AMSB INDIA SCHOOL CHAPTER 14 BIOMOLECULES CHEMISTRY-12

UNIT 14 BIOMOLECULES

 Biomolecules are complex organic molecules which forms the basis of life.
 The biomolecules associated with living systems are carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes,
lipids, hormones etc.
CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring organic compounds.
 They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 Hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio 2:1.
 They have the general formula Cx(H2O)y.
 They are synthesized by green plants from CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight by a
process called photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or large polymeric
substances that can be hydrolysed to polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis.
MONOSACCHARIDES
 These carbohydrates contain a single carbohydrate unit.
 It cannot be hydrolysed further to give asimpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketone.
 Eg: Glucose, Fructose, Ribose etc.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates which yield two to ten monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called
oligosaccharides.
 They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides etc.
depending upon the number of monosaccharides they provide on hydrolysis.
 Eg: Sucrose, Lactose etc.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are
called polysaccharides
 Eg: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen etc.
 The Carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non reducing
sugars.
REDUCING SUGARS
 Carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent are referred to as
reducing sugars.
 All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
NON REDUCING SUGARS
 Carbohydrates which do not have a free aldehyde or ketone are called Non-Reducing
Sugars.
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 In disaccharides, the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic

groups are bonded.
 Hence these are non-reducing sugars.
 Eg: Sucrose.
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Monosaccharides, are further classified on the basis of number of carbon atoms and the
functional group present in them.
 If a monosaccharide contains an aldehydic group, it is known as an aldose.
 If a monosaccharide contains a keto group, it is known as a ketose.
GLUCOSE
 Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form.
 It is present in sweet fruits and honey.
 Ripe grapes also contain glucose in large amounts.
PREPARATION
 In the laboratory, glucose is prepared by the hydrolysis of an alcoholic solution of sucrose
by boiling with dilute Hydrochloric acid or dilute Sulphuric acid.
H+  C H O
C H O11 + H O  + C H O
12 22 2 6 12 6 6 12 6
 Commercially glucose is obtained by the hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H 2SO4
at 393K under pressure.
H+ /393 K 
C H O + nH O   nC H O
6 10 5 2 2-3 atm 6 12 6
STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE

OR

CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE

-D-Glucose -D-Glucose
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Glucose is a colourless crystalline solid.
 It has a sweet taste.
 It is readily soluble in water.
 It is sparingly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Oxidation
 Mild oxidising agents like bromine water oxidize glucose to gluconic acid.
Br
CH OH(CHOH) CHO 2  CH OH(CHOH) COOH

2 4 H O 2 4
2

 Strong oxidising agents like HNO3 oxidize glucose to saccharic acid.

HNO
3  HOOC(CHOH) COOH
CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO  4

2. Reducing Property
 Glucose reduces Fehling’s solution to a red precipitate of cuprous oxide.

CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO + 2CuO  CH2OH(CHOH)4COOH + Cu2O



 Glucose reduces Tollen’s reagent to a shining mirror or black precipitate of silver.

CH OH(CHOH) CHO + Ag O 

 CH OH(CHOH) COOH + 2Ag
2 4 2 2 4

3. Reduction
 On reduction with Na amalgam and water, glucose gives a hexahydric alcohol called
sorbitol.

Na/Hg + H O
CH OH(CHOH) CHO  2  CH OH(CHOH) CH OH
2 4 2 4 2

 On reduction with conc. HI and red P, glucose gives n-hexane.

HI+redP
CH2OH(CHOH)4 CHO   CH3 -(CH2 )4 - CH3

4. Addition with HCN

 Glucose reacts with HCN to form glucose cyanohydrin.

CH OH(CHOH) CHO + HCN 

 CH OH(CHOH) CH(OH)CN
2 4 2 4

5. Condensation with Hydroxylamine

 Glucose condenses with hydroxylamine to form glucose oxime.

 CH OH(CHOH) CH=NOH + H O
CH OH(CHOH) CHO + NH OH 
2 4 2 2 4 2
6. Condensation with Phenyl hydrazine
 Glucose condenses with one molecule of phenyl hydrazine to form glucose phenyl
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hydrazone.
 It reacts with excess phenyl hydrazine to from glucosazone.
7. Acylation
 On heating with acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride, glucose gives glucose penta acetate.
MUTAROTATION
 The change in specific rotation of an optically active compound in solution with time is
called mutarotation.
 When α-D glucose solution having a specific rotation of +110° is allowed to stand, the
specific rotation gradually falls to +52.5°.
 Similarly, when β-D glucose solution having a specific rotation of +19.2° is allowed to
stand, its specific rotation gradually increases and remains constant at +52.5°.
 This change in specific rotation with time is called mutarotation.
ANOMER
 Pair of diastereomers which differ only at carbon-1
are called anomers.
 Carbon-1 is called anomeric carbon.

 α-D glucose and β-D glucose are anomers.

FRUCTOSE
 Fructose has the molecular formula C6H12O6.
 It contains a ketonic functional group at C2 and six carbon atom in the straight chain as in
the case of glucose.
 It belongs to D series and is a leavo
rotatory compound.
 It is appropriately written as D−(−)
fructose.
 Its open chain structure is as shown
below.
CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE

FURANOSE STRUCTURE
 Fructose exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained by the addition of −OH at C 5 to the
(=C=O) group.
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 The five membered ring obtained is known as furanose.

 Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one oxygen and four carbon atoms.

DISACCHARIDES
 These are carbohydrates with the general formula C12H22O11.
 Disaccharides give two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
 The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a
water molecule.
 The linkage formed between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called
glycosidic linkage.
SUCROSE
 Sucrose occurs in sugar cane, beet root etc.
 Sucrose on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D−(+) glucose and D−(−) fructose.
H 
C12H22O11 + H2O  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

 The two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C 1 of α –

glucose and C2 of β-fructose.

 The reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation.
 Therefore, sucrose is a non reducing sugar.
INVERT SUGAR
 Sucrose is dextrorotatory.
 After hydrolysis, it gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose.
 Since the laevorotation of fructose (−92.4°) is more than the dextrorotation of glucose
(+52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory.
 Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+)
to laevo (−).
 The product obtained is known as Invert Sugar.
MALTOSE
 It is obtained by the partial hydrolysis of starch by the action of the enzyme diastase
present in malt extract on starch.
 Maltose is composed of two -D glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked
to C4 of another glucose unit (II).
 The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows
reducing properties.
 So it is a reducing sugar.
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LACTOSE
 Lactose occurs in the milk of all animals and is also known as milk sugar.
 Cow’s milk contains about 4% and human milk contains about 7% lactose.
 This sugar is not present in plants.
 It undergoes hydrolysis by the enzyme called emulsin which specially hydrolyses β-
glycosidic linkages.
 Lactose is composed of β-D galactose and β-D glucose.
 The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose.
 Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates which give a large number of monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis.

 They have the general formula (C6H10O5)n.

 Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by

glycosidic linkages.
 Polysaccharides mainly act as the food storage or structural materials.
 Two important polysaccharides of plant origin are starch and cellulose.
1. STARCH
 Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
 It is the most important dietary source for human beings.
 High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables.
 Starch is a polymer of α-glucose and consists of two components.
 Amylose and amylopectin.
AMYLOSE
 Amylose is a water soluble component which consists of 15-20% of starch.
 Chemically amylase is a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D+ glucose units held by
C1−C4 glycosidic linkage.
AMYLOPECTIN
 Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80 - 85% starch.
 It is a branched chain polymer of α-D glucose units in which chain is formed by C1−C4
glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1−C6 glycosidic linkage.
2. CELLULOSE
 Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in
plant kingdom.
 It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
 Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide.
 It is composed of only β−D−glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage between
C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
3. Glycogen
 The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
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 It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is
rather more highly branched.
 It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
 When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose.
 Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATE
 Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals.
 They work as body fuels and act as the main source of energy.
 It acts as storage of energy for the functioning of living organisms.
 Carbohydrate like cellulose form structural material for cells.
 Some carbohydrates such as sugar and starch serve as food.

CARBOHYDRATES AT A GLANCE
REDUCING MONO GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE
No. SUGAR CHARACTER SACCHARIDES
α-D glucose + C1 of α -glucose and C2 of
1 Sucrose Non-reducing β-D-fructose β-fructose (C1 – C2)

α -D glucose + C1 of one α -glucose and

2 Maltose Reducing α -D-glucose C4 of another α - glucose
(C1 – C4)
β-D-glucose + C1 of galactose and C4 of
3 Lactose Non-reducing β-D-galactose glucose

1. Amylose is a linear
Starch α -D-glucose polymer of α -D-glucose
4 Amylose Non-reducing (C1-C4)

2. Amylopectin is a
Starch α -D-glucose branched chain polymer
5 Amylopectin Non-reducing of -D-glucose (C1-C4 &
C1-C6)
Cellulose Non-reducing -D-glucose C1 of one glucose and C4
6 of another glucose

Glycogen Non-reducing α-D-glucose It is a branched chain

7 polymer of α -D-glucose
(C1-C4 & C1-C6)

AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids are organic compounds containing both amino group
and a carboxyl group.
 They can be represented by the general formula
 They are very important because they are the building blocks of
proteins.
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 Human body can synthesize 10 out of 20 amino acids.

 Therefore, others must be supplied through our diet.
 The amino acids which can be synthesized in the body are known as Non-Essential
Amino Acids (NEAA).
 The amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through
diet are known as Essential Amino Acids (EAA).
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids can be classified as α, β, γ and δ depending upon the relative position of
amino group with respect to carboxyl group.
 Of these, α amino acids are important because they are building block of proteins.
 Amino acids are classified as neutral, basic and acidic depending upon the relative number
of amino group and carboxyl group in their molecule.
1. NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS
 Neutral Amino acids have equal number of −NH 2 and −COOH group.
 Eg: H2N−CH2−COOH
2. BASIC AMINO ACIDS
 Basic Amino Acids have more −NH2 group than carboxyl group.
 Eg: Lysine
3. ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS
 Acidic Amino acids have more carboxyl group than amino group.
 Eg: Aspartic acid.
ZWITTER ION
 Amino acid does not contain free amino and free carboxyl groups.
 Since one is acidic and the other is basic,
it undergoes an internal neutralization and
produces an internal salt known as zwitter
ion.
 In acid medium, zwitter ion is acting as a cation and it move towards the cathode during
electrolysis.
 In basic medium, zwitter ion is acting as an anion and it move towards the anode during
electrolysis.
ISOELECTRIC POINT
 It is a particular pH where the number of cations is exactly balanced by the number of
anions.
 At this pH there is no resultant migration of ions either towards the cathode or anode.
 This point is called isoelectric point.
PEPTIDES AND POLYPEPTIDES

 Compounds formed by the condensation of two or more same or different α-amino acids.
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 The condensation occurs between amino acids with the elimination of water.
 Here condensation takes place between carboxyl group of one amino acid and amino
group of another amino acid with the elimination of a water molecule. The resulting
−CO−NH− linkage is called a peptide linkage.

 Depending upon the number of amino acid residues per molecule, the peptides are
classified into dipeptide, tripeptide, polypeptide etc.
 A peptide having molecular mass up to 10,000 u is called a poly peptide.
PROTEINS
 Proteins are highly complex nitrogenous molecules which are essential for the growth and
maintenance of life.
 They are composed of a large number of different amino acids and are having a molecular
mass above 10,000 u.
 Proteins are the chief constituent of protoplasm in all living cells.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
 Based on the molecular structure proteins can be classified into two types. They are:
1. Fibrous Proteins
 It consists of linear molecules which are placed side by side to form fibres.
 The molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds.
 These are usually insoluble in water.
 Eg: Keratin, Myosin, Collagen, Fibroin etc.
2. Globular Proteins
 In this, the molecules are folded together to form a spherical shape.
 The peptide chains in globular proteins are held together by hydrogen bonds.
 These are soluble in water, acids, bases and salts.
 Eg: Insulin, Albumins, Enzymes, Hormones etc.
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 The structure is divided into 1°, 2°, 3° and Quaternary structure.
PRIMARY STRUCTURE (1°)
 1° structure shows how the atoms of protein molecules are joined to one another by
covalent bonds.
 Proteins are made up of peptide chains i.e., amino acid residues are joined by amide
linkages.

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 Primary structure of proteins gives the number, nature and sequence of amino acid
residues along the peptide chains.
SECONDARY STRUCTURE (2°)
 2° structure shows the way in which the polypeptide chains are coiled to give a helical
structure.
 The secondary structure deals with the conformation of the peptide chain present in the
protein molecule.
 In order to explain the secondary structure two models were proposed by Pauling and
Corey.
 They are: 1. α-helix
2. β-Pleated structure.

α-Helix
 It is a spiral arrangement of poly peptide chain, winding
around a central axis in a spiral manner.
 There are 3.7 amino acid residues in one complete turn
of the helix.
 The minimum distance between the two successive
turns is 5.4Ǻ.
 The diameter of the helix is 10Ǻ.
 Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are formed between the
C=O of one amino acid residue and the N−H of the
fourth amino acid residue in the chain.
 The hydrogen bonding prevents the free rotation and so
the helix is rigid.
 The α-helix may be either left or right handed.
 The right handed helix is more stable.
 Eg:- Hair, horn, nail, wool etc.
β-PLEATED STRUCTURE
 In this, the long peptide chains lie side by
side to form a flat sheet.
 Each chain is held to the neighbouring
chains by hydrogen bond.
 These sheets are then stacked one above
the other to form a 3 dimensional structure
called the β-Pleated structure.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE (3°)
 3° structure refers to the three dimensional structure.
 This arises due to folding, coiling and bending of polypeptide chain producing three
dimensional structures.
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 This structure describes the overall spatial arrangements of the polypeptide chain and
gives exact molecular shape.
 Eg: Globular Protein
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
 Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains known as sub
units.
 These sub units are held together by non-covalent interactions like hydrogen bonding or
Vander Waals forces.
 The spatial arrangement of the poly peptide sub units with respect to each other is known
as quaternary structure.
DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
 The disruption of 3 dimensional structure of proteins by changes in pH, temperature and
presence of chemical agents is called denaturation.
 As a result, globules unfold and helix gets uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity.
 During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but 1° structure remains intact.
ENZYMES
 Enzymes are biological catalysts produced by living cells which catalyse the biochemical
reactions in living organisms.
 Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins.
 Enzymes are highly specific in nature.
 Eg:- The enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.

Maltase 2C H O
C H O11 
12 22 6 12 6
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acids are biologically important polymers which are present in the nuclei of all
living cells.
 It plays an important role in the growth and development of all forms of life.
 Nucleic acids are polymers of certain monomeric units called nucleotides.
 They are polynucleotides.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
NUCLEOTIDE
 A nucleotide is a complex molecule made up of one unit of phosphate, a pentose sugar
and nitrogen containing heterocyclic base.
 Each nucleotide has three components-a nitrogen containing heterocyclic base, a pentose
sugar and a phosphate group.
 The heterocyclic nitrogenous base may be purines (adenine and guanine) of pyramidines
(thymine, cytosine and uracil).
 The sugar unit present in nucleotides is either ribose or deoxyribose.

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Nucleoside + Phosphoric Acid 

 Nucleotide

NUCLEOSIDE
 Nucleosides are the fundamental units in nucleic acids in which the heterocyclic
nitrogenous base is joined to a sugar unit.

Pentose sugar + Heterocyclic nitrogenous base 

 Nucleoside
CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acids are of two types:
DEOXYRIBO NUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
 This nucleic acid contains 2-deoxyribose.
 The heterocyclic nitrogenous bases present are the purines-adenine and guanine,
pyramidines-thymine and cytosine.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
 This nucleic acid contains ribose.
 The bases present in RNA are the purines-adenine and guanine and the pyramidines-
cytosine and uracil.
TYPES OF RNA
 Messenger RNA (m-RNA)
 It carries the message of DNA for specific protein synthesis.
 Ribosomal RNA (R-RNA)
 It provides the site for protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
 Transfer RNA (t-RNA):
 It transfers amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

 Watson and Crick in 1953 proposed a structural model of DNA.
 A DNA molecule consists of two strands twisted in the form of a
double helix.
 The DNA molecule looks like a spiral stair case.
 The two strands of the polynucleotide chains coiled around each
other in the form of a double helix.
 The strands are made up of nitrogenous base pairs connected by
hydrogen bonds.
 The long strands are made up of pentose sugar and phosphate
alternating with each other.
 The base pairs have one nitrogenous base from the purine and
another from the pyramidine group.
 The pairing between nitrogenous bases is always Adenine-
Thymine and Guanine-Cytosine.

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 The nitrogenous bases are complementary to each other.

 The nucleotides making up each strand of DNA are connected by phosphodiester bonds.
 This forms the back bone of each DNA strand.
 Adenine pairs with thymine by two hydrogen bonds (A=T) and guanine pairs with cytosine
by three hydrogen bonds (G ≡ C).
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA

It is double stranded It is single stranded

2-Deoxyribose sugar is present Ribose sugar is present

Bases present are adenine, guanine, cytosine Bases present are adenine, guanine,
and thymine. cytosine and uracil

Present mainly in the nuclei of the cell Present throughout the cell

BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

 DNA is responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of organisms.
 A DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division.
 Protein Synthesis by RNA molecules.
 Message for protein synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.
VITAMINS
 Vitamins are complex organic compounds which are required for the normal health,
growth and maintenance of the body.
 These substances are vital for the body.
 Vitamins cannot be produced by the body.
 Vitamins are provided through diet.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
Fat Soluble Vitamins
 Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are called fat soluble
vitamins.
 These include vitamin A, D, E and K.
 They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
Water Soluble Vitamins
 Vitamins which are soluble in water are called water soluble vitamins.
 These include vitamin B and C.
 Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in the diet.
 Because they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored in our body.

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VITAMINS AND DEFICIENCY DISEASES

No. NAME OF SOURCES DEFICIENCY DISEASES

VITAMIN

1 Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia,

butter and milk Night blindness
(Retinol)

2 Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri

vegetables and cereals.
(Thiamine)

3 Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis, digestive

kidney disorders and burning
(Riboflavin) sensation of the skin.
4 Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams.

5 Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and

curd Pernicious anaemia
(Cyanocobalamine)

6 Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and

green leafy vegetables.
(Ascorbic Acid) Scurvy

7 Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets, and osteomalacia

fish and egg yolk.
(Ergocalciferol)

8 Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of

germ oil, sunflower oil. RBCs and muscular
(Tocopherol) weakness

9 Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting

(Phylloquinone) time

NOTE
XEROPHTHALMIA: Hardening of cornea of eye due to the deficiency of vitamin A.
BERI BERI: Inflammation of the nerves and heart failure, ascribed to a deficiency of
vitamin B1.
CHIELOSIS: Fissuring at corners of mouth and lips due to the deficiency of vitamin B2.
PERNICIOUS ANEMIA: Deficiency of RBC in haemoglobin due to the deficiency of
vitamin B12.
SCURVY: Bleeding of gums due to the deficiency of vitamin C.
RICKETS: Imperfect calcification, softening, and distortion of the bones typically resulting
in bow legs in children due to the deficiency of vitamin D.
OSTEOMALACIA: Joint Pains and softening of the bones caused by impaired bone
metabolism due to the deficiency of Vitamin D.

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Prepared by Haizel G. Roy, H.S.S.T Chemistry, Govt. H.S.S. Kalamassery, Ernakulam. Page | 14