IR-Infrared Thermography Level III Chapter 1 Principles / Theory Introduction to Principles and Theory & Infrared/thermal testing involves the use of temperature and heat flow measurement as a means to predict or diagnose failure. This may involve the use of contacting or noncontacting devices, or a combination of both. + Contacting devices include: a) thermometers of various types, b) thermocouples, ©) thermopiles and d) thermochromic coatings. 4 Noncontacting devices include: a) convection (heat flux) devices, b) optical pyrometers, ©) infrared radiation thermometers, 4) infrared Linescanners and ©) infrared thermal imaging (thermographic) equipment. & Infrared thermography is > the nondestructive, non-intrusive, noncontact mapping of thermal patterns on the surface of objects. > Itis usually used to diagnose thermal behavior and, thereby, to assess the performance of equipment and the integrity of materials, products and processes. & The thermal maps “Thermal image” produced by infrared thermal imaging instruments are called thermogeams. > Inthe thermograms, temperatures are displayed in a spectrum of colors. ig Hierarchy of colors 1] Page> This chart illustrates the hierarchy of colors used to represent the relative temperature differences of the problems found during the inspection, & To understand and interpret thermograms, the thermographer must be familiar with a) the fundamentals of temperature and heat transfer, infrared radiative heat flow and b) the performance of infrared thermal imaging instruments and other thermal instruments. Fundamentals of Temperature and Heat Transfer bHeat ‘Heat may be defined as a form of energy created by the molecular motions of an object. +> Heat, unlike temperature, is a measure of the totallkinetie energy of all the the objects. + Asa form of energy, heat has the unit joule (J)in the International System of Units (SI). molecule: However, in many applied fields in engineering the British thermal unit (BTU) and the calorie are often used. _ Heat = Mass x (Te) > Calor YA calorie will raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. > — joule Is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1/4.184°C. > BT ¥ ABritish Thermal Unit (BTU) is a measurement of heat energy. One BTU is the amount of heat energy required to raise one pound of water by 12F, Example 1) Pretend that you have 10 grams of water at 70 degrees Celsius. How many calories are needed to get the sample to boiling? (Bolling occurs at 100 degrees Celsius) Heat = Mass X (T2-T1) Heat = 10 x (100-70) Heat = 300 calories Example 2) You have 200 grams of water at 65 degrees Celsius. If you apply 2000 calories to the sample, what will the final temperature be? Heat = Mass X (T2-T1) 2|Page2000 = 200 x (12-65) T2=759C Specific Heat ‘The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. “The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below where C is the specific heat. Q =C M aT > where, ¥ Q isheatadded, Joule v Cis heat specific heat, Joule per kelvin v Misheat mass, kilogram v_ Tisheat change in temperature, kelvin Heat capacity or thermal capacity, “The heat capacity of a material or structure describes its ability to store heat. ‘isthe product ofthe ied BE SERERY Io) RIE GRE ‘This means that denser materials generally will have higher heat capacities than porous materials. Heat Capacity volumetric = Cp. 0 > Where, ¥ WY AT ks Heat copscny, ue permet ¥ CP isheat specific heat, Joule per kelvin 3|PageY The heat capacity of an object Q/AT. is directly proportional to a material's specificheat C anddensity 0 + Heat flow/transfer ‘Heat flow is thermal energy in transit and heat always flows from warmer objects to cooler objects. & Temperature ‘Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy contained by an object; the degree of hotness or coldness of an object (e.g. atmosphere, living body) measurable by any of a number of relative scales. & Ameasure of the quantity of heat present in something. 4 Modes of Heat Transfer ‘The three modes of heat transfer are conductive, convective and ra + Allheat is transferred by one of these three modes. In most situations, heat is transferred by a combination of two or all three modes. Infrared thermography is most closely associated with the radiative process, but it is essential to study all three to understand the meaning of #hehiniOgraiis and to pursue a successful program of thermography. Temperature and Temperature Seales & Temperature is expressed in either absolute or relative terms. “ Thete are two absolute scales called > Rankine (English system) and Kelvin (metric system). ‘There are two corresponding relative scales called > Fahrenheit (English system) and > Celsius or centigrade (metric system} 4 Relative temperature is expressed as degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit (°C or °F). & The numerical relations among the four scales are as follows: “ Tcelsius = 5/9 (Tfahrenheit - 32) 4|Page“© Tfahrenheit = (9/5 T celsius) + 32 “ TRankine = T fahrenheit + 459.7 © TKelvin = T+ 273.16 + Example 1) > You have found a motor bearing that is 32 °F warmer than normal. Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius. T celsius = 5/9 (Tfahrenheit - 32) T celsius = 5/9 (32 - 32) Tcelsius =0 °C To onvettia ehaiigelin temperature or Helta T (AMT) between the English and metric systems, the simple 8/5\(U18t0i1) relationship is used: > AT Fahrenheit (or ° Rankine) = 1.8% AT Celsius (or Kelvin) + Example 2) > You have found a motor bearing that is 32 °F warmer than normal. Convert this temperature difference (AT) to degrees Celsius. AT Fahrenheit = 1.8x AT Celsius AT Celsius = AT Fahrenheit /1.8 AT Celsius = 32 /1.8 AT Celsius = 17.7 °C & Absolute zero Absolute zero is the temperature at which no molecular action takes place, + Absolute zero is expressed as HBPOIKGIVIN or ZEPSUEEFEESIRERKIN. Absolute zero is equal to {12736 and also equal to approximately SASSI7EF. + All bodies whose temperature is at the absolute zero point, emit 6 infrared radiation. 273.15 °C) emits Every object with a temperature aBOVE absolute zero (0 Kelvin Infrared radiation. 5|PageLaws of thermodynamics “The four laws of thermodynamics are 0) Zeroth law of thermodynamics. ob The law states “IF two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.” > Basically, if A=B and C=B then A=C. This may seem so obvious that is doesn’t need stating but without this law we couldn't define the concept of temperature and we couldn’t build thermometer. 1) First law of thermodynamics “& The law of conservation of energy. > The law states “that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy can change forms, and energy can flow from one place to another”. > In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the same, For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat supplied to the system equals the net work done by the system. > Aparticular consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that the total energy of an Isolated system does not change (is constant). > The flow of heat a form of energy transfer. > Heating is’a natural process of moving energy to or from a system other than by work or the transfer of matter. “4 The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy of a closed system U is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system Q, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings W. U=Q-W 2) Second law of thermodynamics + One statement for the Second Law relating to heat: > When ahot and a cold body are brought into contact with each other, heat ergy ill ow from tie hot body tolRhe EOIA Bady until they reach thermal equilibrium, i.e., the same temperature. However, the heat will never move 6 [Pageback the other way; the difference in the temperatures of the two bodies will never spontaneously increase, > Moving heat from a cold body to a hot body requires work to be done by an external energy source such as a heat pump. 4 Work and energy > the he Second Law explains is that itis impossible to convert heat energy to mechanical energy with 100 percent efficiency. 4 The arrow of time > The Second Law indicates that thermodynamic processes, i-e., processes that involve the transfer or conversion of heat energy, are irreversible because they all result in SAliMer@a8e In| EREFOpY. 4 The fate of the universe > The total entropy of the Universe increases whenever a real process occurs. Hence, the £8tal SHEFOpY of the Universe continually increases. Entropy increases, energy becomes less available, and the universe becomes more random or more “run down”. > The Second Law also predicts the end of the universe, according to Boston University. “It implies that the universe will end in a ‘heat death’ in which everything is at the same temperature. This is the ultimate level of disorder; if everything is at the same temperature, no work can be done, and all the energy will end up as the random motion of atoms and molecules, > Atransformation whose only final result is to convert heat, extracted from a source at constant temperature, into work, is impossible, 4 Entropy “as” >a measure of the unavailable energy in a closed thermodynamic system that is also usually considered to be a measure of the system's disorder, that is a property of the system's state, and that varies “AS” directly with any reversible change in heat in the system” Q “and inversely with the temperature of the system “T", aS=Q/T > Entropy “AS” is a measure of the degree of disorder or uncertainty in a system. > The Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible. 3) Third law of thermodynamics “4 The third law provides an absolute reference point for measuring entropy, saying that T|Page> As the temperature ofa system approaches HSRESSR=TSAETENSTR] the ERRFOBY of a system approaches B/ebnstanit/ minimum Value, Conductive Heat Transfer Itis the transfer of beat in stationary media. It is the only mode of heat flow in solids, but it can also take place in liquids and gases. It is usually thought of as a very slow process in the case of gases. 4 Conductive heat transfer occurs as the result of atomic vibrations (in solids) and molecular collisions (in liquids) whereby energy is moved, one molecule at a time, from higher temperature sites to lower temperature sites. & An example of conductive heat transfer is when one end of alsection of metal pipe warms up after a flame is applied to the other end. & The Fourier Law “The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that “the time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the ‘temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows”, “We can state this law in two equivalent forms: > the integral form, in which we look at the amount of energy flowing into or out of a body as a whole, and v the differential form, in which we look at the flow rates or fluxes of energy locally. Newton's law of cooling is a discrete analogue of Fourier's law, while Ohm's law is the electrical analogue of Fourier's law. : +) Fourier’s equation of heat conduction: Q=-kA(dT/dx) > Where, Y ‘Qis the heat flow rate by conduction (W or J/s) “K’is the thermal conductivity of body material (W/m-K) ¥ Y ‘R'is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m?) and Y ‘dT/dx is the temperature gradient (K/m). B|Page> Negative sign in Fourier’s equation indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative gradient temperature and that serves to make heat flow positive, v di the rate of heat conduction through a layer is proportional to the temperature ference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but itis inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. In real terms, the Fourier expression means that the rate of heat flow increases with increasing temperature difference, increases with increasing thermal conductivity and decreases with Increasing slab thickness. > Thermal Conductivity v Thermal conductivity K [W/M. K] is a measure of a material's ability to conduct heat and The material property that relates to the rate that heat flows through a solic The thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per unit area per unit temperature difference. Materials with high thermal conductivities are high heat EORGUCtORS. ‘An isotropic material is a material that has uniform properties in all directions. Insulators are materials used primarily to provide resistance to heat flow. They have low thérmal conductivity. > The Thermal Resistarice Concept 9|Page ‘The Fourier equation, for steady conduction through a constant area plane wall, can be written: d T, -T, o ~~~ 14 dx L ‘A. Q/A Heat flow per unit area (W/m?) is defined as: 2 % —T; Zz This can be re-arranged as:B. RIK /W]is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or simply the conduction resistance of the wall. C. Thermal conductivity K [W/M. K] is defined as: L RA + Thermal concluetity Is highest for metals such afalliminum and loWer for porous materials such as briek It's inversely proportional to theimal resistance (thermal resistivity). Example 1) > Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit area through a 4.0cm thick homogeneous slab with its two faces maintained at uniform temperatures The thermal conductivity of the material is 0.19 W/m K. 2 .,~,i-h Q/A = 0.19 (W/m. K) [ (38-21) °C /0.04 M Q/A =80.75 W/m? Example 2) > Calculate the thermal resistance and the rate of heat transfer through a pane of, ‘window glass (k = 0.78 W/m k) 1m high, 0.5 m wide, and 0.5 cm thick, if the outer-surface temperature is 24°C and the inner-surface temperature is 24.5°C pee 0.005m oon = kA 0.78w/ mk x lm x 0.5m v The rate of heat loss from the interior to the exterior surface is AT _ 245-24 10 [Page SR 00128Convective Heat Transfer + Convective heat transfer takes place in a moving medium and is almost always associated with heat transfer between a solid and a moving fluid (such as air). + In convective heat flow, heat transfer takes effect by direct conduction through the fluid and the mixing motion of the fluid itself. -& Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having |” ,. t=) 1 [My Crow a temperature different from that of the body, i energy is carried or convected from or Fa velcy Temperature Fy isaton to the body by the fluid If the 0) ar 1, esses! a the surface temperature of the solid is Ts, thelheat at) Heed sry) transfer per unit time is given by Newton's Lawof cooling ' 4 Newton's law of cooling “Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly upstream temperature of the fluid is Te», and locity and temperature distribution on fla plate proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small and the nature of radiating surface remains same, 4 Newton's cooling law in convection isa restatement of the differential equation given by Fourier's law: dQ/dt = h-A(Ts —T.) > Whére, YQis the heat flow rate by convection, (W or J/s) vf isthe (convective) heat transfer coefficient, W/ (m? K) vA isthe unit surface area of the body through which the heat is transferred, m? v_ Tsis the temperature of the surface of the body (solid), K ¥ Too isthe temperature of the surroundings (fluid), K‘It is important to keep in mind that the fundamental energy exchange at a solid-fluid boundary is by ohduetiOn, and that this energy is then converted away by the fluid flow. A. Q/A Heat flow per unit area (W/m?) is defined as: Q/A =h- (Ts -T.) B. Convective Heat transfer coefficient (h) (W/m? K) as the constant of proportionality relating the heat transfer per unit time and area to the overall temperature difference. h=Q/ A. (Ts To) C. The thermal resistance to convection heat transfer R (K/W), as: 2= <> Rils@asier toluselthanlh when determining combined conductive and convective heat transfer because then they are additive terms. “The rate of convective heat flow increases with > increasing temperature difference, > increases with higher convective heat flow coefficient and +P) The rate of convettive heat flow decreases with > Increasing convective thermal resistance. “Conductive and convective heat transfer are very similar. > In both, the heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature difference and the speed at which this energy is transferred (rate of heat flow) depends on the transfer coefficient of the media or material through which the heat energy flows.> Example 1) > The forced convective heat transfer coefficient for a hot fluid x1 x2 flowing over a cool surface is 225 W/m. °C for a particular problem. The fluid temperature upstream of the cool surface is 120 C, and the surface is held at 10 °C. Determine the heat transfer rate per unit surface area from the fluid to the surface. Q /A= h (Ts-Tee) Q/A= 225 (120-10) =24750 W/m? Radiative Heat Transfer + Radiative heat transfer is unlike the other two modes because: 1) it occurs by electromagnetic emission and absorption ina manner similar to light; 2) it propagates at the speed of light; 3) like light, it requires a direct line of sight; 4) the heat energy transferred is proportional to {HefOUrtN POWEFT! of the temperature of the objects; and 5) it can take place across a vacuum — in fact, a vacuum is the most efficient medium for radiative heat transfer. + The Stefan-Boltzmann law! + The Stefan—Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature, + Specifically, the Stefan—Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a blackbody across all wavelengths per unit time 4 also known as the black-body radiant emittance is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body's thermodynamic temperature T: Q/A = 6 Tt > Where, ¥ Qis the total energy radiated, (W or J/s) ¥ T isthe absolute temperature, (K}¥ @ is Boltzmann constant independent of surface, medium, and temperature; > the thermal emission from many surfaces (gray bodies) can be well represented by Q /A= o & T* Q /A= o & (Ts*-Tsur*) = Where ¥- &, the emissivity of the surface, ranges (0-1). The ideal emitter or blackbody is one, All other surfaces emit somewhat less than one. ¥ Ts and Tyur, the temperature of surface and surroundings respectively. ¥ Similarly, The thermal resistance to radiation heat transfer Ri, as: ‘> Example 1) > After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person standing near a brick wall. Such walls frequently have surface temperatures around 44 °C, and typical brick emissivity values are on the order of 0.92. What would be the radiant thermal flux per square meter from a brick wall at this temperature? Q/A= 06 Tt Q/A = 0.92 x 5.6697 x 10°(44+237)* Q/A = 527 w/m? aa] Page& Table 1 Summary of heat transfer rate processes Mode Tonio Mebane Rate of | a ‘transfer cia eee Diffusion of energy due to random molecular motion kat Conduction Diffusion of energy due to Convection random molecularmotion —-g = hh A(T,-T,) plus bulk motion Energy transfer by ie cic Radiation electromagnetic waves q = 0 ATS -Toy") aeMT 1) N68! The concept of thermal resistance (analogous to electrical resistance) is introduced as an aid ‘to solving conduction heat transfer problems, & Radioactive heat transfer takes place in the infrared portion of the spectrum, from 0.75ym to about 104m. Most instruments used in infrared thermography operate somewhere within the 2t@/M@imH spectral region. “& Most imaging infrared radiometers operate in the Byam te Sum OF pm tO A2jaM band. This is because of atmospheric absorption within these two bands is small enough to provide minimal impact on radiometry. Xerays | Uttra- intrared | Radio omic \ 3 eHe SH UME VHE He Me UF vir hens cee SD admaaianl T_T 0.01 04 140 100-04 130 400 nm fm pin jim him em km tom km -- ‘Wavelength Intrared Measurement Region 04 075 10 1520 30 50 10 20 30 ‘Wavelength (umm) 4 The measurement unit for radiant energy wavelength > Armicron (um) is BRe=INGREH ofa meter > Ananometer (nm) is Bie billionth ofa meter. > Wavelength is inversely related to frequency (longer wavelengths have lower frequencies). 15 PageFundamentals of Radiative Heat Flow 4 To understanding the Fundamentals of Radiative Heat Flow you must know the following definitions: - ‘% Transmissivity, (transmittance) ( t ). = The proportion of infrared radiant energy impinging on an object's surface. For any given spectral interval that is transmitted through the object; t= 1-€-p * Fora blackbody, transmissivity ( ¢ )= 0. + Transmissivity is the internal transmittance per unit thickness of a non-dlffusing material. % Reflectivity, (reflectance) (p) * The ratio of the total energy reflected from a surface to total incidence on thatsurface; p= Le-t * pfora perfect mirror this approaches 1.0” that's mean a perfect reflector and Poor Emitter", = pfora blackbody the reflectivity is 0. = Technically reflectivity is the ratio of the intensity of the reflected radiation to the total radiation and reflectance is the ratio of the reflected flux to the incident flux. In thermography, the two terms are often used interchangeably. + Exitance, radiant (also called radiosity) "Total infrared energy (radiant flux) exitance leaving a target surface. This is composed of radiated, reflected and transmitted components. Only the radiated components related to target surface temperature) “Emissivity, (Emittance) (e) = Emissivity isa measure of the ability of a material to emit (give off) infrared radiation and itis the ratio of a target surface's radiance to that of a blackbody at the same temperature, viewed from the same angle and over the same spectral interval; €= 1-p-« ‘* agenericlookup value for a material Values range from 0 to 1.0, | Aperfect emitter is referred to as a Blackbody, = 1, that's mean (Poor Reflector) = All bodies in nature are colored bodies and have an ¢ <1. = Agood emitter is a good absorber of energy. + Absorptivity, (absorptance) (a) "The proportion (as a fraction of 2) of the radiant energy impinging on a material's surface that is absorbed into the material. = fora blackbody is unity (1.0). = Technically, absorptivity is the internal absorptance per unit path length. In thermography, the two terms are often used interchangeably. 16 [Page+ As per Kirchhoff's Law For an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium, the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity; 22a 4 Radiation Exchange at the Target Surface + The measurement of infrared/thermal radiation is the basis for non-contact temperature measurement and infrared thermography. * The surface to be evaluated is called the target surface. + Thermal infrared radiation leaving a surface is called Bxitanes OF radiosity. “ It can be emitted from the surface, feflected by the surface, oF transmitted through the surface. illustrated in Figure. Figure: Infrared radiation leaving a target surface I, vy 1 al e Sv # . e . Reflected Radiation (W,) mitted Radiation (W,) ransmitted Radiation (W9 Target Surface Wp= Gee T,! oWe + SOW, + %p= 100% Wy Ger TA W=oet TA Wa + W,+ Wp= Target Exitance or Radiosity 47 [Pas+ The total radiosity is equal to the sum of the emitted component (Wz), the reflected component (W;) and the transmitted component (Wi). + Itisimportant to note that the surface temperature Te is related to the emitted component We only. + Kirchhoff’s Law of thermal radfatior > Thermal infrared radiation impinging on a surface can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted as illustrated in Figure below. Figure: Infrared radiation impinging on ste ee, pm Eat Bp + Be > The sum of the three components is always equal to the total received radiation, Ey the fractional sum of the three components equals unity or 100 percent. Ex= Eat Ep+ Er > Where, Y E:=total energy Y As per Kirchhoffs Law For an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium, the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity. emissivity « = absorptivity a Likewise, the sum of the three material properties, transmissivity, reflecti and emissivity, also always equals unity (1): e+p+r=t 18| PageExample 1) Ifa surface has an emissivity of 0.35 and a reflectivity of 0.45. its transmissivity would be: ef pk zt i t= p =e t = 1-(0. 35+0. 45) t= 0.20 > Example 2) > The temperature of an aluminum bus bar is being measured. You have determined emissivity is 0.15. What is the reflectivity of the bus bar? ® Who = 1 Mm “ele 8 ~al-“O. 15= 0.85 Example 3) > The temperature of an aluminum tab is being measured. You have determined reflectivity is 0.98. What is the emissivity of the bus bar? et p =f =F, e = 1- 0.98= 0.02 19] Pageod Reflections off Specular and Diffuse Surfaces * Specular Reflector > Aperfectly smooth surface will reflect incident energy at an angle complementary to the angle of incidence. Specular Reflection 40° eeeeeeernenewenemrerers ss . 50' > When two angles add to 90°, we say they "Complement" each other. > Example 1) > What is the reflect angle of thermal radiation, if the angle of incidence thermal radiation impinging on perfectly smooth surface is 55° degree? @ = 90-.55= 35° degree + Diffuse Reflector > Acompletely rough or structured surface will scatter or disperse all of the incident nn uy tsSeiSa! | “ No perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse surface can exist in nature, and all real surfaces have some diffusivity and some specularity. 20 Page+ These surface characteristics will determine the type and direction of the reflected component of incident radiation. + When making practical measurements, the specularity or diffusivity of a target surface are taken into account by compensating for the effective emissivity (€*) of the surface. 4 Radiant Energy Related to Target Surface Temperature * All target surfaces warmer than absolute zero radiate energy in the infrared spectrum. + Figure: > shows the spectral distribution of energy 10° radiating from various idealized target surfaces as a function of surface 10° Semperatire (0) nnd semiclengahi(Al). Amax Very hot targets radiate in the vi 107 | 3000K ungsten as well, and our eyes can see this “iG8 | | I Lr sa Wet because they are sensitive to light. v The idealized curves shown in Figure are for perfect radiators known as blackbodies. Planck’s law v * describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbodyjin thermal equilibrium at a definite temperature and AL * MEA describes the distribution of energy BVEE 107 A ‘i ie HEEL PN | aa rn temperature. \ * gives a distribution that peaks at a certain 10° wavelength, the peak shifts to shorter } | | AN \" 1 LE NN wavelengths for higher temperatures, and 4 the area under the curve grows rapidly 101040810 10 100 1,000 Wavelength in Micrometers (1m) Relative Emissive Power with increasing temperature. "The emitted radiation varies continuously with wavelength. = At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature, > Stephen-Boltzmann Law = determines the total blackbody emissive power, which is the sum of the radiation emitted over all wavelengths. 2a[Page* describes integrate area under the curve to derive the total radiant flux “power” emitted per unit area. * illustrates that W, the total radiant flux emitted per unit area of surface, (the area under the curve) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute surface ity of the surface, €. temperature T4, a numerical constant o, and the emi W= o€T* Where, Wis Radiant Flux per Unit Area, W/m? € is emissivity, (unity for a blackbody target) © is Stefan-Boltzmann constant o =5.673 x 10° W/mK‘ Tis absolute temperature of target, K = Example 1) After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person standing near a brick wall. Such walls frequently have surface temperatures around 44°C, and typical brick emissivity values are on the order of 0.92. What would be the radiant thermal flux per square meter from a brick wall at this temperature? W=oT W = 0.92 x 5.6697 x 10%(44+237)4 W = 527 w/n? 2 [Page> Wien’s Displacement Law * illustrates that the peak wavelength, Amax um) at which a surface radiates, is easily determined by dividing a constant b (approximately 2897) by the absolute temperature T (Kelvin) of the surface. Anax = b/T Where, Anax is peak wavelength, pm D is Wien’s displacement constant, b = 2897. eax = 2897/T = The spectral region in which the radiation is concentrated depends on temperature, with comparatively mote radiation appearing ot SEA * Example 1) ‘The peak emitting wavelength of a 300 °C (572 * F) blackbody is approximately: hex = 2897/T T geivin = T celsius + 273. 16 T kevin = 300 + 273.16 =573. 16 k Anax = 2897/5783. 16 Anax = 5.05496 pm 23 [Page4 Practical Infrared Measurements > In practical measurement applications, the radiant energy leaves a target surface, passes through some transmitting medium, usually an atmospheric path and reaches a measuring instrument. > as per the figure below, when making measurements or producing a thermogram, three sets of characteristics must be considered: a) characteristics of the target surface, b) characteristics of the transmitting medium and ¢) characteristics of the measuring instrument. Figure: Three sets of characteristics of the infrared measurement problem The Total Infrared Measurement Situation el | sofa cf a ecco Display 4 Characteristics of the Target Surface “> Target surfaces are separated into three categories; blackbodies, graybodies and nongraybodies 1. Blackbody, blackbody radiator *_ Aperfect emitter; an object that absorbs all the radiant energy impinging on it at all Wavelengths and reflects and transmits none, * Asurtface with emissivity of unity (1.0) at all wavelengths. There is therefore no reflection or transmission of the radiation. 2. Graybody ~ Graybody radiator * Unlike blackbody radiators, graybody radiators never absorb all of the incident infrared radiation, With a graybody radiator, some of the incident radiation is always reflected by the surface and sometimes even transmitted (let through). * Aradiating object whose emissivity is a constant value less thalllunity (110) over a specific spectral range. The emissivity of a graybody radiator is ahways independent of its temperature.3. Nongraybody — Nongraybody radiator Almost all naturally occurring objects are described as called Hal BEY) SCIEN * Aradiating object that does not have a spectral radiation distribution similar to a blackbody and can be partly transparent to infrared (transmits infrared energy at certain wavelengths}. = anemissivity varies not depend Shily With temperatire|Bubalso With spectral wavelength, * Glass and plastic films are examples of nongraybodies. = Most metals are E6loredlFadiatOrs, which is why the emissivity of aluminum, for ‘example, increases when it is heated ( = 0.02 at 25 °C, © = 0.03 at 100 “C)! “ Most radiation sources are not blackbodies. Some of the energy incident upon them may be reflected or transmitted. The ratio of the radiant emittance W'of such a source and the radiant emittance W of a blackbody at the same temperature is called the emissivity € of the source: e=W/W > With this relation, fferent types of radi In the figure below “Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators” where jon sources can be classified as indicated a) The curve for the blackbody with e = Lis Plank's curve. b) The curve for a graybody is proportional to Planck's curve for all wavelengths. ©) The spectral radiant emittance for a selective radiator varies not depend only with temperature but also with wavelength. Ww, a Blackbody (e = 1) Selective Radiator (¢ = f(A,T)) Graybody (e < 1)+ Example, Figure below shows the comparative spectral distribution of energy emitted bya blackbody, a graybody and a nongraybody, all at the same temperature (300 K). Figure Spectral distribution of a blackbody, graybody and nongraybody Blackbody at 300 K i Graybody at 300 K Nongraybody at 300 K Target Relative Spectral Radiance a 0 2 10 1 5 10 6 20 Wavelength (um) 4 Characteristics of the Transmitting Medium * Because the infrared radiation from the target passes through some transmitting medium on its way to the target, the transmission and emission characteristics of the medium in the measurement path must be considered when making non-contact thermal measurement. + No loss of energy or self-emission is encountered when measuring through a vacuum. However, most measurements are made through air. ‘For short path length (a few meters, for example), most gases cluding the atmosphere) absorb and emit very little energy and can be ignored. However, when highly accurate temperature measurements are required, the effects of atmospheric absorption must be taken into account. “As the path length increases to more than a few meters, or as the air becomes heavy with water vapor, atmospheric absorption may become a significant factor. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the infrared transmission characteristics of the atmosphere. 26 Page“As shown in Figure below, Atmospheric attenuation (white areas) with a chart of the gases and water vapor causing most of it. The areas under the curve represent the highest IR transmission. > As the main part of the ‘window ‘spectrum, the atmosphere transmits infrared energy very efficiently in the ESHA) spectral region. > The infrared atmospheric ‘window’ spectrum that transmits infrared radiation best s {HEBORSHLO UA region. Transmittance ipercent) eI > water vapor (H20) will completely or partially absorb infrared electromagnetic energy In the wave band of 6-8 um. atmospheric solar window window absorption (%) wavelength (um) be uv —fovis}-— near 1p —f-— far 1R (longwave, thermal) — 27| Page“ As shown in Figure below, Transmission, absorption and reflectance characteristics of lass > The spectral band in which glass transmits infrared radiation best is the BORO 310 Biiregion. > Reflectance of infrared radiation by a glass surface is greatest in the 9O%0400Km region. Transmission of Glass Envelopes jonse eflectance 1 ral Re: and 3 ce 3 Absorption Reflectance of 1.3mm Thick Glass Sample feta Relative S, Percent Transmi aan ee ee ea A Waveléngth (um) > Most significant is the fact that glass does not transmit infrared eneray at Om where ambient (30°C, 86 °F) surfaces radiate their peak energy. > When there is a solid material, such as a glass or quartz viewing port, between the target and the instrument, the spectral characteristics of the solid media must be known and considered. > In practice, infrared thermal measurements of ambient targets can never be made ‘through glass. One practical approach to this problem is to eliminate the glass, or at least a portion through which the instrument can be aimed at the target. If a window must be present for personal safety, vacuum, or product safety, a material might be substituted that transmits in the longer wavelengths. 28| Page+ Figure below shows the spectral transmission characteristics of several infrared transmitting materials > many of which transmit energy pastaOumn. > In addition to being used as transmitting windows, these materials are often used as [SRESREEESUSIERIEH i infrared sensors and imagers. > Of course, as targets become hotter, and the emitted energy shifts to the shorter wavelengths, glass and quartz windows pose less of a problem and are even used as elements and lenses in high temperature sensing instruments. Figure Transmission curves of various infrared transmitting material Germanium (ar-coated at 10 um) KRS-S sugssszess Percent Transmission § é eS Wavelength (um) Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) sugessssss sugessaass 4 Percent Transmission Percent Transmission 15 ry 1 . 6 ry 5 10 70 Wavelength (iim) Wavelength (usm) Fused Quartz (SiO,) Barium Fluoride (BaF,) susessasss sugasssses Percent Transmission 29| PageReview Question No 1- Ata temperature of absolute zero: a. hydrogen becomes a liquid. b. all molecular motion ceases. ¢. salt water is part solid and part liquid. d. fahrenheit and celsius readings are the same. 2- Conductive heat transfer cannot take place: a. within organic materials such as wood. b, between two solid materials in contact. «, between dissimilar metals, d, across a vacuum. 3+ The only three modes of heat transfer are: a. resistive, capacitive and inductive. b, steady state, transient and reversible, . conduction, convection and radiation. d. conduction. convection and absorption. 4. Heat can only flow in the direction from: a. hotter objects to colder objects. b. colder objects to houer objects. c. more dense objects to less dense objects, d. larger object to smaller objects. 5+ Thermal resistance a, analogous to electrical current, b. proportional to the fourth power of emissivity. ©. inversely proportional to the rate ofheat flow by conduction. d.a measure of material stiffness. 6- The radiation of thermal infrared energy from a target surface: a. occurs mostefficiently in a vacuum. b.is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute surface temperature. .is directly proportional to surface emissivity. d.is all of the above, 7- The mode of heat transfer most closely associated with infrared thermography is: a. induction. b. radiation, c. convection, d. conduction. 8 To convert a fahrenheit reading to celsius: a. divide by 1.8. 30 Pageb, subtract 32 and divide by 1. c. multiply by 1.8 and add 32. d.add 273, 9 Thermal radiation reaching the surface of an object can be: a, absorbed only in the presence of atmosphere. b. reflection and absorbed only in a vacuum ¢. transmitted only if the surface is organic. d. absorbed, reflected and transmitted. 10-The following spectral band 2.0.1 to 5.5 um. b.0.3 to 10.6 um. ©.04 to 20.0 um. 4.0.75 to 100 um. cluded in the infrared spectrum: :11-Most instruments used in infrared thermography operate somewhere within the; a. 2 to 14 um spectral region. b, 5 to 10 um spectral region, €.10 to 20 um spectral region. d. 20 to 100 } yim spectral region. 12-As a surface cools, the peak of its radiated infrared energy: a. shifts to longer wavelengths. b. shifts to shorter wavelengths. remains constant if emissivity remains constant, d. remains constant even if emissivity varies, 13-The peak emitting wavelength of a 300 °C (572 ° F) blackbody i a.1.5 um. approximately: b.3pm. Amax = 2897/T 0.10pm. T Kelvin = T colsius + 273. 16 = 300 + 273. 16 =673.16 k d. Sym. Amax = 2897/573. 16 = 5.05496 ym :4-An opaque surface with an emissivity of 0.04 would be: a. transparent to infrared radi b.a fairly good emitter. c.almosta perfect reflector. d, almost a perfect emitter. 15-1f a surface has an emissivity of 0.35 and a reflectivity of 0.45. its transmissivity would be a. impossible to determine without additional information. b.080. etateed 0.10. eee ii 4.0.20, t =1- ¢€- p= 1-0.35-0.45 = 0.20 31] Page16-1n forced convection, the boundary layer: a. increases as the fluid velocity increases. b. remains the same as the fiuid velocity increases. c. decreases as the fluid velocity increases. d. increases in proportion to the fourth power of the fluid velocity. :17-When heating one end of a car key to thaw a frozen automobile door lock, heat transfer from the key to the lock is an example of: a. forced convection. b. conductive heat transfer. «. free convection. d. radiative heat transfer. 18-The infrared atmospheric window that transmits infrared radiation best is the: 2.2.0 to 3.0 um region. b. 3.0 to 6.0m region. ©.6.0 to 9.0 um region. d. 9.0 to 11.0 um region, 19-The spectral band in which glass transmits infrared radiation bestiis the: a, 2,0 to 3.0 um region. b, 3.0 to 6.0m region, ©. 60 to 9.0 um region. 4.9.0 to 11.0 um region, 20-Reflectance of infrared radiation by a glass surface is greatest in the: a. 2.0 to 3.0 um region. b. 3,0 to 6.0 4m region. ©.6.0 to. 9.0 um region, 4.9.0 to 11.0 jm region, 21-A diffuse reflecting surface is: a. a polished surface that reflects incoming energy at a complementary angle. b. a surface that scatters reflected enerey in many directions, .als0 called a specular reflecting surface. d. usually transparent to infrared radiation. 22-the 8 to 14 yim spectral region: a. the atmosphere absorbs infrared radiant energy almost completely. b. the atmosphere reflects infrared radiant energy almost completely. ¢. the atmosphere transmits infrared energy very efficiently. d. infrared instruments do not operate very accurately. Answer: 1B, 2D. 8G 4A SC GD. BB, 1A 13D, IC. 15D. 16C. 17B 18D, 194 32 [Page 3D. 10D. ILA 20D. 2B. 22.Chapter 2 Materials and Their Properties Materials Characteristics 4 A knowledge of the characteristics of materials is important to the thermographer for numerous reasons. + The two most important are the need to know 1. howa particular target surface emits, transmits and reflects infrared radiant energy. 2. how heat flows within a particular material, Surface Properties of Materials & The surface properties of materials include emissivity, reflectivity and transmissivity. 1) Emissivity € “+ When using infrared thermography to measure surface temperature of a target. it is essential to know the effective emissivity (€*) of the surface material. This is the value that must be set into the instrument's menu under the specific conditions of measurement for the instrument to display an accurate surface temperature value. + When attempting to make temperature measurements on a target of unknown emissivity. an estimate of emissivity may be the only available alternative. There are numerous. reference tables available that list generic values of emissivity for common materials and these can be used as guides: + For an emissivity reference table to be useful, conditions of target temperature and spectral interval (wavelength) must also be presented. se The effective emissivity of a target surface can vary at different wavelengths. ‘Emissivity depends on the material and the surface texture and the viewing angle. >A highly textured surface is said to be diffuse and A smooth surface i id to specular * Ideally, the way to determine effective emissivity is to measure it with Using a sample of the actual target surface material and the actual instrument to be used for the measurement mission.2) Reflectivity » the sum of the three material properties, transmissivity, reflectivity and emissivity always equals unity (1): etrpre =i opaque graybody surfaces t=0 SO, the sum of emissivity and reflectivity is unity (1.0) ef g = 0 e=l-e ‘+ Reflectivity of a surface generally increases as emissivity decreases. “an opaque graybody surface with a low effective emissivity will be highly reflective. “There are two components of reflected energy the diffuse component and the specular component. > | the ZFS RSERRVEIVEBSCUREISRGSHR] most ofthe reflected energy is specular, that is, it reflects off the surface at an angle complementary to the angle of incident. > If the surface is relatively diffuse (textured) most of the reflected energy is scattered uniformly in all directions regardless of the angle of incidence. “Errors can be the result of either point source reflections, background reflections or both ‘entering the instrument. a) Errors because of point source reflections are UsUallyilatget when the target surfaces are Specular, and b) errors because of background reflections are not affected by the specularity or diffusivity of the target surface. > Both types of reflective errors are more serious when the target surface is cool compared to the temperature of the point source or the background because the point source makes a greater contribution to the total radiant exitance than the target does. » In practice, the thermographer can learn to recognize and avoid errors due to point source reflections. 3a Page3) Transmissivity t “+ When the target surface is a non-graybody, > the target material may be partly transparent to infrared radiation. > This means the target material has a transmissivity greater than 0. v Due to this transparency, radiant thermal energy may be transmitted through the target from sources behind the target. v This energy may enter the instrument and cause temperature measurement errors even if the correct emissivity is set into the instrument and reflective errors are eliminated. v Although errors due to transmission are the least common in practice, errors due to energy transmitted through the target usually require the most sophisticated procedures to correct them. In most cases, spectral filtering is the best solution. View Angle o& The angle between the instrument's line of sight and the surface material {WillIhavelal inital BHEGEGH the surface properties of materials include emissivity, reflectivity and transmissivity providing: angle is kept as close as possible to normal (perpendicular) and no greater than +30 degrees from normal, + for many nonmetallic surfaces this may be increased to as large as +60 degrees from normal if unavoidable. + [fit is not possible to View a target at an angle within this range, the effective emissivity may Change, particulary if it is low to begin with. This will most likely compromise the accuracy of temperature measurements. Alarge variance of the viewing angle from the normal (90*) to a nonmetallic surface of interest decreases the emitted energy sensed, 4 On curved (nonfat) surfaces, view angle can be even more critical, and measurements should be made cautiously. & Emittance of a surface may Wary with BRglelOfivieW, so the normal emissivities are not valid at acute viewing angles. “& Note: An acute angle is an angle whose degree measure is greater than|Olbutless than/S0.Heat Conducting Properties of Materials & The use of infrared thermography for nondestructive material testing is generally based on the assumption that uniform structural continuity provides uniform thermal continuity. Thermal Conductivity k & The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. & The thermal conductivity is the material property that relates to the rate that heat flows through asolid. & Materials with high thermal conductivities are high heat EOndUCtORS. + An isotropic material is a material that has uniform properties in all directions. Heat transfer occurs ata lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal conductivity 4 metals typically have high thermal conductivity and are very efficient at conducting heat, while the opposite is true for insulating materials like Styrofoam. + Insulators are materials used primarily to provide resistance to heat flow. They have low thermal conductivity. 4 Thermal conductivity is high for metals and! low for porous materials. for practical purposes it can be considered a constant for a particular material, & The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity. “& The defining equation for thermal conductivity is known as FOurler SLAW for heat conduction: Q=+kA(dT/dx) > Where, Y ‘Q’is the heat flow rate by conduction, (W or J/s) Y ‘k’is the thermal conductivity of body material, (W/mK) Y ‘R'is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m?) and Y_ ‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient (K/m). The thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per unit area per unit temperature difference. ® the rate of heat conduction through a layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but it is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. In real terms, the Fourier expression v means that the rate of heat flow increases with increasing temperature difference, increases with increasing thermal conductivity and decreases with increasing slab thickness.Heat Capacity “Thermal Capacity” 4 The heat capacity of a material or structure describes its ability to store heat. & This means that denser mater s than porous materials. Heat Capacity voiuetric = Cp. > Where, ¢ QS AT ik Hest capacity, joule per kelvin ¥ CP isheat specific heat, Joule per kelvin Y ‘The heat capacity of an object Q/AT is directly proportional to a material's specificheat Cand density 0 “4 The term thermal capacitance is used to describe heat capacity in terms OF an electrical BalOg. where [68/6 heat is analogous to [oss oF chatge Ona capacitor + Structures that have [ow thermal capacitance “heatleapaeity’ will change ‘temperature more rapidly because léssithertal hergy isstored in them and vice versa when placed in a cooler environment than those with high thermalleapacitance “heatThermal Diffusivity « ‘4 Itmeasures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy. & Thermal diffusivity is the 3D expansion of thermal conductivity in any given material sample. a steady state heat flow. > where: ¥_ qis thermal Diffusivity, m*/s. v y v in be considered the volumetric heat capacity, (J/(m’-K)}. + Ina subs through it because the s onducts heat quickly relative to its volumetric heat capacity or ‘thermal bulk’, ain ‘mal diffusivity is the measure of thermal inertia. 38] PageReview Question No.2 ‘The best way to determine the effective emissivity of a target surface is: a. to look it up ina table. b. to calculate it, «c. to measure the effective emissivity of the material itself or a similar sample, 4d. all of the above. For an opaque graybody target surface, emissivity equals: a. Urefieclivty, b. 1 reflectivity 10, d. reflectivity to the fourth power. The effective emissivity of surface is always affected by: a. the material, its surface texture and the viewing angle. b. the material, ts thermal conductivity and humiclty «. the material, its surface texture and its thermal diffusivity. d, the material, its visible color and its thermal conductivity. When measuring the temperature of a nongraybody target: a. the viewing angle is not critical b. always assume an emissivity of 1.0. «reflections off the near surface may be ignored. d. ertors may be caused by hot sources behind the target. ‘The effective emissivity of a target surface: a. can vary at different wavelengths. b.is the same for all wavelengths ifthe viewing angle is kept constant. is always higher at longer wavelengths. d.is always lower at longer wavelengths. Unfinished, unoxidized metal surfaces usually have: a. high and uniform emissivities, b, low and uniform emissivities. c.non-gtaybody characteristics. d, low specular reflectivity. Thermal diffusivity is: a, high for metals and low for porous materials, b. the same for all metals. low for metals and high for porous materials. d. the same for all porous materials.8 Thermal diffusivity is: a. the same as diffuse reflectivity. b. related more to transient heat flow than to steady State heat flow. c.related more to steady stale heat flow than to transient heat flow. d, the same as spectral transmittance. 9 Thermal capacitance: a. describes the heating of a condenser. b. expresses the heat capacity of a material in a form analogous to electrical capacitance. «is zero for a blackbody radiator. d. describes the maximum temperature rating of a capacitor. 10-A highly textured surface is said to be diffuse. A smooth surface is said to a. opaque. b. specular. c.convex. d, transparent. Answer: 1c 2B BA 4D, GA 8 6B TA BB 9B 108, 40 [PaChapter 3 Thermal Instrumentation Thermal Instrumentation Overview 4 Equipment for temperature measurement and thermography includes contacting or noncontacting devices, or a combination of both, + Contacting devices for temperature measurement include: a) bimetallic thermometers. b) thermochromic liquid crystals. ©) thermocouples. d) resistance thermometers, ) _ thermistors and 1) heat flux indicators, Noncontacting devices include: a) convection (heat flux) devices, b) optical pyrometers, ©) _ infrared radiation thermometers, @) infrared Line scanners and ©) _ infrared thermal imaging (thermographic) equipment. Contacting Thermal Measuring Devices Bimetallic Thermometers + Bimetallic thermometers are sensors constructed of dissimilar metallic Strips bonded together. Typically, different iron nickel alloys are used. * The’strips differ in temperature coefficient of expansion such that ‘temperature changes result in predictable bending of the assembly. “ Arranged in a spiral or helical configuration. one end of the bimetallic element is fixed, and the other end is attached to a pointer. % Properly calibrated, the angular position of the pointer can be made to ee indicate temperature on a scale. ‘oPomer tat Fel Fad‘4 Thermochromic “Cholesteric” liquid crystals * Cholesteric liquid crystals are greaselike substances that can be blended to produce compounds “coatings” having color transition ranges at temperatures from -20 to 250°C (-5 to 480 °F). + Coatings made of liquid crystals are commonly used as temperature threshold indicators. * liquid crystals are generally colorless, and it can be selected to respond in a temperature range for a particular test and can have a color response “change color” for temperature differentials of 1 to 50°C (2 to 90°F} + Because liquid crystals function by reflecting light, they are more. readily seen when used against a dark background, + In addition, because the color change is generally reversible, anomalies can be evaluated by repeating the test as many times as needed. & Thermocouples “Thermocouples are contact temperature sensors based on the thermoelectric effect or SEEBEER > Thomas S8BREk discovered that when two different metals were joined at both ends, an electrical current was generated when one of the junctions was held at a constant temperature and the other junction was heated or cooled. > The thermoelectric coefficient determines the relationship between this current and +the temperature difference between the two junctions. This coefficient is known for each type of thermocouple. ‘Thermocouples are more rugged and fabrication is simple—twisting two wires together and fusing the junction forms the basic thermocouple. Four Type thermocouples 1) Type T copper/constantan thermocouple and has the maximum temperature 400°C 2) Type Jiron/constantan thermocouple, has the maximum temperature 750°C 3). Type K chromel/alumel thermocouple, and has the maximum temperature 1370°C 4). BRERA unger 5% rrenum/tungsten-26% rhenium thermocouple, has the maximum temperature + The main advantages of thermocouples are 1. wide temperature range and they can be used at filghii Sets atras a RTDS, 2. inexpensive to manufacture, 3. operate in a variety of environments, 4, simple to install, 5, EBB and + The main disadvantages of thermocouples are 1. that extension wires must be made of the same material as the thermocouple, a2 | Page2. they are RGERBEEUAREIBEINTDS or interchangeable, anda cold junction temperature reference must be provided. 2. Nondinear espoee, a + Thermoplles (non-contact) A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy. Thermopiles are multiple “bank” thermocouples used electrically in parallel or in series to increase the output gradient “voltage”. + Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature but generate an output voltage proportional to a local temperature difference or temperature gradient, + Although thermopiles have a greater output (resulting in greater sensitivity) than individual thermocouples, they also have a slower response time because of the increased mass. ‘The reference temperature is important because of the thermocouples’ nonlinear response. Thermopiles are used as a sensing element in radiometers. 4 Resistance Thermometers Resistance temperature detector (RTDs) arc contact sensors. RTDs are electrical resistors whose resistance changes as a function of temperature. Unlike thermocouples, RTDs have a specified resistance tolerance at'a specified temperature. In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. > These three metals are having different resistance variations with respective to the ‘temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature characteristics, > Platinum has the temperature range of 650°C, and then the Copper and Nickel have 120°C and 300°C respectively. > The figure-below shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve of the three different metals. ja re 2 gs. Copper 2 Platinum 1 © 200400 600 Temperature CC)—> For Platinum, its resistance changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius of ‘temperature and has Typical Temperature Ranges -450 to 1200°F (-267.8 to 648.9°C) > PIatinUi is the most popular resistance temperature detector material because of its: a) Purity b) Excellent stability ©) Reproducibility. ) high-accuracy res e) v 4 [PageBecause of their lower resistivities, gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements. Tungsten has a relatively high resistivity but is reserved for very high temperature applications because itis extremely brittle and difficult to work. RTDs are used in applications where repeatability and accuracy are the most important factors. > Platinum RTDs have a very repeatable resistance versus temperature curve that is not significantly affected by time, > Because of their high repeatability RTDs are interchangeable and do not require individual calibration for more precise temperature measurements. +e The main disadvantages of RTD are 1, more linear than a thermocouple. 2, more accurate than a thermocouple. 3. repeatability, and interchangeability. ‘The main disadvantages of RTD are 1, manufacturing costs are higher in order to achieve the accuracy, repeatabilit interchangeability 2, more susceptible to damage from high vibration anid mechanical shock that can cause open circuits or short circuits. + Thermistors + Thermistors are electrical semiconductors that ise changes in electrical resistance to measure temperature. Whereas resistance temperature detectoré (RTDs) are low impedance devices, Thermistors are high impedance devices. Thermistors typically are more sensitive to temperature changes than resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) but thermistors are not as stable. + Heat flux indicators Heat flux indicators are heat flow meters and are used to measure rates in conduction, convection, radiation and phase change systems such as building walls, boiler tubes and air conditioning ducts. A typical heat flux indicator consists of a sensitive thermopile, composed of many fine gage thermocouples connected in series on opposite sides of a flat core with known and stable ‘thermal resistance. The entire assembly is covered with protective material. The voltage generated across the thermopile is calibrated to be a measure of the steady state heat flux through the device. Transient heat flux can be related to the transient thermopile ‘output and the geometry of the device. Pyrometers Pyrometer (fire measuring) devices is a type of remote sensing thermometer used to measure temperature by measuring the intensity of IR radiation emitted from an object. > All objects above absolute zero temperature (0°K) radiate and absorb thermal energy. > Narrow-band pyrometers typically operate in accordance with > broad-band pyrometers operate in accordance with the + Optical pyrometers include brightness pyrometers and infrared pyrometers. aa|Pagea) Infrared pyrometers are also called infrared radiation thermometers. 'b) Brightness pyrometers are also called matching pyrometers. # They incorporate a calibrated light source (lamp] powered by a calibrated current supply. Looking through a viewer. ‘The operator matches the brightness of the target to be measured with the brightness of the calibrated lamp, + The adjustment controls calibrated in temperature units, such that when the brightnesses are matched, the control indicates the temperature of the target to be measured. Basic Configurations of Infrared Sensing and Imaging Instruments 4 Basic configuration of an infrared radiation thermometer Target Size Optics Detector _ Electronics Lens Fitter | feormerte | (amplifioe anc (ERs GRIMSE, enlired energy Sonaitions ine "Spectral electrical i eos | ee Working Distance + Infrared Detector 451 Pa Infrared detectors can sense infrared radiant energy and produce useful electrical signals proportional to the temperature of target surfaces. An instrument that measures the temperature of a spot on a target in this manner is called an infrared radiation thermometer (Infrared pyrometers). {An instrument that combines this measurement capability with a means or mechanism for scanning the tatget surface is called an infrared thermal imager. It can produce thermal maps, or thermograms, where the brightness intensity or color hue of any spot on the map represents, the apparent temperature of the surface at that point. Infrared detectors are divided into (ithermal detectors and (2) photon detectors. 1) Thermal detectors * Thermal detectors have broad uniform spectral responses, somewhat lower sensitivities and slower response times (measured in millisecond). * Thermal detectors usually operate at or near room temperature.2) Photon detectors * photon detectors (also called photo detectors) have limited spectral responses, higher peak sensitivities and faster response times (measured in microsecond). = photon detectors are usually cooled to optimize performance. relationship between Detectivity (detector sensitivity figure of merit, 10" Figure below illustrates the spectral responses of various infrared radiation detectors as the D*) and wavelength 108 10% 0 oni TEAL LIMIT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC AL DETECTORS F SPACE) eTEcTORS| stem Ho") ‘Sagan a Hocare (SOLA CELL GTR 10" 10 tot (om Ha" w (Getector saneniiy figure of meet) & 108 Tee w velongth (um) 46 [Page TRNCOPLE TERI x0 ERITREA ION rr “1s 1 748 Ba> The mercury cadmium telluride MCT (HgCdTe) detectors are photon detectors and the only ‘common material that can detect infrared radiation in both of the accessible atmospheric windows. These are from 3 to 5 um and from 8 to 12 um, The main limitation of LWIR HgCdTe-based detectors is that they need cooling to temperatures near that of liquid nitrogen (77K), to reduce noise due to thermally excited current carriers, lead sulfide (PbS) detector is typical of those used in radiation thermometers and flame monitor that measure and control the temperature of very hot targets. > Indium Antimony (InSb) detector is cooled to 77 K for operation from 3 to 5 jum ty v Detectors are cooled with thermoelectric coolers and cryogenic cooling (liquid nitrogen in a metal dewar). > the radiation thermopile is a broad band thermal detector operating uncooled. Its used extensively for spot measurements. Because it generates a direct current electromotive force (emf) proportional to the radiant energy reaching its surface. itis ideal for use in portable, battery powered instruments. 4 Infrared Optics - Lenses, Mirrors and Filters + There are two types of infrared optics; (1) refractive (lenses, filters, windows) and (2) reflective (mirrors) 1). Refractive optics (lenses, filters & windows) " Refractive optics transmit infrared wavelengths of interest. "When used for higher temperature applications, their throughput losses can usually be ignored. = When used in low temperature measurement instruments and imagers, absorption is often substantial and must be considered when making accurate measurements. * When’an infrared radiation thermometer (Infrared pyrometers) is aimed ata target, energy is collected by the optics (BEB) in the shape of a solid angle determined by the configuration of the optics and the detector. * An infrared interference filter is often placed in front of the detector to limit the spectral ange of the energy (Passes selected spectral band) reaching the detector. 2). Reflective (mirrors), * Reflective optics, which are more efficient are not spectrally selective and somewhat complicate the optical path, * Reflective optics are used 1) more often for low temperature applications. 2) where the energy levels cannot warrant throughput energy losses.