonnes floats in the liquid 985 kg/m 3. The size of the
pontoon is 5.0 m in length, 5.0 m in width and 5.0 m in height. Determine the metacentric height
of the pontoon.

Solution
Given; L = 5.0 m, W = 5.0 m, H = 5.0 m, m = 20 tonnes,  = 985 kg/m3

Weight of body:

𝑊 =𝑚𝑥𝑔
= 20 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
= 196200 𝑁

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 5 𝑥 5 𝑥 ℎ = 25ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
196200 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
196200 = 985 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 25ℎ

8-9
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

196200
ℎ=
241571.25
= 0.812 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
5 0.812
= −
2 2
= 2.094 𝑚

𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝑏 4 (5)4
𝐼𝐶 = = = 52.083 𝑚4
12 12
𝑉𝑑 = 5 𝑥 5 𝑥 0.812 = 20.3 𝑚3
52.083
=
20.3
= 2.566 𝑚

Metacentric height of the pontoon:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 2.566 − 2.094
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.10
A cylindrical buoy of 3 m diameter and 4 m long is weighing 150 kN. Show that it cannot float
vertically in water.

Solution
Given; d = 3 m, L = 4 m, W = 150 kN - 150 x 103 N/m2

Value h:
𝜋
𝑉𝑑 = (3)2 𝑥 ℎ = 7.069ℎ
4
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
150 𝑥 103 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
150 𝑥 103 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 7.069ℎ
150 𝑥 103
ℎ=
69346.89
= 2.163 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
4 2.163
= − = 0.919 𝑚
2 2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝜋(𝑑)4 𝜋(3)4
𝐼𝐶 = = = 3.976 𝑚4
64 64

8 - 10
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

𝜋(3)2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑥 2.163 = 15.289 𝑚3
4
3.976
=
15.289
= 0.26 𝑚

Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.26 − 0.919
= −𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.11
A wooden block of 20 cm long, 8 cm height and 10 cm width is weighing 11.77 N was floating in
water. Calculate the metacentric height of the wooden block.

Solution
Given; L = 20 cm - 0.2 m, W = 10 cm - 0.1 m, H = 8 cm - 0.08 m, W = 11.77 N

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 0.2 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 ℎ = 0.02ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
11.77 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
11.77 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.02ℎ
11.77
ℎ=
196.2
= 0.06 𝑚

𝐻 ℎ
𝐵𝐺 = −
2 2
0.08 0.06
= − = 0.01 𝑚
2 2

𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑑
𝑏𝑑3 0.2(0.1)3
𝐼𝐶 = = = 1.667 𝑥 10−5 𝑚4
12 12
𝑉𝑑 = 0.2 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 0.06 = 1.2 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3
1.667 𝑥 10−5
=
1.2 𝑥 10−3
= 0.014 𝑚

Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.014 − 0.01
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝒎 → 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎

8 - 11
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

EXERCISE 8

1. The density of wooden block is 650 kg/m3 and its length is 6.0 m floats in water as shown in
figure 1. Compute the volume of water displaced and the centre position.
(Ans: 14.625 m3, 0.488 m)

Figure 1

2. A ring weight 6.327 N in air and 6.033 N when submerged in water. Calculate the volume of
the ring.
(Ans: 2.997 x 10-5 m3)

3. A rectangular block with a dimension of 16 m length, 9 m width and 6 m depth, floats in

water. If the depth of immersion (draft) is 0.1 m, calculate the weight of the block.
(Ans: 141264 N)

4. A rectangular pontoon of 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.2 m deep is immersed 0.8 m in sea water.
Find the metacentric height of the pontoon.
(Ans: 0.738 m)

Figure 2

5. A solid cylinder of 2 m diameter and 1 m height is made up of a material of specific gravity

0.7 and floats in water. Find its metacentric height.
(Ans: 0.207 m)

Figure 3

8 - 12
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

6. A solid cube of 1200 mm side and of specific gravity 0.85 floats in water with one of its faces
parallel to the water surface. Find the metacentric height of the block.
(Ans: 28 mm)

7. Determine metacentric of a ferry the Selat Tebrau. The sea water density is 1029 kg/m 3. The
ferry dimension is 40 m x 15 m x 10 m. The ferry mass is 700 tones metric.
(Ans: 12.101 m)

8. A wooden block of 1 m x 0.4 m x 0.3 m of specific gravity 0.8 floats in water with its 0.3 m
side vertical. Determine its metacentric height, for tilt about longitudinal axis.
(Ans: 0.026 m)

9. A right circular solid cylinder of 1.5 m diameter and 0.5 m height having specific gravity 0.6
floats in water. What is metacentric height?
(Ans: 0.37 m)

10. A cylindrical buoy is of 2 m diameter and 3 m long. Determine the state of its equilibrium
about its vertical axis, if it weight 80 kN.
(Ans: unstable)

11. A rectangular pontoon has a width of 6 m, length of 10 m and a draught of 2 m in fresh water.
Calculate:
i. Weight of pontoon
ii. Its draught in seawater of density 1025 kg/m3
iii. The load that can be supported by the pontoon in fresh water if the maximum draught
permissible is 2.3 m.
(Ans: 1177200 N, 1.951 m, 176580 N)

12. A wooden block of dimensions 50 cm x 25 cm x 20 cm floats in water with its shortest axis
vertical. The depth of immersion of the block is 15 cm. Determine the metacentric height and
state the condition of its equilibrium.
(Ans: 0.01 m)

Figure 4

13. A solid cylinder of diameter 3 m has a height of 2 m. Find the height of water displaced by the
cylinder when it is floating with it’s a is vertical. The density of the cylinder is 700 kg/m3.
(Ans: 0.102 m)

14. A wooden of specific weight 7.36 kN/m3 (b) floats in water. If the size of the block is 1 m (L)
x 0.5 m (W) x 0.4 m (D), find its metacentric height.
(Ans: 0.017 m)

8 - 13
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and Floatation

15. A pontoon with a mass of 95 tonnes is floating in seawater ( = 1025 kg/m3). Determine its
metacentric height if the size of the pontoon is 10 m x 7 m x 3 m.
(Ans: 2.246 m)

16. A cylindrical buoy of 3 m diameter has a height of 3 m. If is made up of a material whose

specific gravity is 0.8 and made to float on water with is axis vertical. State whether its
equilibrium is stable or unstable.
(Ans: unstable)

17. A solid cylinder of diameter 1.5 m and 4 m height is made up of a material specific gravity 0.8
and floats in water. Find its metacentric height.
(Ans: -0.356 m)

Figure 5

18. A wooden block (specific gravity 0.8) of dimensions 1 m x 0.5 m x 0.4 m floats in water with
its shortest axis vertical. Determine the metacentric height and state the condition of its
equilibrium.
(Ans: 0.023 m, stabil)

Figure 6

19. Determine the metacentric height of a vehicle to transport pontoons that across a strait of
sea water with a density of 1150 kg/m3. The pontoon measuring is 27 m in long, 19 m in
wide and 9 m in height and the weight of the pontoon is 500 tones.
(Ans: 31.4 m)

20. Show that a cylindrical buoy of 1 m diameter and 2 m height weighing 7.848 kN will not float
vertically in sea water density 1080 kg/m3.
(Ans: -0.463 m)

8 - 14
Amat Sairin Demun (2011). Fluid Mechanics. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Dr. R. K. Bansal (1983). A Textbook on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines. Delhi College of
Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd. , New Delhi.

Dr. R. K. Bansal (2008). A Textbook on Fluid Mechanics. Delhi College of Engineering, Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd. , New Delhi.

Er. Himanshu Vasishta (23 Jan 2018). Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Pipe Bend, Watch More
Videos at: [Link]

G.S. Sawhney (2011). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Lord Krishna College of Engineering
Ghazizbad, I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

Syllabus DCC30122 – Fluid Mechanics (Version: 230419_1_Effective: June 2019). Kurikulum

Politeknik Malaysia. Jabatan Pendidikan Politeknik, JPP.

Syllabus DCC50222 – Hydraulics (Version: 230419_1_Effective: June 2019). Kurikulum Politeknik

Malaysia. Jabatan Pendidikan Politeknik, JPP.

Sukumar Pati (2013). A Textbook on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines. Haldia Institute of
Technology West Bengal, Tata McGraw Hill Education Provate Limited, New Delhi.
With over 17 years of teaching experience in the field of civil engineering for the Malaysian polytechnic
education system, the authors found that students lack the reading materials or reference that focused and in
line with the requirements of the polytechnic’s curriculum. According to the situation, that is why the writer is
trying to do their best to publish a book entitled “FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS”. Although it is not as
complete as any, but at least these small effort are able to color the Malaysian polytechnic education system.
This book is written primarily for students of polytechnic in Diploma of Civil Engineering and perhaps it also
might be used by others engineering student such as students of mechanical engineering. The students in level
of Bachelor ([Link]/ [Link]) will also find this book very useful as a beginning to explore the knowledge that is
more fundamentals. The authors also hope, the implementing agencies and government corporations also enjoy
an abundance of amenities to refer to this book. Basically, this book contains eight chapters, which are each
chapter contains sub-topics related to the main topic of the chapter. The topics covers are FLUIDS
CHARACTERISTICS, MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE, HYDRODYNAMICS, FLOW MEASUREMENT AND
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION, FLUID FLOW, MOMENTUM EQUATION, HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACE and
BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION. The topics covered the syllabus covered topics are Fluid Mechanics for
semester 3 and Hydraulics for semester 4 which are all the topics been concluded into a semester curriculum.
For Fluids Mechanics it covers topic about the behaviour and characteristics of engineering fluids and their
application in hydrostatic and hydrodynamic fluids. While for Hydraulics it covers topic such as the application
in hydrostatic and hydrodynamic fluid. It is hoped that this book will give a new dimension in teaching and
learning process for topics that covered in this book. It also the authors hopes that this book will encourage
students to study and understand the important aspects of the engineering fluid mechanics and hydraulics. The
authors would like to express their appreciation to all parties that involved in the completion of this book
primarily to Polytechnic Education Department, Department of Civil Engineering Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal
Abidin, the Head of Resource Centre Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin. Finally, my thanks to all friends who
have contributed ideas and supports.

FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS RESUME

HAMIDAH BT ZAKARIA
Education : Master of Technical & Vocational Education,
Degree of Bachelor or Civil Engineering
Posotion : Higher Education Officer, Civil Engineering Department
Telephone No. : 019-9275794
Email : [Link]@[Link]

MOHD YUZHA BIN USOFF

Education : Master of Technical & Vocational Education,
Degree of Bachelor or Civil Engineering
Posotion : Higher Education Officer, Civil Engineering Department
Telephone No. : 019-9598849
Email : yuzha@[Link]

RAHAYU BINTI MHD ADNAN

Education : Degree of Bachelor or Civil Engineering
Posotion : Higher Education Officer, Civil Engineering Department
Telephone No. : 019-2792182
Email : rahayu@[Link]

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam, Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin,

Km 8, Jalan Paka, 23000 Dungun, Terengganu.