Journal of Air Transport Management 86 (2020) 101823

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Journal of Air Transport Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jairtraman

Gender in the cockpit: Challenges faced by female airline pilots

Ozge
€ �lu *, Sena Kılıç , Hatice Küçüko
Yanıkog €nal
Faculty of Aviation and Aeronautical Sciences, Ozyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite the increasing number of female pilots in recent years, the aviation industry is still considered a male-
Gender discrimination dominated one. Being underrepresented in an occupation and working in an industry with masculine dis­
Gender stereotype courses create several challenges for female pilots. This study aims to identify gender-related career challenges
Aviation industry
experienced by female pilots based in Turkey. The findings of the study reveal that female commercial airline
Female pilots
pilots have been experiencing gender prejudice and discrimination in the workplace. These prejudices and
discriminations place considerable psychological burden on them which can significantly affect their behaviour
and performance. Considering the findings of the study, several recommendations are given to the airline
companies and the society in supporting female pilots’ career advancement.

1. Introduction 2. Literature review

The number of female commercial pilots in the aviation industry has 2.1. Gender stereotypes & gender discrimination
rapidly increased in the last decade. However, the percentage of female
pilots is still very low. According to the Federal Aviation Administration Although women constitute almost half of the workforce in most
(FAA) data, only 7.3% of all US FAA pilot certificates are held by developed nations (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017), they
women. The percentage of female pilots among total airline pilots is are still underrepresented especially in occupations that have been
4.4% in the USA and 5.2% in the UK (FAA, 2019; CAA, 2019). The sit­ traditionally dominated by men. Women employees are facing
uation in Turkey is not different. There are 5 airline companies and fe­ gender-based challenges due to gender discrimination in those occupa­
male pilots represent only 3.9% of all airline pilots in the country. tions. Gender discrimination is any distinction, exclusion, or restriction
Working in a male-dominated field and being underrepresented in an made to an individual or group of individuals based on gender (EIGE,
occupation can create several challenges for female pilots (Vermeulen 2019). Workplace gender discrimination means that an employee is
and Mitchell, 2007) which can have negative effect on female pilots’ treated differently (positively or negatively) because of his/her gender.
performance (Matthews et al., 2009). Some examples of workplace gender discrimination include:
Gender-based challenges experienced by women employees in
different societies with different cultures and in different industrial � not being hired or being given a lower position because of gender,
contexts can be different (Mills, 2002; Ridgeway and England, 2007). � being held to different working conditions, payments, standards and
Although there have been several studies that focused on the career performance evaluations because of gender or because of not acting
challenges of female pilots (e.g. Davey and Davidson, 2000; Kristovics in a way that conforms to traditional gender role,
et al., 2006; Mitchell et al., 2006; Sitler, 2004), to the best of our � being denied a promotion, pay raise, or training opportunity based
knowledge, there has been no study that has examined the Turkey case. on gender,
Thereby, this study aims to identify the gender-related career challenges � using hostile remarks about people of a certain gender, insulting, or
experienced by female cockpit crew based in Turkey and to give rec­ using offensive names or slurs against people with a certain gender,
ommendations in supporting their career advancement. � sexual harassment - requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or
physical harassment of a sexual nature, and
� physical or non-physical bullying behaviour based on a person’s
gender (NSPCC, 2019).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (O.
€ Yanıko�
glu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101823
Received 8 January 2020; Received in revised form 8 April 2020; Accepted 9 April 2020
Available online 23 April 2020
0969-6997/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Gender stereotypes, which are defined as the shared beliefs about the outcomes throughout their careers, including job recruitment (Gaucher
attributes, personality traits, and abilities of a gender, are regarded as et al., 2011; Schmader et al., 2007) and promotion process (Hoobler
the root causes of gender discrimination (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011). Gender et al., 2009; Lyness and Heilman, 2006). Moreover, studies have found
stereotypes can be both descriptive and prescriptive. The descriptive that women are evaluated less positively than men in male-dominated
gender stereotype elements involve beliefs about the characteristics of jobs since in such jobs decision-makers are more likely to be men (e.g.
each gender group; whereas, the prescriptive stereotype elements Koch, D’Mello and Sackett, 2015). Women also face informal gender
involve norms about the appropriate behaviour for each gender group discrimination in male-dominated fields where negative expectations of
and describe how men and women should behave (Prentice and Carra­ women’s abilities and skills lead organization members to socially
nza, 2002). Gender stereotypes serve as shortcuts for forming impres­ ostracize them (Welle and Heilman, 2005).
sions about people with different gender (Toegel and Lavanchy, 2019).
They are widely shared, automatically activated, and very impactful 2.3. Women labour in Turkey and the aviation industry
(Eagly and Wood, 2013; Ellemers, 2018). They shape the perceptions,
attitudes, and behaviours of individuals towards gender. They affect Almost 49.8% of the Turkish population are women and the rate of
how women and men are perceived and evaluated in the society, what women’s participation in the workforce is only 32.7%. The same per­
behaviour is expected from women and men, and how people act when centage is 44.2% in OECD countries and 46% in the EU (Worldbank,
they confront non-traditional women and men (Sakalli-Ugurlu et al., 2018). In Turkey, gender stereotypes in society reinforce different types
2018). of roles among men and women. Like in many countries, women in
Gender stereotypes can lead to discrimination in the direction of Turkey are expected by society to fulfil the traditional roles of being a
stereotype consistency. Thus, people can be disadvantaged or advan­ housewife and a mother in the first place (Kucuk, 2013; Tuncer, 2018).
taged in how they are viewed because of their gender. In many cultures, Cleaning, cooking, taking care of family and household, raising a child
men’s overrepresentation in bread-winning roles has led to stereotypes are the main duties that are expected from women (Copur and
portraying men as achievement-oriented, assertive, and autonomous. Koropeckyj-Cox, 2010; Koc et al., 2017). Women’s housework re­
Likewise, women’s overrepresentation in domestic roles has led to ste­ sponsibilities are the biggest obstacle to their participation in the
reotypes portraying women as caring, emotionally sensitive, and workforce (Ministry of Family and Social Policies, 2014 as cited in
dependent (Koenig and Eagly, 2014). Kagnicioglu, 2017). On the other hand, working women are expected to
Culture shapes the contents of gender stereotypes and the stereo­ choose jobs that are considered to be more suitable for females such as
types of occupations (Cuddy et al., 2010; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Nosek teaching, pharmaceutics, or nursing, and they are expected to continue
et al., 2009). Occupations are gendered as “women’s work” and “men’s their housewife role at the same time (Ozkanli, 2001). Professions that
work” (Ridgeway, 2011). In many cases, one gender may be more rep­ require extra effort and courage, such as being an airline pilot is
resented than the other one in many organizational roles and occupa­ considered to be more suitable for men than women.
tional categories (Huang et al., 2019; Weforum, 2016). Occupations Piloting is a gendered occupation and women are still underrepre­
become gender-typed based on the number of men and women who sented in the flight deck (Bridges et al., 2014). The percentage of female
occupy them and the attributes that are viewed as necessary for suc­ pilots among all airline pilots is 4.4% in the USA and 5.2% in the UK
cessful performance. Occupations in which women are heavily over­ (FAA, 2019; CAA, 2019). In Turkey, women represent only 3.9% of all
represented are regarded as female jobs and are seen as requiring more airline pilots in the country. The percentage of female pilots in those
feminine attributes. Occupations in which men are overrepresented are companies are listed in Table 1.
regarded as male jobs and seen as requiring more masculine attributes
(Manzi, 2019). For instance, the number of female nurses is more than
that of male nurses and the number of men engineers is more than that of 2.4. Gender issues in aviation industry
female ones (Lips, 2003). When the gender of the person matches the
gender-type of the job, he/she is assumed to have the essential skills to Aviation is a traditionally male-dominated industry (Bridges et al.,
perform well. If not, the person is assumed to lack the essential skills 2014). Although women have been holding visible roles in the airline
required to perform the job and thus is assumed to be less effective industry, especially as cabin crew, the percentage of women aero­
(Welle and Heilman, 2005). nautical engineers, air traffic controllers and pilots is still low. Despite
Gender stereotypes and consequent discrimination are developed the increasing number of women employees in the aviation industry in
through different roles of men and women in society and experienced by recent years, the industry still has dominant masculine discourses
individuals at very early ages. For instance, in many societies, female (McCarthy et al., 2015) which affect the beliefs and actions of aviators
students are perceived as less capable and talented than their male peers towards women employees. In his study, Joseph (2007) found that
in fields such as technology and science (Cheryan, Ziegler, Montoya, & women working in the aviation industry reported feelings of unequal
Jiang, 2017; Leslie et al., 2015; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012). treatment by their peers, superiors and subordinates. In addition,
Mitchell et al. (2006) have found that women in the aviation industry
believe that they need to work harder and demonstrate a higher
2.2. Gender discrimination in male-dominated occupations

Although the main cause of gender discrimination is rooted in cul­ Table 1

tural beliefs, it can also be reinforced by organizational structures, Number of airline pilots in Turkey.
policies, and practices (Ridgeway and England, 2007). Studies have Turkish Pegasus AtlasGlobala Onur SunExpress
revealed that gender stereotypes and consequent gender discrimination Airlines Air

are more prominent in male-dominated occupational fields, where Total number 4772 1108 209 296 635
organizational members regard males with higher authority than of pilots
Number of 4612 1056 189 276 608
women (Nadler and Stockdale, 2012). Thus, women working in occu­
male pilots
pations that have been traditionally dominated by men are experiencing Number of 160 52 20 20 27
the most severe workplace gender discrimination (Parker, 2018). In­ female pilots
dividuals in male-dominated organizations hold biased attitudes to­ % of female 3.3% 4.7% 9.5% 6.7% 4.2%
wards women employees and these attitudes can negatively affect pilots

female performance (e.g. Matthews et al., 2009). In addition, women a

The airline suspended its operations as of February 2020.
who work in traditionally male-dominated jobs experience negative Source: Human Resources (HR) departments of each company

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standard of work within their career field to be accepted and appreciated perceptions of women in aviation, concluded that negative attitudes and
by their male co-workers (Davey and Davidson, 2000). prejudices towards gender are dangerous in aviation and leaders must
The industry especially holds negative prejudices regarding female address these issues in training to ensure flight safety. The CRM attitudes
pilots’ abilities and the suitability of professional pilot career for of male pilots can vary depending on the pilots’ culture, educational
women. Particularly, male pilots resist in accepting women in the flight background (military vs. civilian), age and experience (Peksatici, 2018).
deck because of their specific beliefs and preconceived notions regarding Thus, CRM training should incorporate the effects of gender biases, at­
how gender performs in the flight deck (Vermeulen and Mitchell, 2007). titudes, and beliefs (Robertson, 2014) and companies must ensure that
Masculinity and the powerful role of male pilots determine the occu­ all crew members control their perceptions and attitude regarding
pation’s culture and create restrictions on hiring women (Mills and gender for flight safety (Vermeulen and Mitchell, 2007).
Mills, 2006). As Bridges et al. (2014) stated “the aviation domain ap­ The main cause of gender inequality and discrimination is rooted in
pears to have glass doors”, where women hesitate to choose piloting the culture of the society (Cuddy et al., 2010; Else-Quest et al., 2010;
because of the stereotypes and gender-based prejudices towards female Nosek et al., 2009). Organizational structures, policies, and practices
pilots. Women who choose the occupation face a strongly masculine and can also reinforce gender inequality and discrimination (Ridgeway and
misogynistic culture (Bridges et al., 2014). England, 2007). Thus, gender-based challenges experienced by women
Gender identity refers to the internal sense of one’s own gender. It is employees in different societies and in different industrial and organi­
defined as the degree to which an individual identifies himself or herself zational contexts can be different (Mitchell et al., 2006; Ridgeway and
with masculine and feminine personality traits (Wood and Eagly, 2009). England, 2007). There are limited studies conducted on the career
If a person refers to his gender in masculine terms, then his gender challenges faced by female pilots in different industrial and national
identity is male. Occupations can also have gender identity and women contexts. Considering this gap in the literature, this study aims to
face difficulties when they choose occupations that are traditionally identify the perceived career challenges of female cockpit crew in
associated with male gender identity. Piloting is a male-gendered Turkey and giving recommendations in supporting female pilots’ career
occupation and the culture of the aviation industry favours employees advancement.
with masculine traits (Mitchell et al., 2006) and pilots often have a
“masculine” attitude (Vermeulen et al., 2009). This attitude and belief in 3. Methodology
the aviation industry creates a situation where males accept women as
peers if women possess masculine traits. As a result, female pilots face In order to reach the above-mentioned research objective, the data is
“cultural sexism” in the aviation industry and are expected to fit into the gathered from 16 female flight crew from 5 different commercial airlines
masculine culture of the current aviation system if they want to be in Turkey. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews are conducted with
airline pilots (Neal-Smith and Cockburn, 2009). In addition to the job’s 10 of these female flight crew and 6 of them have preferred to give
performance requirements, adapting to the male gender identity occu­ answers in a written format. The respondents are recruited through a
pation places additional stress on female pilots (Davey and Davidson, snowball technique and interviews are conducted in summer 2019.
2000). To successfully fit into their environment, women suppress their Interviews have the potential to generate rich data to explore a range
female characteristics and adopt masculine values and behaviours of perspectives (Cassell and Symon, 1994) and allow respondents to
(Davey and Davidson, 2000; Van Emmerik, Wendt and Euwema, 2010). discuss feelings and emotions (Bryman, 2012). In addition, unstructured
The stereotypes and gender-based prejudice towards women in the questions allow respondents to express their views openly without the
workplace can lead to gender discrimination and inequality between bias associated with restricting responses to predefined alternatives.
male and female pilots (Davey, 1996). This discrimination and They are useful in exploratory research (Malhotra, 2006). Consequently,
inequality can negatively affect female pilots’ performance (Matthews in this study, semi-structured interview method is used for data
et al., 2009). Many female pilots believe that they are treated less collection.
favourably and they do not have the same opportunities as their male Open-ended questions are formed based on the literature review (e.g.
co-workers. Therefore, female pilots feel that they must demonstrate a Bridges et al., 2014; McCarthy et al., 2015; Neal-Smith and Cockburn,
better performance than their male colleagues during trainings and 2009). The aim of the questions is to explore whether female pilots
flights (Davey and Davidson, 2000). experience gender-related challenges such as being held to different
The perceptions and beliefs related to gender may be potential fac­ working conditions, standards and performance evaluations because of
tors in Crew Resource Management (CRM), which is critical to flight gender, receiving any hostile remarks about their gender, and experi­
safety. CRM is defined as “a management system which makes optimum encing sexual harassment or bullying behaviour based on gender. Ex­
use of all available resources (equipment, procedures, and people) to amples of questions are: “What have been the primary obstacles and
promote safety and enhance the efficiency of flight operations” (CAA, challenges if any, faced throughout your career as a woman pilot?” and
2006). CRM trainings focus on situational awareness, communication “Do you believe there is gender discrimination towards women pilots
skills, teamwork, decision-making skills, problem-solving skills, lead­ (from male pilots, other crew members, passengers, etc.)?” Participants
ership, and improving the ability for individuals to recognize his or her are also asked to provide suggestions for overcoming gender-based
own limitations (Kanki et al., 2019). It helps crew on being aware of challenges faced by female pilots and for supporting their career
other crew members, enabling support of each other, making decisions advancement. The questions are listed in Appendix 1 and the details of
as a team, and solving conflicts (Keshavarzi, 2011). the participants can be found in Table 2. The findings are summarized in
Team dynamics and effective communication between crew mem­ the next section by referring to the sample statements of the participants.
bers are important components of CRM and flight safety (CAA, 2016; The complete list of participants’ statements regarding each finding can
Keshavarzi, 2011). Masculine discourses of the aviation industry be found in Appendix 2.
directly affect the relations between crew and therefore CRM on the
flight deck (Vermeulen et al., 2009). Negative perceptions and beliefs 4. Findings
related to gender and attitudes towards the opposite gender held by men
and women can result in detrimental crew interactions, poor 4.1. Gender stereotyping and prejudice
decision-making and coordination and potential pilot errors in flight and
can therefore threaten CRM (Vermeulen and Mitchell, 2007; Wetmore The statements of the participants have revealed that female pilots
and Lu, 2006). According to Mitchell et al. (2006), gender stereotypes experience gender prejudice from the society due to the gender stereo­
and attitudes can negatively influence male and female crew in­ typing and the role attributed to women in Turkey. There are professions
teractions in flight. Vermeulen (2009), who studied pilot instructor that are attributed to women in Turkish society and being a pilot is not

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Table 2 4.3. Discrimination from male cockpit crew

Demographic details of respondents.
Participant Company Title Total Airline Flight Experience Participants have stated that they have been receiving discrimina­
tory statements from the male cockpit crew. Many captains claim that
Participant 1 1 FO 5 years
Participant 2 1 Captain 6 years the job is not suitable for women. The finding has been exemplified by
Participant 3 4 FO 3 years 8 months Participant 3 as follows: “When I told one of the captains that I’m not very
Participant 4 4 FO 4.5 years good at cooking, he said: ‘There’s no point in flying a Boeing 777 if you
Participant 5 4 FO 4 years cannot prepare a nice meal for your husband’. Then he told me that I should
Participant 6 1 FO 3.5 years
Participant 7 1 FO 4 years
get married, have children like every woman, quit flying and that the in­
Participant 8 1 Captain 5 years vestment I made in this profession is a waste.” (For more statements see
Participant 9 4 Captain 10 years Appendix 2).
Participant 10 4 Captain 8 years In addition, the findings have revealed that male captains associate
Participant 11 1 FO 4 years
appropriate behaviour and success with male gender. As clearly exem­
Participant 12 4 FO 8 years
Participant 13 3 FO 2 years plified by Participant 8: “During one of the training flights, the instructor
Participant 14 5 Captain 8 years told me: ‘Well done, you landed just like a man.’ You can clearly see the
Participant 15 4 FO 6 years gender discrimination here. There is an undeniable prejudice against female
Participant 16 2 FO 2 years pilots.” Another example has been given by Participant 10 as follows: “I
*FO stands for First Officer, the second pilot. remember one captain reacted the way I push the buttons. He yelled at me
‘Push it like a man, like a pilot!’ Another one told me to step the pedals like a
one of them. As clearly expressed by Participant 7: “It is not easy to do this man and sit like a man. There have been pilots who humiliated me during the
job in our country as a woman. In Turkey, women are expected to choose easy entire flight.”
and feminine jobs and avoid jobs that require courage. Also, they should not Moreover, the statements of the participants have revealed that
earn more than their husbands. That’s why women are a step behind in although female pilots show the same performance with male First Of­
professions such as piloting.” Likewise, Participant 2 has mentioned: “In ficers (FOs), they get discriminatory feedback from the captains. As
general, it is very difficult to be a woman in Turkey. There are, of course, clearly exemplified by Participant 14: “During one simulator training, I
extra difficulties of being a female pilot.” Similarly, Participant 9 has had a male flight body. We both had difficulty in adjusting our seats, the
remarked: “Not only in the aviation industry but in all industries, there is captain told me ‘Go home and wash the dishes if you can’t make it’. He didn’t
gender discrimination. In Turkey, when women choose jobs that are not say the same thing to my male buddy. Especially during the trainings, male
attributed to women, they face many problems.” (For more statements see captains can have prejudice towards female pilots. I remember captains
Appendix 2). Additionally, as remarked by Participant 7: “Some pas­ questioning my physical strength for controlling the aircraft.” Another
sengers see us and say they are very happy to see female pilots. On the other example has been given by Participant 8 as follows: “During the trainings,
hand, some passengers say: ‘If I knew the pilots were women, I wouldn’t fly’. I felt distrust from captains. A male FO sitting next to me had to make just one
In general people are not very used to seeing a female pilot or hearing a successful landing, whereas I was required to make five.” (For more state­
woman voice in the cockpit.” Similarly, Participant 3 has stated: “Some ments see Appendix 2). Also, because of the discriminatory attitude they
passengers react when a woman pilot makes the announcement. Some of them face, female pilots feel like they must show more effort than men to be
are asking the cabin crew if there are any men inside.” (For more statements accepted and appreciated by male captains. As clearly stated by
see Appendix 2). Participant 6: “Because we are still a minority. We must work harder to
prove ourselves in this industry. Captains continuously test us to see whether
4.2. Male-dominated industry and industry prejudice against female pilots we will be able to succeed the next time.” (For more statements see Ap­
pendix 2).
The participants have stated that they have been experiencing The findings have also shown that female pilots face gender
gender prejudice from their colleagues. The industry has a resistance in discrimination especially during the trainings, either before they are
accepting female pilots as piloting is a male-dominated profession. As being hired by the company, or when they expect an upgrade after the
clearly expressed by Participant 5: “In this male-dominated profession, we training. Training periods are critical times for pilots and many female
are still a minority. So, people have prejudice against us. Being a minority in a pilots have stated that they did not want to risk their career by reporting
place is always difficult. This is the main difficulty we are facing as female discriminative attitudes of the captains. As stated by Participant 7:
pilots.” Participant 2 has also supported the finding as follows: “Unfor­ “During one flight, one captain did serious mobbing and gender-based insult
tunately, still 60–70% of the people in the aviation industry think that a to me. Because I was in training, I could not report him. My company was a
woman cannot be a pilot. The percentage is decreasing though. I’ve been private company, and there was a captain hegemony there. If you are an FO
flying for 6 years and before that I used to be a cabin crew. I can see the in training and new to the company and especially if you are a woman, you
difference between people’s attitudes towards a female cabin crew and a are always afraid of being dismissed and take your steps cautiously. When I
female pilot. It is very normal for you to be a cabin crew as a woman but being asked other captains in the company whether I should report the abusive
a woman pilot is still unusual.” (For more statements see Appendix 2). captain, they said that the captain is very old in the company and that I may
The statements of some participants have also revealed that espe­ have more difficulties later in the company if I report him now. So, I did not
cially captains who came from the military have more negative preju­ report him. It could have however affected my performance and flight safety
dice towards female pilots. As stated by Participant 7: “70–80% of very negatively.” (For more statements see Appendix 2).
current pilots came from the military and they have always worked with men. Furthermore, some female pilots feel discriminated when captains
Therefore, it is not pleasant for them to fly with women on the same aircraft”. compare female pilots’ performance with each other. As clearly
Participant 11 has supported the finding by stating: “There are some explained by Participant 3: “Captains always compare female pilots with
captains who came from the military and worked only with men. They have each other. We receive comments such as: ‘I flew with that girl the day before,
no idea how to talk to a woman. When you sit next to him as a colleague, you you are better than her.’ or ‘That girl was doing a great job, you should work
cannot expect a 60-year old person to change his language.” (For more harder.’ They should not compare women with women. They should compare
statements see Appendix 2). pilots with pilots regardless of the gender. Another time, I had a very good
performance in a simulator, and the examiner captain told me that I was very
good although I am a woman. I wish he could realize that this is not a praise
but an insult.” (For more statements see Appendix 2).

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The participants have also stated that there is a male-dominated 4.6. No sexual harassment
language in the cockpit and they are exposed to slang and abusive lan­
guage during the flights. As explained by Participant 9: “As a society, we Although the participants have all agreed that they experience
are used to the slang expressions of men. The slang and abusive language gender discrimination, none of them experienced any physical sexual
continue in the cockpit because it is male-dominated. When they get angry at harassment. They also stated that they would not tolerate it. As stated by
something, they can use abusive language. We as women try not to hear Participant 7: “No female pilot would tolerate sexual harassment and men
them.” Another example has been given by Participant 3: “Once I can’t dare to do it in this profession”. Similarly, Participant 10 has stated:
remember a captain shook my hands and asked me: ‘Are you a pilot or a “In another profession, harassment can be very severe, but in our profession,
woman? I’ll talk accordingly.’ Instead of explaining to him that I can be both, it can’t be. If a woman reports this, it is going to cause serious problems to the
I let him speak as he wished.” (For more statements see Appendix 2). man pilot and everyone knows it. That’s why they don’t force women that
However, female pilots with military background are better in coping much. But still we have friends who are experiencing difficulties.” (For more
with a male-dominated language in the cockpit environment. As stated statements see Appendix 2).
by Participant 6: “I came from the air force and I studied at a military Besides the gender issues, female pilots have also highlighted some of
school. There were only 20 women out of 1000 men. Here there are many. the problems experienced both by female and male pilots due to the
I’m very familiar with this kind of male-dominated environment, so frankly, personal attitudes of the captains. As explained by Participant 8: “Female
slang and abusive language do not affect me. They are very polite here pilots also suffer because women are generally FOs, they are often not in the
compared to the military. I’m in a much more comfortable environment commander position. Both FO and Captain have defined duties. When cap­
here.” (For more statements see Appendix 2). tains use their power unethically, the flight safety is in danger. It’s not just
In very rare situations, female pilots have experienced serious verbal about gender, this is a problem in male-to-male flights as well.” In addition,
abuse. An extreme example has been given by Participant 7 as follows: “I Participant 14 has stated: “Captains do different psychological torture to
was divorced, and one captain insisted on calling me with my ex-husband’s men and women FOs. They use abusive language to male pilots and say
surname. I kindly asked him to correct it. His reaction was ‘I can call you as I discriminatory things to women to get on your nerves.” (For more state­
wish’. Then throughout 4 legs, he kept his mobbing. He asked me 10 ques­ ments see Appendix 2).
tions, I answered 9 of them correctly and just because I gave a wrong answer
to one question, he reacted: ‘It’s because you are hanging out with men 4.7. Recommendations for career advancement
instead of studying. I am sure your husband divorced you for the same
reason.’ I reported the captain, but nothing changed. He continued flying in Participants have given several recommendations for increasing the
the company.” number of female pilots in Turkey. They have highlighted the impor­
tance of educating society about the profession and explaining that
women can be as successful as men in this profession. As recommended
4.4. Pressure of showing masculine behaviour and controlling attitude by Participant 14: “We should reach families. Girls need to know that
piloting is also a profession for women. Advertisements or special events can
Some of the participants have stated that they had to act masculine at be organized by companies and the government.” In addition, they have
work. They believe that by showing masculine behaviour, they can get highlighted the importance of mentoring among female pilots. As stated
accepted easily in the workplace especially by male captains. They are by Participant 16: “Many people ask me that they know a woman who
concerned that if they acted in a feminine way, they could have faced wants to become a pilot but that there is no role model around. They need help
gender-related difficulties. As clearly explained by Participant 2: “In and assistant. They want to learn more from a real woman pilot. Organiza­
general, we start to become more masculine. Our conversations are becoming tions, conferences, and TV programs can be organized for this.” (For more
a bit like a man. Maybe in your normal life you are dressed very feminine, do statements see Appendix 2).
make-up, and be well-groomed but when you enter the cockpit, you start to Participants have also given several recommendations for reducing
act in a more masculine way to get yourself accepted or not to take negative the challenges that female pilots are facing. They have emphasized the
attention. I remember when I was a student pilot, I used to wear loose clothes importance of having female pilots in the management roles. As
and a hat. I was trying to exist not with my femininity but my piloting. I Participant 8 has stated: “Women should be involved in the management.
realized it after the school was over. I think if I dressed more feminine, maybe Men cannot understand what we are going through, so we cannot expect men
instructors or captains could have look at me in a negative way.” Similarly, to solve them. Women should be represented by women managers. These
Participant 10 has stated: “We develop a male-like language in time. We injustices are best solved like this. I think that the success of female pilots
become grumpy, serious, tough. We can only act naturally with the ones we depends on it. When we are in the management positions, things will be easier
are close with or we love. For example, I am normally a very smiling person, I for us.” Additionally, Participant 16 has suggested: “If female pilots in­
remember one captain warned me: ‘Why are you smiling all the time, be crease in number, new procedures and regulations should be announced and
serious!’ Now I’m more serious. You learn male language and you start to act our rights will be improved.” In addition, participants have stressed the
and talk like them in time.” (For more statements see Appendix 2). importance of confidential reporting systems in companies. As stated by
Participant 7: “Confidential reporting system can be developed. I hear from
my colleagues working at the flag carrier of Turkey. All cockpit and cabin
4.5. Difficulty of balancing family life crew are doing confidential scoring to each other on a system. If a crew re­
ceives too low scores and several negative comments, the HR department
Participants have agreed that the main difficulty female pilots face is warns them. If he/she continues the same way, their contract is terminated.
maintaining a work-life balance especially after becoming a mother. As As far as I know, other private firms don’t have this system. I think this is a
clearly explained by Participant 2: “The main difficulty is women are ex­ professional approach that should be applied by all companies. This would
pected to have more responsibilities than men at home and in a family. Even if make everyone do their job and behave appropriately.” Moreover, some
we work under the same conditions and do the same shift with men, we have participants have highlighted the importance of having strict company
to continue working when we come back home. Of course, there can be some policies against sexual harassment and discrimination. As clearly stated
exceptions but in general while men can spend more time resting after work, by Participant 8: “Sexual discrimination or abusive language should have
women must come home and continue their housework.” Participant 6 has serious consequences. The management should bring rules. There was one
also explained: “The main difficulty we have as female pilots is our irregular captain having problems with all female pilots in the company. The solution
life. We have no weekends; we have to work at night or on special days. It’s that the company found was to assign him with only male pilots. This is not a
hard to keep order at home.” (For more statements see Appendix 2). solution. There should be more serious punishment for it.”

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Furthermore, considering the impact of perceptions and beliefs 2009), we recommended that CRM trainings must incorporate the ef­
related to gender on CRM, the participants have recommended airline fects of gender biases, attitudes, and beliefs because female pilots face
companies to involve gender issues in CRM trainings. As clearly several gender-based challenges. All flight crew should be trained to
expressed by Participant 10: “In CRM trainings they mention that there is adjust their attitudes and behaviour to meet the demands of a
no gender in the cockpit. That’s it. They tell us that we should not expect any multi-gender workplace. Especially, male pilots with military back­
courtesy or kindness from captains just because we are women. But maybe ground need orientation sessions to work in multi-gender environments.
CRM trainings can be used to create awareness and empathy so that they In addition, it is recommended that airlines bring confidential
understand how we feel when captains use abusive language.” Similarly, reporting systems to detect gender or any kind of discrimination or
Participant 12 stated: “In CRM trainings, there is no special session related harassment. All crew, including the ones in the training phase, should be
to gender discrimination. They just tell us that whatever we experience during able to use these reporting systems and they should be ensured that their
the flight, we should not reflect it on the flight and that safety is first. They reports will be kept strictly confidential. These confidential systems
recommend us to do necessary reporting after we land.” (For more state­ should be supported by effective reward and punishment systems and
ments see Appendix 2). gender discrimination or harassment should have serious consequences.
In addition to these suggestions, the participants have highlighted Also, female pilots must be involved in the management of the com­
the importance of uniting against gender-based discrimination. As stated panies as it is believed that the issues regarding gender discrimination
by Participant 11: “To increase the number of female pilots, existing female can be solved better when there are more women in the decision-making
pilots need to do their jobs professionally and successfully.” Similarly, process.
Participant 5 has stated: “We should unite and do something together. We Moreover, the findings have revealed that mentoring among women
must make efforts to promote birth and postnatal rights. There are many is considered as an important tool for supporting female pilots’ career
different international platforms formed in order to overcome gender-based advancement. Accordingly, female pilots should share their knowledge,
discriminations at work as well as to support women during special times skills and experience with female pilot candidates to assist, motivate,
such as pregnancy and breastfeeding. We should be following them.” (For and empower them. It is also recommended that female pilots take an
more statements see Appendix 2). active role in the international platforms that are formed to overcome
Lastly, Participant 8 has mentioned that minor changes with the gender-based discrimination at work.
uniforms can be done for women to feel less masculine in the cockpit by In line with the previous research (e.g., Bridges et al. (2014), our
stating: “Uniforms are totally masculine. With the presence of women in findings show that female pilots face a “glass door” in entering the
management, it can be changed. We are imposed to wear ties. Although it is a aviation industry and hesitate to choose piloting because of the stereo­
small issue, it can reduce the inequality between women and men.” types and the gender-based prejudices towards them. To overcome this
barrier and to increase the number of female pilots, it is recommended
5. Discussion of the findings that the society is educated about the profession through advertisements
and special events. This will help the community to acknowledge that
The statements of the participants show that female pilots are facing women are as competent as men in doing this job.
several gender-based challenges in the workplace. Firstly, female pilots
confront gender prejudice especially from their male colleagues. The 6. Conclusion
aviation industry and especially the male pilots hold negative prejudices
regarding female pilots’ abilities and the suitability of professional pilot This study has identified gender-related career challenges experi­
career for women. This is mainly due to the gender stereotypes in society enced by female commercial airline pilots based in Turkey. Most
which considers the occupation to be more suitable for men than prominently, female pilots experience gender prejudice and discrimi­
women. The finding is in line with previous studies that have revealed nation in the workplace. These problems impose psychological burden
gender prejudice experienced by female pilots (e.g. Mills and Mills, on female pilots and affect their behaviour and performance. Consid­
2006; Vermeulen and Mitchell, 2007). Secondly, female pilots experi­ ering the findings of the study, several recommendations are given to the
ence gender discrimination in the workplace and are being treated un­ airline companies and the society in supporting female pilots’ career
equally compared to their male colleagues. The findings are very similar advancement.
to the previous studies conducted in civil and military aviation industry Notice that our study has some limitations that can be explained in
(e.g. Davey and Davidson, 2000; Davey, 1996; Joseph, 2007; Matthews twofold: first, its findings are limited to the sample size; second, the
et al., 2009; Mitchell et al., 2006). Thirdly, female pilots feel like they interviews are conducted in Turkish and the verbatim of the participants
must suppress their female traits and show masculine behaviour to be are transcribed in the original language and the data is then translated to
accepted by their male colleagues and this causes them to be stressed. English, therefore, semantic loss is inevitable during translation.
This is again in parallel with the previous studies which have shown that For future research, a structured questionnaire may be developed to
female pilots face “cultural sexism” and are expected to fit into the identify the challenges that female pilots are experiencing in different
masculine culture of the aviation industry (e.g. Davey and Davidson, countries. This would give us more insight into how cultural differences
2000; Mitchell et al., 2006; Neal-Smith and Cockburn, 2009; Van would affect the challenges experienced by female pilots and enable us
Emmerik et al., 2010; Vermeulen et al., 2009). to make recommendations on the subject. Last but not least, some female
Lastly, the findings of our study reveal that female pilots face diffi­ pilots have highlighted their gender independent problems with cap­
culty in balancing work and family life especially after getting married tains; therefore, it would also be valuable to conduct an independent
and most importantly after becoming a mother. The reason is that in research that assesses the problems between first officers and captains
Turkey women are expected to take more responsibility for housework that are not gender-related.
than men. Therefore, balancing work and private life becomes more
difficult for female pilots. The finding supports the previous studies CRediT authorship contribution statement
which have demonstrated that women’s housework responsibilities are
the biggest challenge to their career advancement (Ozkanli, 2001). Ozge
€ Yanıkog�lu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,
Considering the findings of the study, the following recommenda­ Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Su­
tions can be made for supporting female pilots career advancement: pervision. Sena Kılıç: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investiga­
Although CRM is one of the most important issue concerning flight tion, Resources, Writing - review & editing. Hatice Küçüko € nal:
safety, gender issues are not covered during CRM trainings. As it is also Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing.
pointed out in other studies (e.g., Robertson, 2014; Vermeulen et al.,

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€ Yanıko�glu et al. Journal of Air Transport Management 86 (2020) 101823

Appendix A. Supplementary data Manzi, F., 2019. Are the processes underlying discrimination the same for women and
men? A critical review of congruity models of gender discrimination. Front. Psychol.
10, 1–16.
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org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101823. and gender on attitudes toward women in the military. Mil. Psychol. 21 (2),
241–251.
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