Satellite Communication

Satellite Orbits
Elements
Orbital Elements

⚫ In general the artificial satellites are defined by six

orbital elements. These elements are referred to as the
Keplerian element set.
⚫ Semi -major axis(a)
⚫ Eccentricity (e)
⚫ Mean anomaly (M0)
⚫ Argument Perigee (𝜔)
⚫ Inclination (i)
⚫ Right ascension of the ascending node(Ω)
Apogee & Perigee heights

⚫ In order to find the apogee & perigee heights, the radius

of the earth must be subtracted from the radii lengths.
⚫ The length of the radius vector at apogee & perigee can
be obtained from the geometry of the ellipse.
⚫ ra=a(1+e)
⚫ rp=a(1-e)
⚫ Assume mean earth radius R so
⚫ Apogee & Perigee heights are
⚫ ha=ra –R and hp=rp –R
Orbit Perturbations

⚫ Theoretically, an orbit described by Kepler is ideal as

Earth is considered to be a perfect uniform spherical
mass and the force acting around the Earth is the
centrifugal force‫قوة الطرد المركزي‬.
⚫ This force is supposed to balance the gravitational pull of
the earth.
⚫ In reality, other forces also play an important role and
affect the motion of the satellite.
⚫ These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and
Moon along with the atmospheric drag.
Orbit Perturbations

⚫ Effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on

geostationary earth satellites.

⚫ Effects of non-Spherical Earth:

Effects of non-Spherical Earth:

⚫ However, it is known that the earth is not

perfectly spherical, there being an equatorial
bulge and flattening at the poles, a shape
described as an oblate spheroid ‫كروي مفلطح‬.
⚫ When the earths oblateness is taken into
account, the mean motion is
Effects of non-Spherical Earth:

⚫ If a is known, the mean motion (n) is calculated.

⚫ The orbital period taking into account the earths
oblateness is termed the anomalistic period.

⚫ Where n is the rad/sec.

Effects of non-Spherical Earth:

⚫ If n is known and n0 is function of a. the root

of the following equation:

⚫ The oblateness of the earth produces two

rotations of the orbital plane.
➢ Regression of the nodes
➢ Rotation of apsides in the orbital plane
Regression of the nodes

⚫ The nodes appear to slide along the equator.

⚫ The line of nodes, which is in the equator plane, rotates
about the center of the earths.
⚫ Thus 𝜔, the right ascension of the ascending node,
shifts its positions.
Regression of the nodes

⚫ If the orbit is prograde, the nodes slide westward & if

retrograde, they slide eastward.

⚫ The nodes therefore move in direction opposite to the

direction of satellite motion, hence the term regression
of the nodes.

⚫ If polar orbit(i=900) the regression is zero.

Rotation of apsides
Rotation of apsides

⚫ When the rate of change is –ve, the regression

is westward and the rate is +ve, the regression
is eastward.
⚫ Rotation of the line of apsides:
⚫ The other major effect produced by the
equatorial bulge is rotation of the line apsides.
Rotation of apsides

⚫ This line rotates in the orbit plane, resulting

in the argument of perigee changing with
time. The rate of change is given by
Rotation of apsides

⚫ In addition to the equatorial bulge, the earths is

not perfectly circular in the equatorial plane; it
has small eccentricity of the order of 10-5. This
is referred to as the equatorial ellipticity.
Atmospheric drag
Atmospheric drag
Station Keeping

⚫ The process of keeping a geostationary satellite in its

orbital slot is termed as the station-keeping.
➢ east-west station-keeping
➢ north-south station-keeping
east-west station-keeping:
⚫ It is important that geostationary satellite be kept in its
orbital slot.
⚫ The equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes
geostationary satellites to drift slowly along the orbit, to
one of two stable points, at 75°E and 105°W.
east-west station-keeping:

⚫ To counter this drift, an

oppositely directed velocity
component is imparted to
the satellite by means of
jets, which are pulsed once
every 2 or 3 weeks.
⚫ These maneuvers are
termed east-west station-
keeping maneuvers.
north-south station-keeping

⚫ A satellite which is nominally geostationary also will drift

in latitude, due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the
moon.
⚫ These forces cause the inclination to change at a rate of
about 0.85°/year.
⚫ If not corrected, the drift would result in a cyclic change
in the inclination, going from 0° to 14.67° in 26.6 years
and back to zero, at which the cycle is repeated.
north-south station-keeping

⚫ To prevent the shift in inclination from exceeding

specified limits, jets may be pulsed at the appropriate
time to return the inclination to zero.
⚫ These maneuvers are termed north-south station-
keeping maneuvers, and they are much more expensive
in fuel than are east-west station-keeping maneuvers.
⚫ The north-south station-keeping tolerances are the
same as those for east-west station keeping, +-0.1° in
the C band and+- 0.05° in the Ku band.
Geostationary & Non-Geostationary orbit

⚫ A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be

stationary with respect to the earth, hence the name
geostationary.
⚫ Three conditions are required for an orbit to be
geostationary:
o The satellite must travel eastward at the same rotational speed
as the earth.
o The orbit must be circular.
o The inclination of the orbit must be zero.
Geostationary orbit

⚫ A Geostationary orbit is a prograde orbit whose

orbital period is equal to the earth’s rotational
period.
⚫ A Geostationary orbit which lies in the equator
plane that contains the equator.
⚫ Such a satellite seems to be fixed at one point
above the earth's surface when viewed from the
earth.
Non-Geostationary orbit

⚫ Prograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite

moves in the same direction as the Earth‟s
rotation.
⚫ Its inclination is always between 00 to 900.
⚫ Retrograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite
moves in the direction opposite to the Earth’s
rotation.
⚫ Its inclination is always between 900 to 1800.
Non-Geostationary orbit

⚫ High elliptical orbit(HEO): it is elliptical orbit

approximately 18500 to 35000 km above the earth’s
surface, not necessary above the equator.
⚫ An HEO satellite is a specified orbit in which a
satellite continuously swings very close to earth,
loops out into space and the repeats its swing by the
earth.
⚫ HEOs are designed to give better coverage to
countries with higher northern or southern latitudes.
Non-Geostationary orbit

⚫ Medium earth orbit(MEO): an MEO is a circular orbit,

orbiting approximately 8000 to 18000 km above the
earths surface, again not necessarily above the
equator.
⚫ An MEO satellite is a compromise between the LEO
and GEO.
⚫ MEO system design involves more delays and
higher power levels than satellites in the LEOs.
Non-Geostationary orbit

⚫ Low earth orbit: A LEO is an orbit around the earth

in grids that stretch approximately 160 to 1600 km
above the earth surface.
⚫ The LEO satellites are small, are easy to launch and
lend themselves to mass product ion techniques.
⚫ A network of LEO satellites typically has the capacity to
carry vast amounts of facemile, electronic mail, batch
file and broadcast data at great speed and
communicate to end users through terrestrial links on
ground based stations.
Advantages of Geostationary satellites

⚫ Since the satellite is stationary with respect to one point

on the earth, the earth station need not to track the
satellite periodically. The earth station antenna can be
accurately aimed towards the satellite. This eliminates the
need for rotatory antenna and consequently reduces the
cost.
⚫ With minimum elevation angle of 50, a GSS can cover
38% of the earth surface.
⚫ The effect of the Doppler shift is minimum.
⚫ Three GSS can cover the entire earths surface.
Look Angle Determinations
 Look Angle Determinations

⚫ The look angles for the

ground station antenna are
the azimuth and elevation
angles required at the
antenna so that it points
directly at the satellite.
Look Angle Determinations

⚫ The three pieces of information that are needed

to determine the look angles for the geostationary
orbit are
❑ The earth-station latitude, denoted here by 𝜆𝐸
❑ The earth-station longitude, denoted here by 𝜑𝐸
❑ The longitude of the sub satellite point, denoted here by
𝜑𝑆𝑆 (often this is just referred to as the satellite longitude)
Look Angle Determinations

⚫ When calculating the look angles for low-earth-orbit

(LEO) satellites, it was necessary to take into account
the variation in earth’s radius.
⚫ With the geostationary orbit, this variation has negligible
effect on the look angles, and the average radius of the
earth will be used.
⚫ Denoting this by R= 6371 km
Heights of GSS

𝜑𝐸
Look Angle Determination
Look Angle Definition
Definitions (Contd.)
Calculating Look Angle
Coordinate System
Coordinate System
Satellite Coordinates
Review of Geometry
Geometry of Elevation Angle
Earth Eclipse of Satellite

⚫ When the sun is crossing the equator, the satellite does

pass into the earths shadow at certain periods, these
being the period of eclipse.
⚫ Generally, the GSS would be eclipsed by the earth
once each day.
⚫ Since earth equatorial plane is tilted at angles of 23.40
and this will keep the satellite in view of sun for most of
the days in year.
⚫ The eclipse begin 23 days before equinox and end 23
days after equinox.
Earth Eclipse of Satellite

⚫ This will last for 10 minutes at the beginning and end of

the eclipse period and increases to a maximum
duration of about 72 minutes at full eclipse.
⚫ The solar cells do not function during the eclipse and
power must supplied from batteries.
⚫ If the satellite longitude is east, then the satellite enters
the eclipse during day light hours of the earth station.
⚫ If the satellite longitude is west, then the eclipse does
not occurs until the earth station is in darkness.
⚫ The west longitude of the satellite are desirable than
the east.
Sun Transit outage

⚫ The sun transit is nothing but the sun comes within the
beam width of the earth station antenna.
⚫ During this period the sun behaves like an extremely
noisy sources and it blanks out all the signal from the
satellite. This effete is termed as Sun Transit Outage.
⚫ The duration of the sun transit outage depends on the
latitude of the earth station, generally maximum of 10
minutes per day
⚫ Sub Satellite Point: The point on the earth vertically
under satellite is referred to as the sub satellite point