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com
 Electrical Engineering
for
Non-ElectricalEngineers
By
S. Bobby Rauf

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Electrical Engineering
for
Non-Electrical Engineers

librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rauf, S. Bobby, 1956-

Electrical engineering for non-electrical engineers / by S. Bobby Rauf.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-10: 0-88173-683-X (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-88173-684-8 (electronic)
ISBN-13: 978-1-4822-2883-0
1. Electrical engineering. I. Title.

TK146.R28 2013
621.3--dc23
2013038007

Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers / by S. Bobby Rauf.

©2014 by The Fairmont Press, Inc.. All rights reserved. No part of this publica-
tion may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.

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While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher,

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 Dedication
This book is dedicated to my wife Viktoriya Rauf,
my daughter Nida Rauf and my son Haseeb A. Rauf
for their support and understanding
during the countless hours I spent on this book.

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Contents
Chapter 1
Electrical Engineering Basics 1
Voltage.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Current.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Resistance. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..5
Resistors.in.Series .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Resistors.in.Parallel. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..9
Electrical.Short.and.Open.Circuit .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Capacitor.and.Capacitance . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12
Capacitors.in.Series. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18
Capacitors.in.Parallel. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21
Capacitive.Reactance. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 23
Inductor.and.Inductance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Series.Inductor.Combination. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33
Parallel.Combination.of.Inductors . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34
Inductive.Reactance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Impedance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Magnetic.Circuits.vs ..Electrical.Circuits. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39
Basic.Electrical.Instruments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Chapter 2
DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 49
Ohms.Law .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Kirchhoff’s.Voltage.Law.(KVL) . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51
Kirchhoff’s.Current.Law.(KCL) . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 54
Voltage.Division .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Current.Division.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Multi-loop.Circuit.Analysis. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 61
Diodes. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 69
Half.Wave.Rectifier. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74
Full.Wave.Rectifier. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 75
Transistors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Electronic.device.applications.on.printed.circuit.boards. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 78

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Chapter 3
Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 87
Alternating.Current.(AC).Versus.Direct.Current.(DC). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 87
Electrodeposition—DC.and.the.Average.Value.of.AC. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 90
Alternating.Current.and.Impedance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Polar.or.Phasor.Form. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 94
Rectangular.Form. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 95
Sinusoidal.or.Trigonometric.Form . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 96
Exponential.Form. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98
Impedance.Analysis. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98
Transformers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Common.Single.Phase.AC.Transformer.Applications . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111
Autotransformers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .114
Voltage.Regulation,.Voltage.Regulators.and.
. Buck.Boost.Transformers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .114
Three.Phase.AC. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .117
Three.Phase.AC.Systems.vs ..Single.Phase.AC.Systems. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .118
Current.Transformers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .119
Three.Phase.AC.Transformers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

Chapter 4
DC and AC Power 137
Single.Phase.AC.Power. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .143
Three.Phase.AC.Power. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .149
Efficiency. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .152
Power.Conversion.from.Steam.to.Electrical.Form. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .153
Power.Conversion.from.Water.to.Electrical.Form . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .155
Power.Conversion.in.Hydraulic.Pump.Systems—.
Wire.to.Water.Transformation.of.Power.and.Energy. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .157

Chapter 5
Power Factor 167
Power.Factor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Lagging.Power.Factor .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Lagging.Power.Factor.from.Impedance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Leading.Power.Factor.and.Impedance . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .175
Power.Factor.Correction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .182

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Chapter 6
Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor and
Electrical Power Bill Computation 195
Demand. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .195
Peak.Demand. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .196
Load.Factor. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .198
Service.Factor. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .200
Computation.of.Large.Industrial.or.
. Commercial.Electrical.Power.Bills . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .201

Chapter 7
Electric Motors and Generators 209
DC.Generator. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
AC.Alternator. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .214
AC.Induction.Motor .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Motor.Torque.and.Power.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .220
Single.Phase.and.Three.Phase.Motor.Line.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .221
Current.Computation. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .221
Three.Phase.AC.Induction.Motor.Current . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .222
Synchronous.Motors . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .226
Motor.Starting.Methods.for.Induction.Motors. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .228
Motor.Classifications. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .231
Typical.Motor.Nameplate.Information.for.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .232
Large.Three.Phase.Induction.Motor.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .232

Chapter 8
Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation
and Electronic Safety Devices 235
Voltage.Categories.in.Power.Distribution.Systems. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .235
MCCs.or.Motor.Control.Centers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .239
Motor.Starter—A-B.Bulletin.2100. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .247
Variable.Frequency.Drives—Up.to.250HP. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .250
Smart.Motor.Controllers.(SMCs)—Up.to.500A. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .251
Comparison.between.SMCs,.VFDs.and.Soft.Starts .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
PLC.and.I/O.Chassis . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .254
Main.Switch.Yard.and.Medium.Voltage.Switchgear. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .256
Medium.Voltage.Switchgear—Loop.Switch. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .257
Circuit.Breakers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .258

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 Medium-voltage.circuit.breakers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .261
High-voltage.circuit.breakers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .262

Chapter 9
National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 265
Ampacity.of.Conductors—Table.310-15. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .272
Figure.9 .4:.Example.of.NFPA.70.E.Class.4.PPE. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .284
Electrical.Safety.Certifications. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .286
NEMA.versus.IP.Enclosure.Ratings.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Common.Electrical/Electronic.Safety.Devices. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .291

Chapter 10
Electrical and Controls Drawings 307
Electrical.Drawings. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .307
One-line.Schematic.Diagram. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .307
Current.Carrying.Conductor.Size. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .312
Conduit.and.Conduit.Size .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Overload.Protection.Setting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Starter.Size . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .318
Overcurrent.Protection.Fuse.Size. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .318
Fusible.disconnect.switch.size . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .319
Wiring.Diagram. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .324
Input.Control.Diagram . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .328
Output.Control.Diagram.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
Relay.Ladder.Logic. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .332

Chapter 11
Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy
Cost Savings Opportunities 341
Three.Pronged.Approach.to... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
Electrical.Energy.Cost.Reduction*. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 341
Electric.Utility.Rate.Schedules*. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 342
Rates.Under.OPT—I.Schedule. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .346
Hourly.Pricing.Option/Schedule . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .348
Areas.of.Opportunity.for.Electrical.Energy.Cost.Savings . .. .. .. .. .. .. .348
Energy.Performance.Contracting.and.ESCO.Opportunities*. .. .. .. .. .. .. .351
Electrical.Energy.Related.Measures.
. Typically.Included.in.ESCO.or.EPC.Endeavors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354

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Chapter 12
Illumination and Lighting System Design 363
Lighting.Terms,.Concepts.and.Standards. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .364
Luminous.Efficacy.or.Luminous.Efficiency . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .368
IESNA.Recommended.Illumination.Levels.and . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .371
Lighting.Efficacy.Comparison . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .371
Lambert’s.Law.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Illuminance.Inverse.Square.Law. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .377
Illuminance.Cosine-cubed.Law. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .378
Lighting.Design.Considerations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Daylight.Based.Design.Considerations. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .381

Appendices
Appendix A 387
Chapter.1—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .387
Chapter.2—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .396
Chapter.3—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .406
Chapter.4—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .417
Chapter.5—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .425
Chapter.6—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .432
Chapter.7—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .436
Chapter.8—Answers/Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .443
Chapter.9—Solutions. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .444
Chapter.10—Solutions . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .451
Chapter.11—Solutions . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .458
Chapter.12—Solutions . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .461
Appendix B 465
Common.Units.and.Unit.Conversion.Factors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Appendix C 469

Index 471

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Preface
Many Non-engineering professionals as well as engineers who are not
electrical engineers tend to have a phobia related to electrical engineering.
One reason for this apprehensiveness about electrical engineering is due
to the fact that electrical engineering is premised concepts, methods and
mathematical techniques that are somewhat more abstract than those
employed in other disciplines, such as civil, mechanical, environmental
and industrial engineering. Yet, because of the prevalence and ubiquitous
nature of the electrical equipment, appliances, and the role electricity
plays in our daily lives, the non-electrical professionals find themselves
interfacing with systems and dealing with matters that broach into the
electrical realm. Therein lies the purpose and objective of this book.
This book is designed to serve as a resource for exploring and
understanding basic electrical engineering concepts, principles, analytical
strategies and mathematical strategies.
If your objective as a reader is limited to the acquisition of basic knowledge
in electrical engineering, then the material in this book should suffice.
If, however, the reader wishes to progress their electrical engineering
knowledge to intermediate or advanced level, this book could serve as a
useful platform.
As the adage goes, “a picture is worth a thousand words;” this book
maximizes the utilization of diagram, graphs, pictures and flow charts to
facilitate quick and effective comprehension of the concepts of electrical
engineering.
In this book, the study of electrical engineering concepts, principles
and analysis techniques is made relatively easy for the reader by inclusion
of most of the reference data, in form of excerpts from different parts
of the book, within the discussion of each case study, exercise and self-
assessment problem solutions. This is in an effort to facilitate quick study
and comprehension of the material without repetitive search for reference
data in other parts of the book.
Certain electrical engineering concepts and terms are explained more
than once as these concepts appear in different chapters of this text; often
with a slightly different perspective. This approach is a deliberate attempt
to make the study of some of the more abstract electrical engineering
topics more fluid; allowing the reader continuity, and precluding the need
for pausing and referring to chapters where those specific topics were
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first introduced.
Due to the level of explanation and detail included for most electrical
engineering concepts, principles, computational techniques and analyses
methods, this book is a tool for those energy engineers, engineers and non-
engineers, who are not current on the subject of electrical engineering.
The solutions for end of the chapter self-assessment problems are
explained in just as much detail as the case studies and sample problem in
the pertaining chapters. This approach has been adopted so that this book
can serve as a electrical engineering skill building resource for engineers
of all disciplines. Since all chapters and topics begin with the introduction
of important fundamental concepts and principles, this book can serve as
a “brush-up,” refresher or review tool for even electrical engineers whose
current area of engineering specialty does not afford them the opportunity
to keep their electrical engineering knowledge current.
In an effort to clarify some of the electrical engineering concepts
effectively for energy engineers whose engineering education focus
does not include electrical engineering, analogies are drawn from non-
electrical engineering realms, on certain complex topics, to facilitate
comprehension of the relatively abstract electrical engineering concepts
and principles.
Each chapter in this book concludes with a list of questions or
problems, for self-assessment, skill building and knowledge affirmation
purposes. The reader is encouraged to attempt these problems and
questions. The answers and solutions, for the questions and problems,
are included under Appendix A of this text.
Most engineers understand the role units play in definition and
verification of the engineering concepts, principles, equations, and
analytical techniques. Therefore, most electrical engineering concepts,
principles and computational procedures covered in this book are
punctuated with proper units. In addition, for the reader’s convenience,
units for commonly used electrical engineering entities, and some
conversion factors are listed under Appendix C.
Most electrical engineering concepts, principles, tables, graphs,
and computational procedures covered in this book are premised on SI/
Metric Units. However, US/Imperial Units are utilized where appropriate
and conventional. When the problems or numerical analysis are based
on only one of the two unit systems, the given data and the final results
can be transformed into the desired unit system through the use of unit
conversion factors in Appendix B.
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 Some of the Greek symbols, used in the realm of electrical
engineering, are listed in Appendix C, for reference.

What Readers Can Gain from this Book

• Better understanding of electrical engineering terms, concepts,

principles, laws, analysis methods, solution strategies and compu-
tational techniques.

• Greater confidence in interactions with electrical engineering design

engineers, electricians, controls engineers and electrical engineering
experts.

• Certain skills and preparation necessary for succeeding in electrical

engineering portion of various certification and licensure exams, i.e.
CEM, Certified Energy Manager, FE, Fundamentals of Engineering
(also known as EIT, or Engineer in Training), PE, Professional Engi-
neering and many other trade certification tests.

• A better understanding of the electrical engineering component of

energy projects.

• A compact and simplified electrical engineering desk reference.

• Better understanding of electrical energy cost and tips on improve-

ment of electrical energy intensity in industrial and commercial
environment.

• Introduction to the generation of electricity from renewable sources.

• Better understanding of illumination principles and concepts, and

an appreciation of efficient lighting/illumination design

An epistemic advice to the reader: if you don’t understand some of

the abstract concepts the first time, don’t give up. Read it again! Such is
the nature, intrigue and challenge of engineering, physics, science and
other subjects that require thinking, reflection and rumination.

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 Acknowledgements
and Credits

Rockwell International ®
Many thanks to John Keogh, Dave Dascenzo and Rachel R Schickowski of
Rockwell International ® for provision of illustrative MCC pictures that,
I am certain, will be appreciated by the readers.

National Fire Protection Agency, NFPA®

My gratitude to NFPA® for their permission to use NEC® information
in this text.

Duke Energy®, LLC

My appreciation to Jeff Koone of Duke Energy® for facilitating permission
to use Duke Energy Rate Schedule information.

Fluke Corporation
Many thanks to Beverly Summers, of Fluke Corporation for granting
permission to use material associated with their multimeter and clamp
ammeter.

Kim Craven, PE
My endless gratitude to Kim Craven, PE for his guidance on electrical
engineering topics included in this text.

Control Technologies, LLC

Many thanks to Wes Lampkin of Control Technologies, LLC, for his
contribution of the PLC relay ladder logic examples.

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Chapter 1
Electrical
Engineering Basics

Introduction
. In. this. first. chapter. of. the. Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical
Engineers. text,. we. will. explore. the. basics. of. electrical. engineering. terms.
concepts,.principles,.and.analytical.techniques ..Many.readers.who.embark.on.
investing. time. and. effort. in. studying. this. text. are. likely. to. do. so. for. the. key.
purpose.of.gaining.an.introduction.into.the.field.of.electricity ..Many.others,.on.
the.other.hand,.might.be.interested.in.refurbishing.prior.knowledge.of.electri-
cal. engineering. terms,. concepts,. principles. and. basic. analytical. techniques ..
Regardless.of.whether.you.belong.to.one.of.these.two.groups—or.are.simply.in.
pursuit.of.electrical.engineering.at.the.intermediate.or.associates.degree.level—
in.this.chapter.we.will.lay.the.foundations.in.the.electrical.engineering.realm.by.
covering. basic. electrical. engineering. terms,. concepts. and. principles,. without.
the.understanding.of.which,.discussion.and.study.of.terms.that.bear.important.
practical.significance,.such.as.power.factor,.real.power,.reactive.power,.appar-
ent.power,.load.factor,.etc ..would.not.be.feasible .
. Most. of. the. material. in. this. chapter. pertains. to. DC,. or. Direct. Current,.
electricity .. However,. some. entities. we. will. discuss. in. this. chapter,. such. as,.
capacitive. reactance,. inductive. reactance. and. impedance. are. fundamentally.
premised.in.the.AC,.alternating.current,.realm .
. Electrical.engineering.is.rooted.in.the.field.of.physics ..Physics,.and.elec-
trical.engineering,.as.most.other.fields.in.science,.depend.on.empirical.proof.of.
principles.and.theories ..Empirical.analysis.and.verification.requires.measure-
ment.tools.or.instrumentation ..So,.after.gaining.a.better.understanding.of.the.
basic.electrical.concepts,.we.will.conclude.this.chapter.with.an.introduction.to.
two.of.the.most.common.and.basic.electrical.instruments,.i .e ..multi-meter.and.
clamp-on.ammeter .

Voltage
. Voltage.is.defined.as.an.electromotive.force.that.moves.or.pushes.elec-
trically. charged. particles. like. electrons,. holes,. negatively. charged. ions. or.

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2 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

positively.charged.ions ..The.term.“electromotive”.force.stems.from.the.early.
recognition.of.electricity.as.something.that.consisted,.strictly,.of.the.movement.
of.“electrons .”.However,.with.today’s.more.recent.breakthroughs.in.the.renew-
able.and.non-traditional.electrical.power.generating.methods.and.systems.like.
microbial.fuel.cells,.and.hydrocarbon.fuel.cells,.electrical.power.is.being.har-
nessed,.more.and.more,.in.form.of.charged.particles.that.may.not.be.electrons .
. Two,.relatively.putative,.analogies.for.voltage.in.the.mechanical.and.civil.
engineering.disciplines.are.pressure.and.elevation ..In.the.mechanical.realm—
or.more.specifically.in.the.fluid.and.hydraulic.systems—high.pressure.or.pres-
sure.differential.pushes.fluid.from.one.point.to.another.and.performs.mechani-
cal.work ..Similarly,.voltage—in.form.of.voltage.difference.between.two.points,.
as.with.the.positive.and.negative.terminals.of.an.automobile.battery—moves.
electrons.or.charged.particles.through.loads.such.as.motors,.coils,.resistive.ele-
ments,.lamps,.etc ..As.electrons.or.charged.particles.are.pushed.through.loads.
like.motors,.coils,.resistive.elements,.light.filaments,.etc .,.electrical.energy.is.
converted. into. mechanical. energy,. heat. energy. or. light. energy .. In. equipment.
like. rechargeable. batteries,. during. the. charging. process,. applied. voltage. can.
push.ions.from.one.electrode.(or.terminal).to.another.and.thereby.“charge”.the.
battery ..Charging.of.a.battery,.essentially,.amounts.to.the.restoration.of.battery.
terminals’.or.plates’.chemical.composition.to.“full.strength .”.So,.in.essence,.the.
charging.of.a.battery.could.be.viewed.as.the.“charging”.of.an.electrochemical.
“engine .”.Once.charged,.a.chemical.or.electrochemical.engine,.when.presented.
with.an.electrical.load,.initiates.and.sustains.the.flow.of.electrical.current,.and.
performs.mechanical.work.through.electrical.machines .
. Common.symbols.for.voltage.are:.E, V, VDC, VAC, VP, VM, VEff, VRMS ..
Symbols.“E”.and.“V”.are.synonymous,.and.both.represent.voltage ..The.symbol.
E.stands.for.electromotive.force,.while.V,.simply,.denotes.voltage ..In.the.ab-
sence.of.further.specification.through.a.subscript,.these.symbols.can.be.some-
what.ambiguous,.in.that,.they.could.be.construed.to.represent.either.AC.or.DC.
voltage .
. On.the.other.hand,.VDC, specifically.denotes DC voltage . See.Chapter.3.
for.a.detailed.comparison.between.AC.and.DC,.voltage.and.current ..The.AC.
and.DC.discussion,.related.to.voltage.and.current,.in.Chapter.3,.is.supported.by.
graphs.that.depict.the.differences.in.a.graphical.fashion .
. The symbol VAC.represents.AC.voltage ..When.dealing.with.AC.voltage,.
one.needs.to.be.specific.about.whether.one.is.referring.to.“peak”.voltage,.VP,.
or.RMS.voltage,.VRMS ..Note.that.peak.voltage,.VP,.is.synonymous.with.maxi-
mum.voltage.VM In.addition, VEff,.the.effective.(AC).voltage,.is.the.same.as,.
RMS. voltage,. VRMS ..The. term. RMS. stands. for. Root. Mean. Square.Value. of.

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Electrical Engineering Basics 3

AC.Voltage ..The.RMS.or.effective.value.of.AC.voltage.is.the.work.producing.
portion. of. the.AC. voltage ..This. implies. that.AC. voltage,. current. and. power,.
all,. have. the. “work. producing”. components. and. the”. non-work. producing”.
components ..The.work.producing.components,.in.essence,.transform.into—or.
contribute. toward. the. production. of—various. forms. of. energy,. mechanical.
work.and.break.horsepower—or,.to.be.more.accurate,.break.horsepower-hour ..
The.concepts.of.power,.break.horsepower.and.other.power.related.topics.are.
discussed,.in.detail,.in.Chapter.4 .
. Even.though.detail.discussion.on.the.mathematical.composition.of.RMS.
voltage.is.outside.the.scope.of.this.text,.the.formula.for.RMS.voltage.is.as.fol-
lows:

Eq 1 1

AC. voltage. VRMS, VEff, VP, and. VM. are. inter-related. through. the. following.
equations:

Eq 1 2

Eq 1 3

Voltage.is.measured.in.volts,.or.V’s;.named.after.the.Italian.physicist.Alessan-
dro.Volta.(1745–1827),.who.invented.the.first.chemical.battery .

Current
. Current. consists. of. movement. of. electrons,. ions,. or. simply. charged.
particles ..Movement.of.electrons.can.be.oscillatory,.vibratory.or.linear ..When.
electrons. vibrate. or. oscillate,. the. resulting. current. is.AC. current ..AC. current.
is.established.and.sustained.by.AC.voltage ..When.DC.voltage.is.applied.in.an.
electrical. circuit,. electrons,. ions. or. charged. particles. move. in. one. direction ..
Such.linear,.unidirectional,.movement.of.charged.particles.or.electrons.is.DC.
current ..DC.electrical.current.is.analogous.to.fluid.flow.in.mechanical.or.hy-
draulic. systems .. Just. as. pressure,. or. pressure. differential,. cause. fluid. to. flow.
from. point.A. to. point. B,. DC. voltage. drives. electrically. charged. particles. to.
move.from.one.point.to.another ..Important.characteristics.of.electric.current.are.
illustrated.in.greater.detail,.in.Chapter.3,.under.the.topic.of.electrodeposition ..

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4 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Detailed.comparison.between.AC.and.DC.currents.is.also.illustrated.in.graphi-
cal.form.in.Chapter.3 .
. Common. symbols. for. current. are:. I, IDC, IAC, IP, IM, IEff, and IRMS ..
Similar.to.the.voltage.symbols,.the.symbols.of.current.assume.a.more.specific.
meaning.through.associated.subscripts .
. IAC.represents.AC.current ..When.dealing.with.AC.current,.one.needs.to.
be.specific.about.whether.one.is.referring.to.“peak”.current,.IP,.or.RMS.cur-
rent,.IRMS ..Note.that.peak.current,.IP,.is.synonymous.with.maximum.current.
IM In.addition, IEff,.the.effective.(AC).current,.is.the.same.as,.RMS.current,.
IRMS ..The.term.RMS.current.stands.for.Root.Mean.Square.Value.of.AC.cur-
rent ..The.RMS.or.effective.value.of.AC.current.is.the.work.producing.portion.
of. the.AC. current ..AC. current,. like.AC. voltage. and.AC. power,. has. a. “work.
producing”. component. and. a. ”non-work. producing”. component .. The. work.
producing.component.of.AC.current.contributes.toward.the.production.of.me-
chanical.work.and.break.horsepower .
. The.formula.for.RMS.current.is.as.follows:

Eq 1 4

. AC.Current.IRMS, IEff, IP, and.IM.are.inter-related.through.the.following.

equations:

Eq 1 5

Eq 1 6

.. The.unit.for.current.is.Ampere.named.after.André-Marie.Ampére.(1775–
1836),.a.French.mathematician.and.physicist ..André-Marie.Ampére.is.revered.
as.the.father.of.electrodynamics ..One.amp.of.current.is.said.to.flow.when.elec-
trical.charge.is.flowing.at.the.rate.of.one Coulomb per second ..This.leads.to.the.
following.mathematical.definition:

Eq 1 7

This.definition.of.current.is.analogous.to.flow.rate.of.fluid.quantified.in.terms.
•
of.mass.flow.rate.ṁ.or.volumetric.flow.rate. Q .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 5

Example 1 1
. In.an.AC.system,.a.voltage.source.V(t) = 156Sin(377t + 0°).volts.sets.
up.a.current.of.I(t) = 15Sin(377t + 45°) amps ..The.peak.voltage.and.the.peak.
current,.in.accordance.with.convention,.are.156 V and 15 A,.respectively ..Cal-
culate.the.RMS.values.of.voltage.and.current .

Solution:
According.the.Eq ..1 .3:

.
.

Note:.This.is.the.voltage.indicated.by.a.true.RMS.voltmeter.when.measuring.
the.AC.voltage.at.a.typical.household.or.workplace.wall.receptacle ..See.more.
discussion.toward.the.end.of.this.chapter .
. According.to.Eq ..1 .6:

Note:. This. is. the. current. indicated. by. a. true. RMS. clamp-on. ammeter. when.
measuring.AC.current ..See.more.discussion.toward.the.end.of.this.chapter .

resistanCe
. Property.of.a.material.that.opposes.or.resists.the.flow.of.current.is.known.
as.electrical.resistance,.or.simply,.resistance ..Electrical.resistance.is.analogous.
to. friction. in. mechanical. systems;. for. instance,. friction. between. the. surfaces.
of.two.objects.that.slide.against.each.other ..In.a.fluid.flow.scenario,.electrical.
resistance.is.analogous.to.friction.between.the.fluid.and.the.walls.of.the.pipe ..In.
electrical.systems,.resistance.in.conductors.(wires).is.an.undesirable.character-

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6 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

istic.and.results.in.wasted.heat.or.heat.losses ..This.is.not.unlike.frictional.head.
losses.in.fluid.systems—frictional.head.losses.governed.by.Darcy’s.equation.
and. Hazen-William’s. equations .. The. symbol. for. electrical. resistance. is. “R .”.
Resistance. is. measured. in. ohms,. or. simply,. Ωs ..The. ohm. symbol. Ω. is. often.
prefixed. with. letters,. such. as,. k for. kilo. or. M. for. Mega ..Where,. 1kΩ. would.
represent.1,000.Ohms.and.1MΩ.would.represent.1,000,000.ohms .

Eq 1 8

. An.ohm.can.also.be.defined.on.the.basis.of.the.Ohm’s.Law ..The.Ohm’s.
Law,.and.its.application.in.AC.and.DC.systems.is.discussed.in.greater.depth.in.
Chapter.2 ..At.this.point,.upon.examination.of.Ohm’s.Law,.in.form.of.Eq ..1 .8,.
we.can.define.1 ohm.as.the.amount.of.resistance.that.would.permit.the.flow.
of.only.1-amp.of.current.when.a.voltage.of.1-volt.is.applied.across.a.specific.
length.of.that.conductor ..In.other.words:

. The.Ohm’s.Law.equation.stated.above.also.stipulates.that.as.the.increase.
in.electrical.“demand”.manifests.itself.in.form.of.an.increase.in.current,.I,.and.
as. resistance,. R,. of. the. conductor. increases,. the. voltage—or. voltage. drop—
across. the. conductor. increases;. resulting. in. lower. voltage. at. the. point. of. de-
livery.of.power.to.the.consumers ..This.is.similar.to.the.pressure drop,.or loss,.
experienced.in.a.long.compressed.air.pipe.or.header.due.to.frictional.head.loss .
. From.physical.characteristic.and.physical.composition.point.of.view,.we.
could.define.resistance.as.being.directly.proportional.to.the.length.of.the.con-
ductor.and.inversely.proportional.to.the.area of cross-section.of.the.conductor ..
This.proportional.relationship.can.be.transformed.into.a.mathematical.relation-
ship.or.equation.as.follows:

. . Eq 1 9

Where
. ρ.=.Resistivity.of.the.Conductor,
L =.Length.of.the.Conductor.and
A.=.Area.of.Cross-section.of.the.Conductor .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 7

ρcopper.=.17 2 n Ωm;
ρaluminum.=.28 2 n Ωm
. Where.n.=.nano.=.10–9

Example 1 2
. A.cubic.block.of.electrically.conductive.material.measures.0 .02.on.each.
side ..The.resistivity.of.this.material.is.0 .01.Ω.•. m ..What.is.the.resistance.be-
tween.opposite.sides.of.this.block?

Solution:

Example 1 3
. A.phase.conductor.of.a.power.distribution.line.spans,.approximately,.500.
ft.and.has.a.diameter.of.1 .5.inch ..The.conductor.is.composed.of.copper ..Calcu-
late.the.electrical.resistance.of.this.conductor,.per.phase .

Solution:
. Solution.Strategy:.Since.the.resistivity.value.of.copper,.as.stated.above,.
is.in.metric.or.SI.unit.system,.the.length.and.diameter.specifications.stated.in.
this.problem.must.be.streamlined.in.metric.units.before.application.of.Eq ..1 .9.
for.determination.of.resistance.in.ohms.(Ωs) .

L.=.500.ft.=.152 .4.m
Diameter.=.1 .5.inch.=.0 .0381m;.∴R.=.Radius.=.D/2.=.0 .019.m
A.=.Area.of.cross-section.=.π R2.=.(3 .14)(0 .019).2.=.0 .00113m2
ρcopper.=.17 .2.n.Ωm.=.17 .2x10-9.Ωm

. As. described. earlier,. in. electrical. systems,. resistance. in. conductors.

(wires).is.an.undesirable.characteristic.and.results.in.wasted.heat.or.heat.losses ..
This.energy.lost,.as.heat,.as.the.current.flows.through.a.conductor.can.be.quan-
tified.through.Eq ..1 .10.below .

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8 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Eq 1 10

. Although.the.subject.of.electrical.power.and.energy.is.discussed,.in.de-
tail,.in.Chapter.4,.at.this.point,.in.an.effort.to.illustrate.the.substantial.impact.
of.resistance.on.heat.losses.and.design.challenges.associated.with.power.trans-
mission,.let’s.continue.examination.of.long.transmission.lines.used.to.transport.
electrical.power.from.power.generating.plants.to.power.consumers ..On.a.hot.
summer. afternoon,. those. power. transmission. lines. that. we. notice. crisscross-
ing.the.country.side.are.not.only.carrying.higher.currents.due.to.the.higher.air.
conditioning. loads,. but. experience. an. increase. in. resistance. due. to. increases.
in.resistivity,.p,.of.the.conductor.in.accordance.with.Eq ..1 .11 ..In.other.words,.
the.resistivity.of.aluminum,.stated.above.as.ρaluminum.=.28 2 n Ωm, serves.as.a.
constant.only at standard temperature of 20°C or 68°F.

Eq 1 11

In.Eq ..1 .11:

ρ. =.Resistivity.at.current.temperature.“T”
ρo. =.Resistivity.at.standard.temperature.“To”
To = Standard.temperature.in.°C
T = Current.temperature.°C
α = Thermal.coefficient.of.resistance,.in.1/°C

. In.addition,.it’s.common.knowledge.that.as.temperature.rises,.most.met-
als.or.conductors.expand ..So,.with.exposure.to.elevated.summer.season.solar.
radiation,. during. those. hot. afternoons,. the. transmission. lines. elongate. to. a.
certain. extent,. resulting. in. higher. “L .”.As. those. transmission. lines. elongate,.
the.diameter.of.the.conductors.drops,.resulting.in.lower.area.of.cross-section.
A ..So,.the.perceptible.“sag”.in.the.transmission.lines.during.the.hot.summer.
afternoons.is.not.simply.an.optical.illusion.or.a.myth .
. As.we.account.for.the.increase.in.L,.reduction.in.A.and.the.rise.in.ρ col-
lectively,.in.accordance.with.Eq ..1 .9,.we.see.that.all.of.these.factors.result.in.es-
calation.of.resistance ..Furthermore,.if.we.consider.resistive.heat.loss.equation,.
Eq 1 10,.the.exponential.effect.of.the.rise.in.load.current.I and.the.increase.in.
R.precipitate.in.a.“cascading,”.unfavorable,.physical.and.electrical.impact.on.
the.transmission.line.conductors .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 9

resistors in series
. When.electrical.circuits,.AC.or.DC,.consist.of.multiple.resistors,.circuit.
analyses.require.simplification.of.such.network.of.resistors.into.one,.equiva-
lent,.resistor.or.resistance,.REQ ..Often,.this.equivalent,.resistance.is.referred.to.
as.a.“total”.resistance ..When.“n”.number.of.resistors.are.connected.in.a.“daisy.
chained”.or.concatenated.fashion.as.shown.in.Figure.1 .1,.they.are.said.to.be.
connected.in.series .

Figure 1 1: n.–Resistors.in.series

. When.resistors.are.connected.in.series,.they.can.be.combined.in.a.“linear.
addition”.format,.as.stipulated.in.Eq ..1 .12.below,.for.“n”.number.of.resistors .

Eq 1 12

. When. multiple. resistors. are. combined. into. an. equivalent. resistor,. with.
resistance.value.REQ,.the.simplified.version.of.the.original.series.circuit.would.
appear.as.pictured.in.Figure.1 .2 .

resistors in Parallel
. When.electrical.circuits,.AC.or.DC,.
consist.of.multiple.resistors,.connected.in.
a.parallel.fashion,.as.shown.in.Figure.1 .3,.
circuit.analysis.would.require.simplifica-
tion. of. the. parallel. network. of. resistors.
into.one,.equivalent.resistor.REQ ..Figure.
1 .3. shows. “n”. number. of. resistors. con-
nected.such.that.the.“heads”.of.all.resis- Figure 1 2: Equivalent. resistance.
tors.are.“bonded”.are.connected.together,. for.n.–resistors.in.series

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10 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

with.and.electrical.connection.to.the.anode.(positive.terminal).of.the.DC.power.
supply ..In.addition,.the.“tails”.of.all.resistors.are.connected.together.and.to.the.
cathode.of.the.DC.power.source .
. When.multiple.parallel.resistors.are.combined.into.an.equivalent.resistor,.
with.resistance.value.REQ,.the.simplified.version.of.the.original.series.circuit.
would.appear.as.pictured.in.Figure.1 .4 ..In.parallel.resistor.networks,.the.cal-
culation.of.REQ.involves.addition.of.the.inverses.of.all.resistors.in.the.parallel.
network,.and.taking.the.inverse.of.the.sum.as.stipulated.in.Eq ..1 .13 .

Figure 1 3: n.–Resistors.in.parallel

Eq 1 13

. In.case.of.a.simple.two.parallel.resistor.circuit,.the.equivalent.resistance.
REQ.could.be.calculated.using.the.simplified.equation,.Eq ..1 .14 .

Eq 1 14

Figure 1 4: Equivalent.resistance.for.n.–resistors.in.parallel

. As. a. special. case,. assume. that. the. parallel. resistor. network. shown. in.
Figure. 1 .3. consists. of. “n”. equal. parallel. resistors .. Because,. the. resistors. are.

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Electrical Engineering Basics 11

assumed.to.be.equal,.calculation.of.REQ, or REQ-n,.boils.down.to.Eq ..1 .15 .

Eq 1 15

eleCtriCal short and oPen CirCuit

. When.a.conductor,.wire.or.bus-bar,.is.used.to.pass.current.between.two.or.
more.points.in.an.electrical.circuit—with.smallest.resistance.feasible—such.a.
connection.is.referred.to.as.a.“short ”.A.short.segment.of.wire,.assembled.with.
an.“alligator clip”.on.each.end,.is.used.by.electrician.and.electrical.engineers.to.
establish.a.temporary.short.circuit.between.points.in.an.electrical.circuit ..Such.
a. specially. fabricated. pieces. of. wire. are. sometimes. referred. to. as. a. “jumper
leads,”.in.electrical.jargon .
. A.short.circuit.between.two.points.implies.zero.or.negligible.resistance ..
The. opposite. of. an. electrical. short. is. an. “open circuit .”. Examples. of. open.
circuits.would.be.a.switch.that.is.open,.a.breaker.that.is.turned.off,.or.simply.
a. wire. that. has. been. cut. or. “clipped .”.An. open. circuit. between. two. points.
implies.an.infinite.(∞).resistance ..The.concepts.of.open.and.short.circuits.are.
illustrated.in.Figure.1 .5 ..Figures.1 .5.(a).and.(b).represent.electrical.circuit.seg-
ments. between. points.A. and. B .. When. the.
switch.between.points.(1).and.(2).is.open,.as.
depicted.in.Figure.(a),.we.have.an.open.cir-
cuit,.and.no.current.flows.between.points.A.
and.B ..However,.closure.of.the.same.switch,.
as. shown. in. Figure. (b),. constitutes. a. short.
circuit ..The.closed.switch.scenario.depicted.
in. Figure. (b). also. represents. “continuity ”.
The.term.“continuity”.is.used.commonly.by.
electrical. engineers. and. electricians. during.
trouble. shooting. of. equipment .. When. trou-
ble. shooting. electrical. or. electronic. equip-
ment. failures,. engineers. and. technicians.
often.perform.continuity.tests.on.fuses.to.de-
termine.if.they.have.cleared.or.opened ..The.
instrument. used. for. performing. continuity.
checks.is.a.multi-meter ..A.continuous.piece. Figure 1 5:
of.wire,.shown.in.Figure.1 .5.(c),.represents. Open.and.short.circuits
continuity.between.terminals.A.and.B .

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12 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Example 1 4
. Determine.the.equivalent.resistance.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.R1.
=.5Ω,.R2.=.R3=.10Ω,.and.R4.=.R5=.20 .

Solution:
. The.resistances.need.to.be.combined.in.a.multistep.process.in.order.to.
determine.Req.for.the.overall.circuit .
. Combination.of.R2.and.R4.=.R2,4.=.R2.+.R4.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω
. Combination.of.R3.and.R5.=.R3,5.=.R3.+.R5.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω
. Combination.of.R2,4.and.R3,5:

CaPaCitor and CaPaCitanCe

. A.capacitor.is.a.charge.storage.device,.capable.of.storing.charge.in.DC.
and.AC.applications ..A.charged.capacitor.stores.electrical.charge.on.two.elec-
trodes;.one.of.the.two.electrodes.is.negative.and.the.other.one.is.positive ..The.
negative.electrode.is.called.a.cathode.and.the.positive.electrode.is.referred.to.
as.an.anode ..This.separation.of.charge,.and.the.quantity.of.charge.separated,.
determine. the. electrical. potential—or. voltage—developed. across. the. elec-
trodes.of.the.capacitor ..The.electrical.potential.difference.between.the.capacitor.
plates,.or.electrodes,.signifies.the.storage.of.electrical.energy.in.the.capacitor ..
Therefore,.as.an.energy.storage.device—with.a.potential.difference—capaci-
tors.are.analogous.to.air.receivers.and.pneumatic.cylinders.that.store.pressure.
energy—in. form. of. higher. pressure. relative. to. the. atmospheric. pressure—
which.can.be.used.to.perform.mechanical.work .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 13

. Construction.of.a.simple.capacitor.is.depicted.in.Figure.1 .6 ..As.shown.
in.Figure.1 .6,.a.simple.capacitor.can.be.constructed.with.two.parallel.square.
plates,.of.equal.size,.separated.by.a.dielectric.substance.like.glass,.mica,.etc ..
The.separation.between.the.two.plates.(electrodes),.“r,”.in.conjunction.with.the.
area.of.the.plates.determines.the.“capacitance”.of.the.capacitor ..Capacitance,.
“C,”.of.a.capacitor.is.defined.as.the.charge.storage.capacity.of.the.capacitor .

Figure 1 6: A.simple.parallel.plate.capacitor

Capacitance.can.be.defined,.mathematically,.through.Eq ..1 .16,.below .

. . Eq 1 16

Where,
C. =. Capacitance.is.quantified.or.specified.in.farads;.
A. =. The.area.of.cross-section—or.simply.area—of.the.capacitor.electrode.
plates;
Є. =. .Permittivity.of.the.dielectric.medium.between.the.plates;.and
. Є. =. Єr . Є0

Where
. Єr = Relative.permittivity of.a.specific.dielectric.medium,.and
. Є0. =. .permittivity.in.vacuum.or.in.air.=.8 .854.x.10−12.farads.per.meter.
(F·m−1) .

. One.farad.is.rather.large.amount.of.capacitance.for.most.common.capaci-
tor. applications ..Therefore,. many. capacitors—especially,. at. the. circuit. board.
level—are. specified. or. labeled. in. terms. of. smaller. units,. such. as,.mF (milli-
Farad),.µF (micro-Farad),.or.nF (nano-Farad) ..The.capacitor.shown.in.Figure.
1 .7.is.rated.470µF.and.designed.to.operate.at.a.maximum.of.35V .

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14 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 1 7:.A.cylindrical.470.Micro-Farad.Capacitor

. The.mathematical.relationship.stated.as.Eq ..1 .16.stipulates.that.capaci-

tance.is.directly.proportional.to.the.area.A.of.the.capacitor.plates.and.inversely.
proportional. to. the. separation. r. between. the. plates .. In. other. words,. if. larger.
capacitance.or.charge storage capacity.is.desired,.one.must.increase.the.area.
of.the.plates.and/or.decrease.the.separation.between.the.capacitor.plates ..In.ad-
dition.to.serving.as.a.“constant of proportionality”.for.the.equation,..7
.Є.injects.the.property.or.characteristic.of.the.dielectric.medium.into.the.com-
putation.of.capacitance.through.the.dielectric.medium’s.characteristic.Єr value ..
Although,.for.the.sake.of.simplicity,.the.discussion.on.capacitance.in.this.text.
is.limited.to.flat.plate.capacitors,.many.capacitors.have.cylindrical.construction.
such.as.the.one.shown.in.Figure.1 .7 .
. Electrical.energy.stored.in.a.capacitor.can.be.determined.through.applica-
tion.of.Eq ..1 .17

. . Eq 1 17

. Charge. storage. characteristic. of. the. capacitor. should. not. be. confused.
with. the. charge. storage. and. power. source. function. of. a. battery .. One. differ-
ence.between.capacitors.and.batteries.is.that.when.capacitors.are.charging.or.
discharging,.charge.flows.through.a.“dielectric”.medium;.while.most.batteries.
consist.of.electrolytes.(i .e ..sulfuric.acid).that.ionize.readily.and.the.ions.sustain.
the. flow. of. current .. Capacitors. allow. the. charge. to. move. between. electrode.
plates.through.a.dielectric.medium .
. The.dynamics.of.how.a.capacitor.stores.and.dissipates.charge.are.some-
what.different.between.the.DC.and.AC.realms ..Unlike.resistive.circuits,.current.
and.voltage.associated.with.capacitors.vary.in.a.non-linear.fashion ..A.common,.
series,.RC.circuit.is.shown.in.Figure.1 .8,.consisting.of.a.capacitor,.resistor.and.
a.switch.that.can.be.used.to.control.the.charging.and.discharging.of.the.capaci-
tor ..The.graphs.in.Figure.1 .9.through.1 .11.below.compare.voltage.and.current.
responses.in.circuits.that.are.purely.resistive.versus.a.series.RC.circuit,.the.type.
illustrated.in.Figure.1 .8 ..This.“non-linear”.charging.and.discharging.of.capaci-
tors.is.referred.to.as.transient behavior of.RC.circuits .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 15

Figure 1 8:.A.series.RC.circuit

. The.straight.line.graph.in.Figure.1 .9.illustrates.and.validates.the.Ohms.
law ..This.graph.shows.that.voltage.and.current.are.directly.proportional,.with.
the. “constant”. resistor. serving. as. the. constant. of. proportionality .. In. a. purely.
resistive.circuit,.the.current.would.respond,.instantaneously.and.linearly,.to.the.
application.of.voltage.across.a.resistor .

Figure 1 9:.Linear,.voltage.vs ..current,.response.in.a.purely.resistive.circuit .

Voltage vs Time, transient response in series RC circuit:.Contrary.to.linear.

and.instantaneous.response.in.a.purely.resistive.circuit,.the.current.and.voltage.
response.in.a.common.RC.circuit.is.non-linear.and.non-instantaneous .

Eq 1 18

The. voltage. response—or. voltage. variation—of. a. capacitor. can. be. predicted.

through.Eq ..1 .18 .

Where,
R. =.Resistance.in.series.with.the.capacitance
C. =.Capacitance

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16 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

vc(0) =.Voltage.across.the.capacitor,.at.time.t.=.0
vc(t) = Voltage.across.the.capacitor,.at.a.given.time t
V = Voltage.of.the.power.source
RC = τ = Time.constant.of.an.RC.circuit

. If. the. voltage. variation. or. response. of. a. capacitor. were. graphed,. with.
respect.to.time,.it.would.be.resemble.the.vc versus.t graph.shown.in.Figure.1 .10 .

Figure 1 10:.Non-linear,.transient,.voltage.response.in.a.circuit.consisting.of.
capacitance.and.resistance

Current vs Time, transient, response in series RC circuit:.The.current.re-

sponse—or.current.variation—in.a.capacitor-resistor.circuit.can.be.predicted.
through.Eq ..1 .19 .

. . Eq 1 19

Where,
R.=.Resistance.in.series.with.the.capacitance
C.=.Capacitance,.in.farads
vc(0).=.Voltage.across.the.capacitor,.at.time.t.=.0
ic(t) = Current.through.the.capacitor-resistor.circuit,.at.a.given.time.t
V = Voltage.of.the.power.source

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Electrical Engineering Basics 17

. If. the. current. response. of. a. capacitor. were. graphed,. with. respect. to.
time,.it.would.resemble.the.ic versus.t graph.shown.in.Figure.1 .11 ..Note.that.
the.capacitor.current.versus.time.curve.in.Figure.1 .11.validates.Eq ..1 .19 ..For.
instance,.the.graph.shows.that.at.t.=.∞,.or.when.steady.state.is.achieved,.cur-
rent.ic(t).through.the.RC.circuit.diminishes.to.zero;.and.if.you.substitute.t.=.∞.
in.Eq ..1 .19,.ic(t).becomes.zero ..In.other.words,.at.steady.state,.the.capacitor.
transforms.into.an.open.circuit.and.the.current.ceases.to.flow .

Figure 1 11:.Non-linear,.transient,.current.response.in.a.circuit.consisting.of.
capacitance.and.resistance

. The.presence.of.resistance.R.in.capacitive.circuits.results.in.what.is.re-
ferred.to.as.a.time.constant.“τ ”.The.relationship.betweenτ, R and C is.stipulat-
ed.by.Eq ..1 .20 ..The.physical.significance.of.time.constant.τ.is that.it.represents.
the.time.it.takes.to.charge.a.capacitor.to.63 2% of the full value,.or.63 2% of
the full voltage.of.the.source ..Time.constant.τ.also.represents.the.time.it.takes.
to.discharge.a.given.capacitor.to.36 8% of the full voltage,.or.the.voltage.of.
the.source .

. τ = RC. Eq 1 20

Example 1 5
. Consider.the.RC.circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..The.source.voltage.
is.12V ..The.capacitor.is.in.a.discharged.state.before.the.switch.is.closed ..The.
switch.is.closed.at.t.=.0 ..What.would.the.capacitor.voltage.be.at.t.=.2τ?

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18 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. This.particular.case.represents.a.capacitor.charging.scenario ..Given.the.
value.of.R, C,.vc(0).and.the.source.voltage.V,.Equation.1 .18.allows.us.to.calcu-
late.the.voltage.after.and.elapsed.time.“t,”.during.the.capacitor.charging.phase .

In.this.case,
. R.=.1.kΩ.=.1,000.Ω
. C.=.5µF.=.5x10-6.F
. vc(0).=.0V.=.Voltage.across.the.capacitor.at.t.=.0
. vc(t) = Voltage.across.the.capacitor,.at.a.given.time t = ?
. V = Voltage.of.the.power.source.=.12V
. RC = τ = RC.circuit.time.constant
. t = 2τ = 2RC

Substitution.of.the.given.values,.stated.above,.Eq ..1 .18.can.be.expanded.and.

simplified.as.follows:

CaPaCitors in series
. When. a. number. of. capacitors. are. connected. in. a. “daisy-. chained,”. or.
concatenated.fashion,.as.shown.in.Figure.1 .12,.they.are.said.to.be.connected.
in.series ..In.Figure.1 .12,.“n”.number.of.capacitors,.C1 through.Cn,.are.shown.
connected.in.series .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 19

Figure 1 12:.Capacitors.in.series

. When.electrical.circuits,.AC.or.DC,.consist.of.multiple.capacitors,.circuit.
analyses.require.simplification—or.combination—of.such.network.of.capaci-
tors.into.one,.equivalent,.capacitor.or.capacitance,.CEQ ..This.equivalent,.ca-
pacitance.can.also.be.referred.to.as.a.“total”.capacitance .
. Unlike.series.combination.of.resistors,.when.capacitors.are.connected.in.
series,.they.can.be.combined.in.an.“addition of inverses”.format,.as.stipulated.
in.Eq ..1 .21.below,.for.“n”.number.of.capacitors .

Eq 1 21

. When.multiple.capacitors.are.combined.into.an.equivalent.capacitor,.with.
capacitance.value.CEQ,.the.simplified.version.of.the.original.series.circuit.can.
be.drawn.as.shown.in.Figure.1 .13 .

Figure 1 13:.Equivalent.capacitance.for.capacitors.in.series .

. As. a. special. case,. suppose. that. the. series. capacitor. network. shown. in.
Figure.1 .12.consists.of.“n”.series.capacitors, with.equal capacitance ..Because.
the.capacitors.are.assumed.to.be.equal,.calculation.of.CEQ, or CEQ-n,.and.ap-
plication.of.Eq ..1 .21.can.be.simplified.to.Eq ..1 .22 .

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20 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Eq 1 22

. If.a.series.capacitive.circuit.consists.of.only.three.capacitors,.as.shown.in.
Figure.1 .14,.Eq ..1 .21.can.be.reduced.to.Eq ..1 .23 ..Further.simplification.of.Eq ..
1 .23.would.result.in.a,.simplified,.three.capacitor.series.equivalent.capacitance.
equation,.Eq ..1 .24 .

Figure 1 14:.Equivalent.capacitance.for.capacitors.in.series .

Eq 1 23

Eq 1 24

Example 1 6
. Determine. the. equivalent. capacitance. for. the. DC. circuit. shown. Figure.
1 .14.if.C1.=.5µF,.and.C2.=.C3=.10µF .

Solution:
. Application.of.Eq ..1 .24.to.the.three.series.capacitor.circuit.shown.in.Fig-
ure.1 .14.yields:

CEQ.=.2 .5µF

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Electrical Engineering Basics 21

CaPaCitors in Parallel
. When. electrical. circuits. consist. of. capacitors. connected. in. parallel,. as.
shown.in.Figure.1 .15,.circuit.analyses—as.with.a.network.of.series.connected.
capacitors—would.require.simplification.of.the.parallel.network.of.capacitors.
into.one,.equivalent.capacitor.CEQ ..Figure.1 .15.shows.“n”.number.of.capaci-
tors.connected.such.the.“heads”.of.all.capacitors.are.(electrically).“bonded”.or.
are.connected.together,.with.an.electrical.connection.to.the.anode.(or.positive.
terminal). of. the. DC. power. supply,. and. the. “tails”. of. all. capacitors. are. con-
nected.together.to.the.cathode.(or.negative.terminal).of.the.power.source .

Figure 1 15:.Equivalent.capacitance.for.capacitors.in.series .

. Simplification.of.a.network.of.capacitors.is.parallel.is.similar.to.the.ap-
proach.utilized.in.the.combination.of.resistors in series ..When.multiple.paral-
lel.capacitors.are.combined.into.an.equivalent.capacitor,.CEQ,.the.simplified.or.
condensed.equivalent.of.the.original.parallel.circuit.could.also.be.represented.
by.the.equivalent.circuit.diagram.in.Figure.1 .13 .
. For.a.parallel.capacitor.circuit.consisting.of.“n”.number.of.parallel.ca-
pacitors,. equivalent. capacitance. can. be. calculated. by. applying. equation. Eq ..
1 .18

Eq 1 25

Example 1 7
. Determine.the.equivalent.capacitance.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.
C1.=.C2.=5µF,.and.C3=.10F .

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22 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. Applying.Eq ..1 .25.to.the.three.parallel.capacitor.circuit.shown.in.diagram.
above.yields:

Example 1 8
. Determine.the.equivalent.capacitance.in.series.and.parallel.combination.
circuit. shown. below ..The. capacitance. values. are:. C1. =. C2. =. 5µF,. C3. =. C4. =.
10µF .

Solution:
. Similar.to.the.parallel.and.series.combination.approach.described.in.the.
resistor.section,.our.aim.would.be.to.simplify.the.circuit.by.first.combining.the.
linearly.additive.segment.(or.segments),.followed.by.reciprocal.combination.of.
the.remaining.capacitors .
. The.capacitors.in.this.circuit.that.lend.themselves.to.linear.combination.
are.C3.and.C4 ..Therefore,.the.combined.capacitance,.C34,.would.be:

. C34.=.C3.+.C4.=10µF.+10µF.=.20µF

Then,.by.applying.Eq ..1 .24.to.this.special.hybrid.capacitor.combination.case,.

with.the.3rd.capacitance.being.C34.instead.of.C3:

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Electrical Engineering Basics 23

CEQ.=.2 .22µF

CaPaCitiVe reaCtanCe
. When. a. capacitor. is. incorporated. into. an.AC. circuit,. its. impact. in. that.
circuit. is. quantified. through. an. entity. referred. to. as. the. capacitive. reactance ..
The.symbol.for.capacitive.reactance.is.Xc. ..Capacitive.reactance.can.be.defined,.
mathematically,.as:

Eq 1 26

Where,
f. =. Frequency.of.the.AC.power.source,.i .e .,.60.Hz.in.the.US.and.50.Hz.in.
some.other.parts.of.the.world .
ω. =. Rotational.speed,.in.radians.per.second
C =. Capacitance.in.farads

. Capacitive. reactance. is. measured. in. ohms,. or. Ω’s .. It. is. important. to.
note.that.Xc.is.often.misrepresented.as.Zc ..To.the.contrary,.as.explained.in.the.
impedance.section, Zc is.the.impedance contribution.by.the.capacitor,.and.is.
represented.as:

Zc.= – jXc,
. ∴.Zc.≠ Xc

Example 1 9
. Assume.that.the.circuit.in.Example.1 .8.is.powered.by.a.60.Hz,.AC.source.
instead.of.the.DC.source ..Determine.the.total.capacitive.reactance,.Xc,.seen.by.
the.AC.source .

Solution:
. If.the.DC.source.is.replaced.by.an.AC.source,.the.circuit.would.appear.as.
follows:

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24 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. As.computed.in.Example.1 .8,.the.combined.or.net.capacitance.contrib-
uted. to. the. circuit. by. the. parallel. and. series. network. of. capacitors. is. CEQ. =.
2 .22µF ..Then,.by.applying.Eq ..1 .26:

induCtor and induCtanCe

. Similar. to. capacitor,. an. inductor. can. be. viewed. as. an. energy. storage.
device,.which.can.be.applied.in.DC.or.AC.applications ..Unlike.a.capacitor—
where.energy.is.stored.in.form.of.separation.of.charges,.resulting.in.a.potential.
difference—in.an.inductor,.the.energy.is.stored.in.the.magnetic.field.that.is.pro-
duced.through.the.flow.of.electric.current ..This.phenomenon.was.first.discov-
ered.by.Michael.Faraday.in.1831 ..The.magnetic.field—which.can.be.referred.
to. as. magnetic. flux—is. not. established. instantaneously. upon. flow. of. current.
through.an.inductor ..Instead,.much.like.a.“time.constant,τ”.based.charge.build.
up.in.a.capacitor,.the.current.change.and.magnetic.field.build.up.in.an.inductor.
ramps.up,.or.down,.at.a.non-linear.rate ..This.non-linear.rate.is.a.function.of.the.
inductor’s.time.constant,τ . Inductor’s.time.constant.concept.will.be.explained.
later.in.this.chapter .
. Since.the.energy.stored.in.the.magnetic.field.of.an.inductor.is.due.to.the.
flow.of.current—and,.ultimately,.due.to.the.movement.of.electrons—we.could.
view.an.inductor.as.being.analogous.to.a.rotating.“flywheel,”.in.the.mechanical.
realm—where. the. energy. is. stored. in. a. rotating. mass ..As. with. a. flywheel—
where.any.attempt.to.stop.the.rotation.of.the.flywheel.is.opposed.by.momen-
tum.and.kinetic.energy.in.the.rotating.mass.of.the.flywheel—any attempt to
change the flow of current in an inductor is opposed by the “inductance”.of.
the.inductor ..It.is.due.to.the.inductance.of.an.inductor.that.if.you,.for.instance,.
have.10.amps.flowing.in.an.electrical.circuit,.and.you.try.to.“break”.the.circuit.
by.opening.a.switch,.current.flow.is.maintained.briefly.through.an.electric arc,.
where.permitted,.across.the.opening.switch ..Where.the.electric.arc—which.is,.
in.essence,.plasma.or.ionized.air—serves.as.a.temporary.“channel”.for.the.flow.
of.current ..Conversely,.when.a.switch—in.a.de-energized.inductive.circuit—
is. closed. to. connect. a. power. source. to. an. inductive. device,. no. current. flows.
through.the.circuit,.initially,.as.inductance.of.the.inductor.in.the.electrical.cir-
cuit.opposes.the.change.in.the.flow.of.current.from.“zero”.to.some.measurable.
“non-zero”.level ..Therefore,.inductance.is.defined.as.the.capacity.or.tendency.
of.an.inductor.to.resist.the.change in flow of current.
. In.addition,.it.is.worth.noting.that.just.like.the.kinetic.energy.stored.in.

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Electrical Engineering Basics 25

a. rotating. flywheel. can. be. “tapped”. to. perform. mechanical. work,. the. energy.
stored. in. the. magnetic field. of. a. “charged”. inductor. can. be. released. to. push.
a.ferromagnetic.cylindrical.core,.in.one.direction.or.another,.to.open.or.close.
a.valve,.or.to.open.or.close.an.electrical.switch ..The.former.application.is.an.
example.of.a.solenoid operated valve,.while.the.later.represents.the.operation.
of.a.contactor or a relay .
. The.principle.of.inductance.and.physical.aspects.of.inductors.(or.coils).
are.illustrated.in.Figure.1 .16.(a).and.(b) ..Basically,.if.you.take.a.straight.piece.
of. wire,. as. shown. in. Figure. 1 .16. (a),. and. wind. it. around. a. cylindrical. core,.
the.final.product.would.be.a.coil.or.an.inductor ..As.shown.in.the.Figure.1 .16.
(a),.current.flowing.through.a.straight.wire.produces.a.“weak”.magnetic.field ..
While,.current.flowing.through.a.“coiled”.conductor.produces.a.stronger.and.
denser. magnetic. field,. capable. for. conducting. “work,”. such. as,. pushing. of. a.
“plunger”.against.the.restraint.of.a.spring’.to.open.or.close.a.valve.or.to.open.
or.close.an.electrical.circuit.in.a.relay.or.a.contactor .

Figure 1 16:.(a).Straight.current.carrying.conductor.(b).“Coiled”.current.car-
rying.conductor .

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26 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Figure.1 .16.(b).represents.a.conceptual.view.of.a.solenoid.or.a.coil,.il-
lustrating.the.fundamental.principle.of.electromagnetism ..On.the.other.hand,.
physical. construction. of. a. simple. solenoid. or. inductor. is. depicted. in. Figure.
1 .17,. in. a. diametrical. cross-sectional. view .. When. the. coil. of. the. solenoid. is.
energized,.the.plunger—or.core—responds.to.the.magnetic.flux.by.moving.to.
the.left ..As.the.plunger.moves.to.the.left—against.the.spring—with.a.force.that.
is.proportional.to.the.magnetic.flux,.the.“pin”.attached.to.the.tip.of.the.plunger.
pushes.mechanical.devices.such.as.relay.contacts.or.valves,.etc .,.to.change.their.
state.from.open.to.closed,.or.vice.and.versa .

Figure 1 17:.Construction.of.a.solenoid .

. Inductance. is. denoted. by. “L,”. and. it. can. be. defined,. mathematically,.
through.Eq ..1 .27,.below .

. . Eq 1 27

Where,
. µ. =. Permeability.of.the.medium,.in.H/m
. N. =. Number.of.turns.of.coil.(unit-less)
. A =. Cross-sectional.area.of.the.core.(in.m2)
. l =. Mean.length.through.the.core.(in.m)
. Unit.for.Inductance:.H.(henry)

. The. mathematical. relationship. stated. as. Eq .. 1 .27. stipulates. that. induc-

tance.is.directly.proportional.to.the.area.of.cross-section.“A”.of.the.core ..This.
equation. also. states. that. the. inductance. is. directly. proportional. to. “N2,”. the.
“square”. of. the. number. of. turns. in. the. coil,. and. is. inversely. proportional. to.
the.mean.length.“l”.of.the.core ..In.other.words,.if.larger.inductance.or.energy
storage capacity.is.desired,.one.must.increase.the.area.of.cross-section.of.the.

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Electrical Engineering Basics 27

core,.increase.the.number.of.turns,.or.reduce.the.mean.length.of.the.core.and.
the.coil ..Of.course,.the.values.of.these.variables.can.be.increased.or.decreased,.
simultaneously,.to.achieve.the.desired.results ..In.addition.to.serving.as.a.“con-
stant of proportionality”.for.the.equation,.permeability.“µ”.injects.the.physical.
characteristics.of.the.core.into.the.computation.of.inductance ..So,.if.a.material.
with.higher.relative.permeability,.µr,.is.chosen,.the.inductance.of.a.coil.would.
be.greater ..The.permeability.µ.of.a.specific.medium.can.be.defined,.mathemati-
cally.as.follows:

. µ = µr. . µo

Where,
. µr.=. Relative.permeability.of.the.core.material ..Relative.permeability.of.
steel.is.100.and.that.of.an.insulating.materials.like.wood.and.Teflon.
is.1 .0;.which.is.the.same.as.free.space,.vacuum.or.air .
. µo.=. Permeability. of. free. space. or. vacuum. =. 4π×10−7 = 1 257 x 10-6
H/m

. Electrical. energy. stored. in. an. inductor. can. be. determined. through. Eq ..
1 .28,.below:

. . 1
. Estored.=. —. LI2. Eq 1 28
. . 2

. Where,.the.energy.is.measured.in.joules.(or.N-m),.L.in.H.(henry).and.I.in.
amps .
. Most.inductive.electrical.systems—that.is.electrical.circuits.with.induc-
tance—and.inductive.devices.like.motors.and.transformers,.contain.inductance.
L,. as. well. as. resistance,. R .. In. order. to. understand. the. current. and. voltage.
response.in.inductive.circuits—or.to.understand.current.and.voltage.variation.
in.inductive.systems—we.will.examine.a.simple.series.RL.circuit.diagram.in.
Figure.1 .18 .

Figure 1 18:.Series.RL.circuit

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28 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. In.a.typical.inductive-resistive.circuit,.as.the.one.shown.in.Figure.1 .18,.
the. voltage. and. current. relationships,. as. a. function. of. time,. are. governed. by.
Equations.1 .29,.1 .30.and.1 .31 .

. . Eq 1 29

Eq 1 30

Eq 1 31

. Equations.1 .30.and.1 .31.hold.greater.practical.significance,.in.that,.they.

can. be. used. to. predict. the. changes. in. voltage. and. current—with. respect. to.
time—for. given. values. of. source. voltage,. V,. series. resistance. R. and. series.
inductance.L ..The.relationship.between.resistance.R.and.inductance.L,.or.the.
relative. size. of. R. and. L,. determine. the. charging. and. discharging. rate. of. the.
inductor.via.the.time.constant.“τ. .”.The.time.constant.τ.can.be.defined,.math-
ematically,.in.terms.of.R.and.L,.in.form.of.Eq 1 32 .

. . L
. τ.=. — Eq 1 32
. . R

. It. is. ostensible. from. examination. of. Eq .. 1 .30. and. 1 .31. that. in. circuits.
that.consist.of.inductance.and.resistance,.unlike.purely.resistive.circuits—but.
similar.to.RC.circuits—current.and.voltage.associated.with.inductors.vary.in.a.
non-linear.fashion ..This.“non-linear”.charging.and.discharging.of.an.inductor.
in.an.RL.circuit—similar.to.RC.circuits—is.referred.to.as.transient behavior ..
The.graphs.in.Figure.1 .19.and.1 .20.compare.voltage.and.current.responses—on.
the.basis.of.Eq ..1 .30.and.1 .31,.respectively .

Voltage vs Time, transient, response in Series RL Circuit:.Examination.of.

Eq ..1 .30.and.Figures.1 .18.and.1 .19.reveals.the.following.facts:

. a). At.time,.t.=.0,.which.is.when.the.switch.in.the.circuit.is.closed, i(0) = 0;.

so.the.first.segment.of.Eq ..1 .30.becomes.zero.and.drops.out ..Also,.at.t.=.
0,.the.exponent.of.“e”.becomes.zero,.which.makes.e-Rt/L = 1 ..This.results.
in.vL(t) = V,.(i .e .,.the.source.voltage).at.t.=.0 ..In.other.words:

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Electrical Engineering Basics 29

Figure 1 19:.Non-linear.voltage.response.in.a.circuit.consisting.of.inductance.
and.resistance .

vL(t) = V.at.the.instant.the.switch.is.closed.in.the.series.RL.circuit .

. b). On.the.other.end.of.the.time.spectrum,.where.t.=.∞,.or.when.steady.state.
condition.has.been.achieved:

. The.analyses.above.support.the.following.basic.tenets.of.series.RL.induc-
tive.circuits:

. i .. The.voltage.across.the.inductor,.at.the.instant.the.switch.in.a.series.RL.
circuit.is.closed,.is.the.same.as.the.source.voltage,.implying.that.no.cur-
rent.flows.through.the.inductor .

. ii .. The.voltage.across.the.inductor,.after.a.large.amount.of.time.has.elapsed,.
diminishes.to.zero ..And,.with.voltage.drop.across.the.inductor.zero,.the.
inductor.acts.as.a.short.in.a.series.RL.circuit.under.steady.state.condi-
tions—with.steady.state.current,.V/R,.flowing.through.it .

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30 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 1 20:.Non-linear.current.response.in.a.circuit.consisting.of.inductance.
and.resistance

Current vs Time, transient, response in series RL circuit:.Examination.of.

Eq ..1 .31.and.Figures.1 .18.and.1 .20.reveals.the.following.facts.associated.with.
current.versus.time.response.in.a.series.RL.circuit:

. a). At.time,.t.=.0,.which.is.when.the.switch.in.the.circuit.is.closed, i(0) = 0;.

so.the.first.segment.of.Eq ..1 .31.becomes.zero.and.drops.out ..Also,.at.t.=.
0,.the.exponent.of.“e”.becomes.zero,.which.makes.e-Rt/L = 1 ..This.results.
in.iL(t) = 0 + V/R(1-e0) = 0,.this.means.that.at.t = 0,.or.at.the.instant.the.
switch. is. closed,. the. inductance. of. the. inductor. resists. the. initiation. of.
current.flow,.hence,.no.current.flows.through.the.inductor.at.t = 0

. b). On.the.other.end.of.the.time.spectrum,.when.t.=.∞,.or.when.steady.state.
condition.has.been.achieved:

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Electrical Engineering Basics 31

. The.analyses.stated.above.support.the.following.basic.characteristics.of.
inductive.circuits:

. i .. No. current. flows. through. the. inductor. and. resistor. combination. at. the.
instant.the.switch.is.closed,.or.at.t.=.0,.which.is.congruent.with.one.of.
the.fundamental.characteristics.of.an.inductor.described.earlier ..In.other.
words,.at.the.outset,.the.inductance.of.the.inductor,.successfully,.resists.
the.rise.of.the.current.to.a.non-zero.value .

. ii .. Current.through.the.inductor.and.resistor.combination.develops.to.the.maxi-
mum.level.after.a.long.span.of.time ..The.maximum.level.of.current.in.the.
inductor.and.resistor.combination.is.equal.to.V/R ..This.also.implies.that.
the.inductor.acts.as.a.“short”.when.steady.state.condition.is.achieved.or.
after.10τ amount.of.time .

Example 1 10
. Consider.the.series.RL.circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..The.source.
voltage.is.12V.and.R.=.10Ω ..The.switch.is.closed.at.t.=.0 ..What.would.be.mag-
nitude.of.current.flowing.through.this.circuit.at.t.=.τ?

Solution:
. In. most. series. RL. cases,. the. current. value. at. a. certain. time. “t”. can. be.
predicted.through.Eq 1 31 .

.
.

Note:.In.this.case,.the.value.of.L.is.not.given,.but.the.elapsed.time.is.given.as.
a.function.of.time.constant.as,.“1τ ”

Since.τ = L/R, Eq 1 31.can.be.rewritten,.in.τ.form.as:

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32 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Then,.by.substituting.t.=.τ,.and.given.the.fact.that.i(0).=.0,.the.iL(t).equations.
simplifies.into.the.following.form:

. This.analysis.of.current.response.validates.a.characteristic.fact.about.in-
ductors:.current.develops.to.63 2%.of.its.full.potential.in.“one.time.constant”.
or.1τ worth.of.time .

Example 1 11
. Consider.the.series.RL.circuit.given.in.Example.1 .9,.in.discharge.mode,.
with.voltage.source.removed ..Inductor.L.=.10mH ..The.switch.has.been.closed.
for.long.period.of.time,.such.that.the.current.has.developed.to.the.maximum.or.
steady.state.level.1 .2.A ..How.much.time.would.need.to.elapse.for.the.current.to.
drop.to.0 .8A.after.the.switch.is.opened .

Solution:
Apply.series.RL.current.equation,.Eq 1 31 .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 33

series induCtor Combination

. When. analyzing. dc. circuits. with. inductors. connected. in. series,. deriva-
tion. of. equivalent. inductance,. Leq,. can. accomplished. by,. simply,. adding. the.
inductance.values.linearly.as.represented.by.Eq ..1 .33 ..Figure.1 .21.depicts.“n”.
inductors,.L1.through.Ln,.connected.in.series .

Eq 1 33

Figure 1 21:.Series.combination.of.“n”.inductors

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34 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Derivation. of. the. combined. equivalent. inductance. LEQ,. permits. us. to.
represent.Figure.1 .21.in.form.of.a.condensed.version.depicted.in.Figure.1 .22 .

Figure 1 22:. LEQ,. equivalent. inductance. representing. series. combination. of.

“n”.inductors .

Example 1 12
. Determine.the.equivalent.inductance.for.three.inductors.connected.in.a.
series. combination. circuit. shown. below .. The. inductance. values. of. the. three.
inductors.are:.L1.=.5mH,.L2.=.5mH,.and.L3.=.10mH .

Solution:
Apply.Eq ..1 .33:

Parallel Combination of induCtors

. The.circuit.depicted.in.Figure.1 .23.shows.“n”.number.of.inductors.con-
nected.in.parallel ..The.formula.for.determining.the.equivalent.inductance.Leq.
for.this.circuit.is.represented.by.Eq ..1 .34 .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 35

Figure 1 23:.Parallel.combination.of.“n”.inductors

Eq 1 34

. If.a.parallel.resistor.circuit.or.network.consists.of.only.three.inductors,.
the.circuit.would.appear.as.shown.in.Figure.1 .24.and.the.Leq.equation.for.this.
circuit.would.reduce.to.Eq ..1 .36 .

Figure 1 24:.Combination.of.three.parallel.inductors

Eq 1 35

Eq 1 36

Example 1 13
. Determine.the.equivalent.inductance.LEQ.for.three.parallel.inductor.DC.
circuit.shown.Figure.1 .24.if.L1.=.1H,.and.L2.=.5H.and.L3=.10H .

Solution:
Apply.Eq ..1 .36.to.compute.LEQ.for.the.three.parallel.inductor.circuit.shown.in.
Figure.1 .24:

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36 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Example 1 14
. Calculate.the.net.or.total.inductance.as.seen.from.the.24V.source.vantage.
point.in.the.circuit.shown.below .

Solution:
. We.need.to.focus.on.the.parallel.combination.of.L2, L3, and L4.first ..Ap-
ply.Eq ..1 .36.to.calculate.the.equivalent.inductance.L234. for.the.three.parallel.
inductors:

.
.
.

This.reduces.the.circuit.as.shown.below:

Inductors.L1.and.L234,.in.this.reduced.circuit,.lend.themselves.to.a.linear.com-
bination ..Therefore,.the.equivalent.inductance.LEQ for.the.entire.parallel.and.
series.inductor.hybrid.circuit.would.be:

LEQ = L1 + L234 = 5mH.+5 .45mH.=.10 45mH

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Electrical Engineering Basics 37

induCtiVe reaCtanCe
. When. an. inductor. is. incorporated. into. an.AC. circuit,. its. impact. in. that.
circuit. is. quantified. through. an. entity. referred. to. as. the. inductive reactance ..
The.symbol.for.inductive.reactance.is.XL. ..Inductive.reactance.can.be.defined,.
mathematically,.as:

. XL.=.ωL.=.2pfL Eq 1 37

Where,
f. =. Frequency.of.the.AC.power.source,.i .e .,.60.Hz.in.the.US.and.50.Hz.in.
some.other.parts.of.the.world .
ω. =. Rotational.speed,.in.radians.per.second
L =. Inductance.in.henry,.or.H .

. Inductive.reactance.is.measured.in.ohms,.or.Ω’s ..It.is.important.to.note.
that,.XL.is.often.misconstrued.as.ZL ..To.the.contrary,.as.explained.in.the.im-
pedance. section, ZL is. the. impedance contribution by the inductor,. and. is.
represented.as:

ZL.= jXL,
. ∴.ZL.≠ XL

Example 1 15
. Assume. that. the. circuit. in. Example. 1 .14. is. powered. by. a. 60. Hz.AC.
source .. Calculate. the. inductive. reactance,. XL,. as. seen. by. the.AC. voltage.
source .

Solution:
. If.the.DC.source.is.replaced.by.an.AC.source,.the.circuit.would.appear.as.
follows:

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38 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

LEQ,.as.seen.by.the.AC.voltage.source,.is.shown.in.the.simplified.equivalent.
circuit.below:

. As. computed. in. Example. 1 .13,. the. combined. or. net. inductance. con-
tributed.to.the.circuit.by.the.parallel.and.series.network.of.inductors.is.LEQ.=.
10 .45mH ..Then,.by.applying.Eq ..1 .37,.the.inductive.reactance,.XL-EQ.as.seen.
by.the.AC.voltage.source.VAC,.would.be:

XL-EQ = ω L = (2πf) LEQ = 2(3 14)(60Hz)(10 45mH) = 3 94 Ω

imPedanCe
. The. narrative. definition. of. impedance. would. be. that. it. is. the. current.
resisting. and. impeding. characteristic. of. load. or. conductor,. in. an.AC. circuit ..
As.implied.in.the.definition.of.this.term,.impedance.is.an.alternating.current.
entity ..While.in.DC.circuits.the.factor.that.opposes.the.flow.of.DC.current.is.
resistance,.the.entity.that.influences.the.flow.of.AC.current,.in.AC.circuits,.is.
impedance ..Impedance,.like.AC.current,.voltage.and.power,.is.a.vector.entity ..
By.definition,.a.vector.can.be.completely.defined.by.two.key.characteristics,.
namely,. the. magnitude and. the. direction .. Therefore,. impedance. and. other.
entities.in.AC.circuits,.such.as.current,.voltage.and.power,.can.be.defined.com-
pletely.through.specification.of.their.magnitude.and.direction .
. Symbol.for.impedance.is.Z ..When.typewritten,.as.with.most.AC.entities,.
the. symbol. Z. for. impedance. is. represented. in. bold. font .. When. handwritten,.
most.AC.entities.are.denoted.by.the.respective.symbol.with.a.half.arrow ..So,.
v
impedance.would.be.denoted.by.“ Z .”.The.unit.for.impedance.is.ohm,.or.Ω;.
similar.to.the.unit.for.resistance,.R,.capacitive.reactance.Xc.and.Inductive.re-
actance.XL ..Consistency.of.units.between.R, XL, XC.and.Z.is.one.justification.
for.the.following.mathematical.definition.for.Z:

Z.=.R + jXl –jXc. Eq 1 38

Where,
. jXl.=.Zl Eq 1 39
. . =.Impedance.contribution.by.the.inductance.in.the.circuit .

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Electrical Engineering Basics 39

And,
-jXc =.Zc Eq 1 40
=.Impedance.contribution.by.the.capacitance.in.the.circuit .

. Concept. of. impedance,. other.AC. entities. such. as.AC. current,.AC. volt-

age,.AC.power,.and.associated.computational.methods.are.discussed.in.greater.
depth.in.Chapter.3 .

magnetiC CirCuits Vs. eleCtriCal CirCuits

. The.two.diagrams.shown.in.Figure.1 .25.below.illustrate.similarities.and.
differences.between.a.basic.electrical.circuit.and.a.magnetic.circuit ..In.depth.
discussion.on.the.subject.of.magnetism.is.beyond.the.scope.of.this.text ..Nev-
ertheless,. a. contrast. between. the. basic. magnetic. and. electric. circuits. below.
will.allow.the.reader.an.opportunity.to.gain.basic.understanding.of.magnetism,.
more.specifically,.electromagnetism .
. The. circuit. shown. in. Figure. 1 .25. (a). represents. a. basic. DC. electrical.
circuit ..This.circuit.consists.of.a.DC.voltage.source.labeled.“V .”.As.explained.
earlier,.voltage.is.synonymous.to.the.term.electromotive.force ..So,.we.can.ex-
plain.the.phenomenon.in.the.electrical.circuit.as.the.electromotive.force.“V”.
driving.DC.current.“I”.through.the.load.or.resistor.“R .”.Note.the.direction.of.
the. current. is. from. the. left. to. right,. in. a. clockwise. loop,. emerging. from. the.
positive.electrode.of.the.DC.voltage.source.and.terminating.into.the.negative.
electrode.of.the.voltage.source ..This.clockwise.current.flow.is.assigned.on.the.
basis.of.an.electrical.convention.that.stipulates.that.the.current.flow.consists.
of.“holes,”.or.positively.charged.particles,.being.repelled.or.driven.out.of.the.
positive.terminal ..This.convention.also.affirms.the.fact.that.electrical.current.is.
not.Necessarily,.always,.due.to.the.flow.or.movement.of.electrons ..Electrical.
current,.as.explained.in.the.section.on.the.topic.of.current,.can.be.due.the.flow.
or. movement. of. negatively. or. positively. charged. particles ..The. positively. or.
negatively.charged.particles,.at.the.atomic.or.molecular.level.are.referred.to.as.
ions .
. The.relationship.between.V,.I.and.R.in.the.electrical.circuit.is.governed.
by.the.Ohms.Law ..The.Ohms.Law,.in.conjunction.with.other.basic.electrical.
laws—used.to.analyze.electrical.circuits—will.be.explained.in.more.detail.in.
Chapter.2 ..For.now,.note.that.the.Ohms.Law.is.stated,.mathematically,.in.form.
of.equation.1 .41 ..In.other.words,.according.to.Ohms.Law,.electromotive.force.
is.equal.to.the.product.of.current.and.resistance .

Electromotive Force, V = I R = (Current) x (Resistance) Eq 1 41

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40 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. The.circuit.shown.in.Figure.1 .25.(b).represents.a.basic.electromagnetic.
circuit ..This.circuit.consists.of.a.toroid.or.donut.shaped.core—typically.con-
structed.out.of.iron ..In.this.magnetic.circuit,.a.conductor,.or.wire,.is.wrapped.in.
four.turns.around.the.left.side.of.the.toroid.core ..When.current.is.passed.through.
wound. conductor,. magnetic. field. is. established. in. the. core. as. represented. by.
the. dashed. circular. line,. with. an. arrow. pointing. in. clockwise. direction ..This.
magnetic.field.is.referred.to.as.magnetic.flux,.ф ..Magnetic.flux.is.measured.in.
weber ..The. unit. weber. is. named. for. the. German. physicist. Wilhelm Eduard
Weber.(1804–1891) ..In.the.magnetic.realm,.the.flux.serves.as.a.counterpart.to.
the.current,.I,.from.the.electrical.realm ..Just.like.the.electromotive.force,.EMF,.
or.voltage,.drives.the.current.through.the.resistor,.R,.the.magnetomotive.force.
(MMF),.F, drives.the.magnetic.flux,.ф, through.the.toroid.magnetic.core ..Mag-
netomotive. force. is. measured. in. ampere-turns .. In. electrical. systems,. load. is.
represented.by.the.resistor.R ..In.the.magnetic.circuit,.the.flow.of.magnetic.flux.
is.opposed.by.reluctance. R. Just.as.the.Ohm’s.Law,.represented.by.Eq ..1 .41,.
governs. the. relationship. between. electromotive. force. (voltage),. current. and.
resistance.in.the.electrical.realm,.Eq 1 42.represents.the.relationship.between.
the.magnetomotive.force,.F, the.magnetic.flux,.ф, and.the.reluctance R, in.the.
magnetic.domain .

F = ф. R =.(Magnetic.Flux).x.(Reluctance). Eq 1 42

Equation.1 .42.is.referred.to.as.the.Hopkinson’s Law .

Figure 1 25: Magnetic.and.electrical.circuit.comparison

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Electrical Engineering Basics 41

. Magnetic.reluctance.can.also.be.perceived.as.magnetic.resistance;.a.re-
sistance.that.opposes.the.flow.of.magnetic.flux ..Like.resistance,.reluctance.is.
a.scalar.entity,.but.unlike.electric.resistance,.it.stores.magnetic.energy.instead.
of.dissipating.it ..Reluctance.is.measured.in.ampere-turns.per.weber,.or.turns.
per. henry .. Ferromagnetic. substances. such. as. iron. have. low. reluctance. while.
dielectric. substances. like. air. and. vacuum. offer. high. reluctance. to. magnetic.
flux ..That.is.the.reason.why.transformers,.contactors,.relays.and.other.similar.
electromagnetic.devices.utilize.iron—or.iron.alloy—cores .
Analogous to Eq. 1.1, which represents the relationship between
resistance, resistivity, length and area of cross-section, the reluctance of
a uniform magnetic circuit can be calculated as:

R = µ 1µ •
l
Eq 1 43
r o A

Or,
1
R= µ •
l
A Eq. 1.44

Where,
l is. the.mean.length.of.the.circuit.or.core,.in.meters .
µo is. the.permeability.of.free.space.or.vacuum.=.4 π 10-7.henry.per.meter .
µr is. the.relative.magnetic.permeability.of.the.core.material ..This.is.a.di-
mensionless.number .
µ is. the.permeability.of.the.core.material.in.henry.per.meter .
A. is. the.area.of.cross-section.of.the.core.or.the.magnetic.circuit.defined.in.
m2 .

basiC eleCtriCal instruments

. Two.of.the.most.fundamental.instruments.used.to.make.electrical.mea-
surements.and.perform.electrical.system.trouble.shooting.are.as.follows:

. I .. Multi-meter,.or.a.VOM,.Volt-Ohm-Meter
. II .. Clamp-on.Ammeter

Multi-meter
. The. modern. multi-meter,. sometimes. just. written. as. “multimeter,”. has.
evolved.from.its.basic.predecessor,.the.Ohm-meter..The.original.Ohm-meters.
ware. designed. to. measure. resistance. of. electrical. components. and. to. verify.
continuity.and.integrity.of.electrical.or.electronic.circuits ..Voltage.measuring.

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42 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

feature.was.later.added.to.the.basic.resistance.measuring.function.of.the.Ohm-
meter. in. form. of. a. more. versatile. instrument. called. the. Volt-Ohm-Meter,. or.
VOM ..Due.to.the.miniaturization.of.electronic.components,.additional.func-
tions.were.added.to.the.basic.VOM.resulting.in.the.contemporary.multi-meter.
that. transitioned. from. analog. to. digital. format .. See. the. diagram. of. a. digital.
multi-meter.in.Figure.1 .26 ..Some.of.the.following.features.and.functions.are.
common.among.most.multi-meters.available.on.the.market.today:

. a). Voltage.measurement,.AC.and.DC
. b). Resistance.measurement
. c). Current.measurement
. d). Temperature.measurement
. e). Capacitor.testing
. f). Diode.testing
. g). Transistor.testing

. Standard. accuracy. of. a. portable. digital. multi-meter. is,. approximately,.

0 .3% ..Bench.top.and.lab.grade.multi-meters.are.known.to.offer.accuracy.that.is.
better.than.±0 .1% ..Many.multi-meters.include.the.“Peak-Hold”.feature,.which.
allows.one.to.capture.peak.reading.when.the.measured.parameter.is.not.steady ..
Some.of.the.more.sophisticated.multi-meters.have.the.ability.to.interface.with.
PCs.for.direct.data.transfer,.plotting.and.storage .
. When.used.for.measuring.voltage,.multi-meters.operate.in.“high.imped-
ance”.mode ..In.other.words,.when.multi-meters.are.used.to.measure.voltage,.
the.circuit.being.tested.“sees’.high.impedance.between.the.probes ..This.allows.
for.the.application.of.a.multi-meter.to.be.a.non-invasive.to.the.circuit.being.
tested ..This.means.that.for.most.voltage.measurements,.a.multi-meter.can.be.
applied.to.an.electrical.circuit.without.turning.off.the.power.to.the.system.being.
tested ..On.the.other.hand,.if.a.multi-meter.is.being.used.for.measuring.current,.
the.circuit.must.be.turned.off,.interrupted.and.severed.at.the.point.of.measure-
ment,.and.the.meter.must.be.injected.in.series.to.route.the.current.through.the.
multi-meter.for.measurement .
. One.must.consider.certain.important.safety.measure.associated.with.the.
application.of.multi-meters ..Multi-meters,.similar.to.other.electrical.instrumen-
tation,.are.designed.to.operate.within.specified.voltage.range ..Most,.commonly.
used,.multi-meters.are.rated.for.low voltage.applications ..Low.voltage.category.
ranges.from.0.to.600.VAC.or.VDC ..Application.of.a.low.voltage.instrument.on.
higher.voltages.can.result.in.a.potentially.catastrophic.failure.of.the.instrument.
and.a.potentially.lethal.arc.flash.incident ..In.addition,.from.safety.point.of.view,.

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 Electrical Engineering Basics
Figure 1 26: VOLTCRAFT®.Digital.Multi-meter

43
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44 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

it.is.important.to.inspect.the.instrument,.periodically,.for.signs.of.mechanical.
or.electrical.damage ..The.probes.must.always.be.inspected.for.signs.of.wear,.
fraying,.and.signs.of.“mechanical.stress.or.strain .”.The.outermost.surface.of.
the.cathode.and.anode.probes.is,.essentially,.insulation ..Therefore,.if.the.insula-
tion.is.damaged.or.atrophied,.person.handling.the.probes.could.be.exposed.to.
electrical.shock.hazard ..In.most.cases,.prudent.and.safe.course.of.action.would.
be.to.decommission and discard.faulty.probes,.and.replace.them.with,.suitable,.
manufacturer.recommended.replacements .

The Clamp-on Ammeter

. When. current. in. an. electrical. or. electronic. circuit. must. be. measured.
without.interruption.of.an.electrical.or.electronic.circuit,.a.clamp-on.ammeter,.
sometimes. referred. to. as. “clamp. meter,”. can. be. used .. Current measurement.
with.a.clamp-on.ammeter,.unlike.a.multi-meter,.requires.no.probes ..See.Figure.
1 .27 .. When. measuring. current,. the. rotary. selector. switch. on. the. face. of. the.
ammeter. is. switched. to.AC. current. measurement. setting .. The. spring. loaded.
“clamping”.current.transformer.is.opened.by.pressing.the.knob.on.one.side.of.
the. ammeter ..The. current. carrying. conductor. is. surrounded. by. the. open. cur-
rent.transformer.clamp.and.the.current.transformer.clamp.is.allowed.to.close.
around.the.conductor ..As.the.current.transformer.closes.or.loops.around.current.
carrying.conductor,.it.develops.magnetic.flux.that.is.proportional.to.the.flow.
of.current.through.the.conductor ..This.magnetic.flux.is.transduced.into.volt-
age.that.is.subsequently.scaled.and.displayed,.digitally ..The.current.indicated.
on.the.display.of.a.typical.AC.ammeter.is.an.RMS.value ..In.single.phase.AC.
applications,.the.clamp-on.ammeter.should.be.clamped.around.the.ungrounded.
or.energized.conductor ..If.the.neutral.and.the.energized.conductors.are.clamped.
together,.the.currents.through.the.two.conductors.cancel.each.other.resulting.
in.null.or.zero.readout.on.the.display ..Similarly,.while.measuring.line.currents.
in.multiphase.AC.systems,.only one phase.must.be.enclosed.in.the.clamp-on.
ammeter. current. transformer .. Some. clamp-on. ammeters. are. equipped. with.
auxiliary.features.like.voltage.measurement;.such.is.the.case.with.the.clamp-on.
ammeter.shown.in.Figure.1 .27 ..The.ports.for.connecting.the.voltage.measuring.
anode.and.cathode.probe.leads.are.located.at.the.bottom.of.the.ammeter .
. The.voltage.rating.related.safety.precaution,.advised.in.the.use.of.multi-
meters,. applies. to. clamp-on. ammeters,. as. well .. The. clamp-on. ammeter. de-
picted.in.Figure.1 .27.is.a.low.voltage.(0-600.VAC).device ..Use.of.low.voltage.
clamp-on.ammeters.on.Medium or High Voltage.electrical.circuits.is.unsafe.
and. can. result. in. catastrophic. failures,. such. as,. arc flash incidents .. Proper.
precaution.must.also.be.exercised.concerning.the.maximum.current.rating.of.

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 Electrical Engineering Basics
Figure 1 27: Fluke®.Digital.Clamp-on.Ammeter

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46 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

a.clamp-on.ammeter ..Current.and.voltage.ratings.of.a.clamp-on.ammeter.must.
not. be. exceeded .. Miss-application. of. test. instrumentation. can. result. in. cata-
strophic.faults.or.arc.flash.incidents .
. As. noted. earlier,. most. clamp-on. ammeters. used. routinely. by. electrical.
engineers. and. electricians. are. designed. to. detect. and. measure.AC. current ..
Although.uncommon,.DC.clamp-on.ammeters,.operating.on.Hall Effect.Prin-
ciple,.are.available.for.“non-invasive”.DC.current.measurement .

Self-assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 1

. 1 .. In.an.AC.system,.a.voltage.source.V(t) = 120Sin(377t + 0°).volts,.RMS,.

sets. up. a. current. of. I(t) = 5Sin(377t + 45°) amps,. rms .. Calculate. the.
maximum.values.of.voltage.and.current.in.this.case .

. 2 . A.phase.conductor.of.a.transmission.line.is.one.mile.long.and.has.a.di-
ameter.of.1 .5.inch ..The.conductor.is.composed.of.aluminum ..Calculate.
the.electrical.resistance.of.this.conductor .

. 3 .. What.is.the.resistance.of.the.following.circuit.as.seen.from.the.battery?

. 4 .. Consider.the.RC.circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..The.source.voltage.
is. 12V ..The. capacitor. before. the. switch. is. closed. is. 2V ..The. switch. is.
closed.at.t.=.0 ..What.would.the.capacitor.voltage.be.at.t.=.5.sec?

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Electrical Engineering Basics 47

. 5 .. Determine. the. equivalent. capacitance. for. the. DC. circuit. shown. in. the.
circuit.diagram.below.if.C1.=.5µF.and.C2.=.10F .

. 6 .. Determine.the.equivalent.capacitance.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.
this.circuit.consists.of.twenty.100µF.capacitors.in.series .

7 Determine.the.equivalent.capacitance.in.series.and.parallel.combination.
circuit.shown.below ..The.capacitance.values.are:.C1.=.10µF,.C2.=.10µF,.
C3.=.20µF,.C4.=.20µF .

. 8 .. Assume.that.the.circuit.in.problem.4.is.powered.by.a.60.Hz.AC.source.
instead.of.the.DC.source ..Determine.the.total.capacitive.reactance,.Xc,.
seen.by.the.AC.source .

. 9 .. Consider.the.series.RL.circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..The.source.
voltage.is.12V,.R.=.10Ω.and.L.=.10mH ..The.switch.is.closed.at.t.=.0 ..
What.would.be.magnitude.of.current.flowing.through.this.circuit.at.t.=.
2ms?

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48 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. 10 .. Consider.the.series.RL.circuit.given.in.
problem. 9,. in. discharge. mode,. with.
voltage. source. removed .. Parameters.
such.as.R.=.10Ω.and.L.=.10mH,.are.
the.same ..The.switch.has.been.closed.
for.long.period.of.time,.such.that.the.
current. has. developed. to. the. maxi-
mum.or.steady.state.level.1 .04.A ..How.much.time.would.need.to.elapse.
for.the.current.to.drop.to.0 .5.A.after.the.switch.is.opened .

. 11 .. Determine.the.equivalent.inductance.LEQ.for.three.parallel.inductor.DC.
circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below.if.L1.=.2mH,.and.L2.=.5mH.and.L3=.
20mH .

. 12 .. Calculate.the.net.or.total.inductance.as.seen.from.the.24V.source.vantage.
point.in.the.circuit.shown.below .

. 13 .. Assume.that.the.circuit.in.Problem.12.is.powered.by.a.60.Hz.AC.source ..
Calculate.the.inductive.reactance,.XL,.as.seen.by.the.AC.voltage.source .

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Chapter 2

DC Circuit Analysis and

Basic Electronic Devices
Introduction
. In.this.chapter,.we.will.review.three.fundamental.laws.of.physics.and.elec-
trical.engineering,.namely,.(1).Ohms.Law,.(2).Kirchhoff’s.Voltage.Law.and.(3).
Kirchhoff’s.Current.Law ..These.three.laws.are.instrumental.in.performing.basic.
circuit. analysis .. Laws. serve. a. vital. purpose. in. electrical. engineering. analysis.
and.problem.solving;.in.DC.as.well.as.AC.domains ..Most.engineering.problems.
entail.determination.of.unknown.values.of.key.parameters,.under.certain.known.
circumstances.or.conditions ..Laws.allow.us.the.opportunity.to.formulate.equa-
tions. that. can. be. solved. for. values. of. unknown. parameters .. Solving. for. one.
unknown variable.requires.a.minimum.of.one equation ..Solution.for.determina-
tion.of.the.values.of.two unknown.variables.requires.two equations,.and.so.on ..
Therefore,.laws.afford.us.the.opportunity.to.model.an.engineering.problem.or.
scenario.in.form.of.set.of.equations.that.can.be.solved.to.adequately.define.and.
identify.unknowns ..Similar.to.the.three.basic.laws.of.static.equilibrium,.i .e ..ΣFx
= 0, Fy = 0,.and.ΣM = 0—laws.that.a.civil.or.mechanical.engineer.might.employ.
to.solve.for.unknown.forces.in.a.static.equilibrium.beam.or.truss.scenario—the.
Ohms.law,.the.Kirchhoff’s.voltage.law.and.the.Kirchhoff’s.current.law.are.used.
to. solve. for. important. electrical. parameters. like. current,. voltage,. resistance,.
power,.energy,.reactance,.impedance,.reactance,.etc ..The.later.three.parameters.
are.AC.entities;.discussed.in.greater.detail.in.Chapter.3 .
. In.addition.to.the.basic.laws,.important.electrical.circuit.principles.and.cir-
cuit.simplification.techniques,.such.as,.voltage.division.and.current.division.will.
be.discussed.and.their.application.will.be.illustrated.through.sample.problems.
in.this.chapter ..Note.that.there.are.many.other.principles.and.methods.that.are.at.
electrical.engineer’s.disposal.to.solve.or.analyze.complex.circuits ..Such.as,.the.
conversion.of.Y.load.(or.resistor).configuration.to.Delta.load.configuration,.or.
vice.and.versa;.conversion.of.complex.circuits.to.Thevenin.equivalent,.Norton.
equivalent,. two. port. networks,. etc .. However,. these. and. many. other. advanced.
circuit.analysis.methods.are.outside.the.scope.of.this.text .
. We.will.introduce.the.reader.to.two.basic.electronic.devices,.namely,.a.di-
ode.and.a.transistor,.their.basic.characteristics.and.some.of.their.applications ..We.
49

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50 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

will.conclude.this.chapter.with.a.pictorial.“tour”.of.a.typical.electronic.printed.
circuit.board.to.allow.the.reader.an.opportunity.to.gain.a.measure.of.familiarity.
with.basic.electronic.devices .

ohms law
. Ohm’s. law. was. introduced,. briefly,. in. Chapter. 1 .. Ohm’s. law. stipulates.
that.voltage,.or.voltage.drop,.in.a.DC.(or.AC).circuit.is.equal.to.the.product.of.
current.flowing.in.the.circuit.and.the.resistance.(or.impedance).in.the.electrical.
circuit ..In.other.words,.voltage.or.voltage.drop.in.an.electrical.circuit.is.directly.
proportional.to.the.resistance.(or.impedance).of.the.circuit.and.the.current.flow-
ing.through.it ..Ohm’s.law.can,.therefore,.be.stated.mathematically.as.follows:

Eq 2 1

Eq 2 2

. The.first.mathematical.representation.of.Ohm’s.law,.in.form.of.Eq ..2 .1,.per-

tains.to.DC.circuits,.and.in.this.statement.of.Ohm’s.law,.all.three.parameters—V,
I.and.R—are.scaler ..On.the.other.hand,.mathematical.representation.of.Ohm’s.
law,.in.form.of.Eq ..2 .2.applies.to.AC.circuits,.where.voltage.“V” and.current “I”
are.vectors.or.complex.entities.and.R,.as.always, is.scalar . Note.that.the.symbols.
with. “half-arrows”. above. them. denote. complex.AC,. or. vector,. entities .. These.
half.arrows.are.shown.here.to.introduce.the.reader.to.this.method.for.representing.
vector.or.complex.entities ..Later.in.this.text,.vector.or.complex.entities.will.be.
represented.mostly.in.bold.fonts ..As.one.examines.the.statement.of.Ohm’s.law.
in.form.of.Equations.2 .1.and.2 .2,.it.becomes.obvious.that.the.Ohm’s.law.can.be.
interpreted.and.applied.in.several.ways ..This.fundamental.aspect.of.Ohm’s.law,.
its. versatility. and. wide. application. will. become. more. evident. through. various.
circuit.analysis.problems.in.this.chapter,.and.others.in.this.text,.beginning.with.
Example.2 .1 .

Example 2 1
. The.DC.circuit.shown.below.consists.of.a.hybrid,.parallel-series,.network.
or.resistors:.R1.=.10.Ω,.R2.=.5.Ω,.R3.=.1.Ω,.and.R4.=.10.Ω ..Calculate.the.follow-
ing.parameters.in.this.circuit:.(a).Req.or.Rtotal.for.the.entire.circuit ..(b).The.amount.
of.current.“i”.flowing.through.resistor.R1 .

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 51

Solution:
a).Req.or.Rtotal.for.the.entire.circuit:
. Req.=.R1.+.R4.+.(R2. ..R3)/(R2.+.R3)
. =.10.Ω.+.10.Ω.+.(5/6.Ω).=.20 .833.Ω

b).The.amount.of.current.“i”.flowing.through.resistor.R1:
. By.Ohms.Law:.V.=.I. ..R,.or,.I.=.V/R .
. Therefore,.i.=.12V/Req
. =.12V/20 .833.Ω.=.0 .576.Amps .

KirChhoff ’s Voltage law (KVl)

. Kirchhoff’s.Voltage.Law.stipulates.that.the.algebraic.sum.of.voltage.drops.
around.any.closed.path,.within.a.circuit,.is.equal.to.the.sum.of.voltages.presented.
by.all.of.the.voltage.sources ..The.mathematical.representation.of.KVL.is.as.fol-
lows:

Σ VDrops = Σ VSource Eq 2 3

Kirchhoff’s.voltage.law.can.also.be.stated.as:
. Sum.of.ALL.voltages.in.a.circuit.loop.=.0,.or:

ΣV=0 Eq 2 3a

. Some. electrical. engineers. find. the. later. representation. of. Kirchhoff’s.

voltage. law. somewhat. easier. to. apply. when. performing. circuit. analyses. be-
cause,.with.this.version,.once.the.voltages.and.respective.polarities.have.been.
identified,.you.simply.sum.up.all.the.voltage.values.with.appropriate.signs,.as.
observed,.while.going.around.the.loop.in.the.chosen.direction ..This.importance.
of.this.approach,.and.alternative.approaches,.is.illustrated.through.the.Example.
2 .2.below .

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52 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Example 2 2—KVL
. Variation. of. current. in. the. circuit. shown. below. needs. to. be. studied. as. a.
function.of.the.three.resistors.and.the.voltage.source,.Vs ..Using.the.Ohm’s.Law.
and.KVL,.develop.an.equation.that.can.be.used.to.compute.the.value.of.current.I.
for.various.values.of.R1, R2, R3.and.Vs .

Solution:
. Similar. to. other. engineering. disciplines,. in. most. electrical. engineering.
problems,. multiple. methods. can. be. employed. to. derive. the. solution ..The. suit-
ability. of. one. method. over. another. depends. on. the. known. parameters. and. the.
complexity.of.the.circuit .

Approach I:
. Reduce.or.simplify.the.given.circuit.to.a.“net”.voltage.source.and.equiva-
lent.resistance.Req ..Since.R1, R2.and.R3.are.in.series:

. Req.=.R1 + R2.+.R3

. Based.on.the.assumption.that.Vs.is.indeed.the.source.driving.this.circuit,.by.
electrical.convention,.the.current.in.this.circuit.would.flow.“out”.of.the.positive.
terminal,.or.anode,.of.the.voltage.source ..Hence,.the.current.would.flow.in.the.
clockwise.direction.as.shown.in.the.diagram,.below .

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 53

. By.the.same.token,.application.of.the.electrical.current.convention.to.the.
voltage.device,.or.load.voltage,.VL.would.mean.that.it.would.try to.set.up.current.
in.the.counter-clockwise.direction ..However,.because.we.assumed.that.voltage.
source.Vs.is.driving.the.net.flow.of.current.through.the.circuit,.its.dominance.over.
VL.is.implied,.and.the.net.voltage.in.the.circuit.would.be:

. VNet.=.VS – VL

. This.results.in.the.simplification.of.the.circuit.as.depicted.below:

Then,.application.of.Ohm’s.law.yields:

Approach II:
. This.approach.is.premised.on.the.application.of.KVL.to.the.given.circuit.
after.the.circuit.has.been.annotated.with.voltage.designations,.voltage.polarities.
and.current.direction .
. According.to.another.electrical.convention,.voltage.polarities.are.assigned.
such.that.the.current.enters.the.resistances.(or.loads,.in.general).on.the.positive
side.and.exits.from.the.negative.side ..The.voltage.sources,.or.existing.“voltage.
loads”.retain.their.stated.polarities ..The.aforementioned.steps.result.in.the.trans-
formation.of.the.original.(given).circuit.as.shown.on.the.following.page .
. Apply.the.Ohm’s.law.to.define.the.voltages,.or.voltage.drops,.across.the.
three.resistors .

. VR1.=.IR1. VR2.=.IR2. VR3.=.IR3

. With.all.voltages—voltage.source,.voltage.load.and.voltage.drops.across.

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54 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

the.resistors—identified.and.their.polarities.noted,.apply.KVL.by.“walking”.the.
annotated.circuit.beginning.at.the.cathode.or.negative.electrode.of.the.voltage.
source,.Vs ..Note.the.voltages.and.respective.polarities.as.you.make.a.complete.
loop.around.the.circuit.in.the.clockwise.direction.of.the.current ..This.results.in.
the.following.equation:

. ΣV.=.0
. -.Vs.+.VR1.+.VL.+.VR2.+.VR3.=.0

Expansion.of.this.KVL.based.equation.through.substitution.of.the.resistor.voltage.
drop.formulas,.derived.earlier,.yields:

. -.Vs.+.IR1.+.VL.+.IR2.+.IR3.=.0

Further.rearrangement.and.simplification.results.in:

. I.(R1.+.R2.+.R3).=.(Vs.-.VL)

. . Vs.-.VL
. I.=. —————
. . R1.+.R2.+.R3

KirChhoff ’s Current law (KCl)

. According.to.Kirchhoff’s.Current.Law,.total.current.flowing.into.a.node.is.
equal.to.the.total.current.that.flows.out of.the.node ..The.mathematical.representa-
tion.of.KCL.is.as.follows:

. Σ iin = Σ iout Eq 2 4

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 55

. Proper.identification.of.a.node.before.application.of.KCL.is.pivotal.in.ap-
plication.of.KCL ..The.concept.of.a.node.is.not.unique.to.electrical.circuit ..Inter-
sections.and.junctions.in.fluid.piping.systems.are.sometimes.referred.to.as.nodes,.
by.Mechanical.Engineers.and.Technicians ..The.term.finds.its.use.in.disciplines.
as.diverse.as.human.anatomical.“lymph.node”.system.and.the.algorithm.nodes.
in.computer.systems ..In.the.electrical.realm,.a.node.is.sometimes.construed.as.
a.point.where.two.conductors.merge.or.get.connected ..However,.as.illustrated.
through.application.of.KCL.in.Example.2 .3,.a.more.meaningful.definition.of.a.
node.in.electrical.circuits.is.that.it.is.a.point.where.three or more conductors are
electrically terminated or connected together ..Just.as.significance.and.effective-
ness.of.KVL.was.illustrated.through.Example.2 .2,.we.will.demonstrate.the.utility.
of.KCL,.Kirchhoff’s.current.law,.and.selection.of.a.meaningful.node.in.a.“paral-
lel”.electrical.circuit.through.Example.2 .3.below .

Example 2 3
. Determine.the.value.of.voltage.source.current.in.the.parallel.circuit.below .

Solution:
. Similar.to.Example.2 .2,.we.will.present.two.different.approaches.for.deter-
mining.the.value.of.unknown.source.current ..The.first.approach.simply.utilizes.
the. Ohm’s. law. and. the. parallel. circuit. simplification. method .. The. second. ap-
proach,.on.the.other.hand,.utilizes.KCL.and.“nodal”.analysis.technique .

Approach I:
. Reduce.or.simplify.the.given.circuit.to.a.voltage.source.and.equivalent.re-
sistance.Req ..Since.R1, R2.and.R3.are.in.parallel,.application.of.Eq ..1 .13.yields:

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56 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

.
.
This.simplifies.the.given.parallel.DC.circuit.as.follows:

Next,.Ohm’s.law.is.applied.to.determine.the.source.current:

Approach II:
. This.approach.is.premised.on.the.application.of.KCL.to.the.given.circuit.af-
ter.the.node.had.been.identified,.circuit.has.been.annotated.with.voltage.designa-
tion,.voltage.polarity,.branch.currents.and.current.directions ..See.circuit.diagram.
below:

. Subscribing. to. the. definition. of. a. node. as. a. point. where. three. or. more.
conductors.merge,.the.shaded.segment.in.the.diagram.above.is.designated.as.the.

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 57

node.for.this.circuit ..Next,.before.KCL.can.be.applied.to.determine.the.source.
current,. the. individual. currents,. through. each. of. the. resistors,. need. to. be. de-
fined—using.the.Ohm’s.law—in.terms.of.the.specific.resistance.values.and.the.
voltages.around.them:

. Then,.application.of.KCL.at.the.designated.node.yields.the.following.equa-
tion:

. I.=.I1.+.I2.+.I3

. Substitution.of.the.values.of.branch.currents,.as.defined.earlier,.yields:

. At.this.juncture,.it.is.important.to.note.that.when.circuit.elements.are.in.
parallel—as. is. the. case. with. R1, R2. and. R3—their. voltages. (or. voltage. drops.
around.them).are.equal ..In.fact,.not.only.are.the.voltages.around.the.parallel.cir-
cuit.elements.equal.to.each.other.but.they.are.the.same.as.the.source.voltage,.Vs ..
In.other.words:

. Vs.=.V1.+.V2.+.V3

Therefore,.the.current.equation.can.be.rewritten.as:

And.the.source.current.would.be:

Which.is.the.same.as.the.answer.derived.through.Approach.1 .

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58 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Voltage diVision
. Voltage.division.is.a.shortcut.for.determination.of.voltage.across.a.series.
resistor ..According.to.the.voltage.division.rule,.the.voltage.across.resistance.R,.
in.a.DC.circuit,.with.total.resistance.Rtotal,.and.a.voltage.source.V,.can.be.deter-
mined.through.the.following.formula:

. . R
. VR.=. ———. •. V Eq 2 5
. . Rtotal

. For.AC.circuits,.the.voltage.on.impedance.Zi, in.a.loop.with.total.imped-
ance.Ztotal,.with.a.voltage.source.V,.would.be:

. . Eq 2 6

Example 2 4
. Determine.the.following.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below:
a). Equivalent.resistance.for.the.entire.circuit,.if.R1.=.5Ω,.R2.=.R3=.10Ω,.and.
R4.=.R5=.20
b). Current.flowing.through.resistor.R1
c). Voltage.across.resistor.R5

Solution:

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 59

a). Combination.of.R2.and.R4.=.R2,4.=.R2.+.R4.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω
. Combination.of.R3.and.R5.=.R3,5.=.R3.+.R5.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω
. Combination.of.R2,4.and.R3,5.=

.
. Req.=.R1.+.R.2-5.=.5Ω.+.15Ω.=.20Ω

b). Current.through.R1.would.be.the.same.as.the.current.through.the.12V.sup-
ply:

.
.

c). One. method. for. determining. VR5,. voltage. across. R5,. is. to. first. calculate.
VR2-5,.the.voltage.across.the.combined.resistance.of.resistances.R2, R3, R4,.
and.R5 ..Then,.by.applying.voltage.division,.calculate.VR5 as.follows:

According.to.Ohm’s.law,
VR2-5 = I (R2-5) = (0 6A) (15Ω) = 9V

Then,.by.applying.the.voltage.division.rule:

Example 2 5
. What.is.the.voltage.across.the.6Ω.resistor?

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60 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. The.right-hand.side.of.the.circuit,.consisting.of.the.two.10Ω.resistors.and.
the.5Ω.resistor,.is.irrelevant.insofar.as.the.determination.of.voltage.across.the.6Ω.
resistor.is.concerned .
. Parallel.combination.of.the.two.8.Ω.resistors.results.in.an.equivalent.resis-
Ω.resistors.results.in.an.equivalent.resis-
.resistors.results.in.an.equivalent.resis-
tance.of.4.Ω.as.follows:

Using.voltage.division,.the.voltage.across.the.6.Ω.resistor.would.be

Current diVision
. The.current.through.a.resistor.R.in.parallel,.or.in shunt,.with.another.resis-
tance.Rparallel and.a.current.into.the.node.of.I.is:

. . Eq 2 7

Where,
Rtotal. =. The.sum.of.the.resistances.in.parallel.(and.not.the.parallel.combina-
tion.REQ) .
Rparallel. =. Resistance.value.of.the.resistor.opposite.the.“subject”.resistor .
I. =. Current.through.the.source .

. When. current. division. is. applied. in. AC. circuits,. the. formula. for. current.
through.an.impedance.Z,.in.parallel.with.another.impedance.Zparallel,.would.be:

. . Eq 2 8

Where,
I =. Current,.in.its.complex.AC.form,.flowing.into.the.node.formed.by.
the.parallel.impedances .

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 61

Ztotal. =. The.sum.of.the.impedances.in.parallel.(and.not.the.parallel.combi-
nation.ZEQ) .
Zparallel =. The.impedance.of.the.load.opposite.to.the.subject.impedance .
I. =. AC.current.through.the.source .

Example 2 6
. Determine. the. current. flowing. through. the. 10Ω. resistance. in. the. circuit.
shown.below .

Solution:
. We.must.to.determine.the.value.of.source.current.I, first ..In.order.to.de-
termine.the.value.of.current.I.flowing.through.the.source.and.the.5Ω.resistor.we.
must.consolidate.all.resistors.into.an.equivalent.resistance.REQ.and.then.apply.
the.Ohm’s.law .

. . .
. . .
.

Apply.current.division.formula.in.form.of.Eq 2 7

multi-looP CirCuit analysis

. As.expected,.analyses.of.circuits.that.consist.of.more.than.one.current.loop,.
tend.to.be.more.complex,.require.formulation.of.multiple.equations.and.utiliza-

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62 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

tion.of.additional.conventions.and.principles ..Similar.to.single.loop.circuit.analy-
sis.covered.earlier,.in.most.cases,.there.are.multiple.strategies.and.approaches.
available.for.solving.multi-loop.circuits ..We.will.illustrate.one.approach.through.
Example.2 .7 .

Example 2 7
. Using.the.KVL.method,.determine.the.current.flows,.I1.and.I2 in the.circuit.
below .

Solution:
. Current. I1 and I2. are. two. of. the. five. unknown. parameters. in. the. circuit.
above .. The. other. unknown. parameters. are,. V1Ω, V2Ω and. V4Ω One. approach.
for. determining. the. values. of. I1 and. I2 would. be. to. formulate. two. equations,.
using. the. Kirchhoff’s.Voltage. Law,. such. that. each. equation. includes. the. same.
two.unknown.variables,.I1.and.I2 ..Then,.by.applying.the.simultaneous.equation.
technique.to.the.two.equation.system,.with.two.unknowns,.we.can.determine.the.
values.of.I1.and.I2
Application.of.KVL.requires.that.voltage.around.each.circuit.element.be.
defined.in.terms.of.known.values.and.the.unknown.variables ..In.addition,.the.sign.
or.polarity.of.each.voltage.must.be.assigned ..See.the.diagram.below .

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 63

Rules.for.assuming.the.current.direction.and.assigning.voltage.polarities.to.vari-
ous.loads.(resistors).and.sources.(voltage.sources).are.as.follows:

1). As.shown.in.the.figure.above,.by.convention,.the.currents.are.assumed.to.
be.emanating.from.the.positive.pole.(positive.electrode.or.anode).of.the.
voltage. source. and. are. assumed. to. be. terminating. into. the. negative. pole.
(negative.electrode.or.cathode).of.the.voltage.source .

2). As.shown.in.the.figure.above,.the.end.or.side.of.the.resistor.or.load.that.the.
current.enters.from.is.labeled.as.positive .

3). The.polarity.for.a.voltage.source.is.assumed.as.encountered.in.the.direction.
of.current.flow .

. Examination.of.the.circuit.above.reveals.that.there.are.three.loops.in.the.
given.circuit ..The.left.loop.will.be.referred.to.as.loop.1,.the.loop.on.the.right.
segment.of.the.circuit.is.loop.2 ..The.third.loop.in.this.circuit.is.formed.by.the.
outer.perimeter ..We.will.focus.on.the.first.two.loops.to.derive.two.equations.for.
the.determination.of.the.two.unknown.currents ..Assume.that.I1 is.greater.than.I2 ..
Conventionally,.it.is.acceptable.to.make.such.assumptions.as.long.as.the.assump-
tions.are,.strictly,.adhered.to.in.deriving.all.equations.necessary.for.the.solution .
. . “Walking”. loop. 1,. beginning. at. the. negative. terminal. of. the. 24. V. dc.
source,.yields.the.following.equation:

. -24V.+.V1Ω.+.V2Ω.+.12V.=.0. Eq 2 9

. “Walking”.loop.2,.beginning.at.the.negative.terminal.of.the.12.V.dc.source,.
yields.the.following.equation:

. -12V.-.V2Ω.+.V4Ω.=.0. Eq 2 10

Based.on.Ohm’s.Law:
. V1Ω.=.(I1) (1Ω).=.I1 Eq 2 11
. V4Ω = (I2) (4Ω).=.4I2 Eq 2 12
. V2Ω= (I1 - I2) (2Ω).=.2 .(I1 - I2) Eq 2 13

. Then,.by.substituting.Eq ..2 .11,.Eq ..2 .12.and.Eq ..2 .13.into.Eq ..2 .9.and.Eq ..

2 .10,.we.get:

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64 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. -24.+.I1.+.2 .(I1 - I2).+.12.=.0

. . 3I1.-.2I2 =.12. Eq 2 14

. -12.-.2 .(I1 - I2) +.4I2.=.0

. . -2I1.+.6I2 =.12. Eq 2 15

. Equations. 2 .14. and. 2 .15. represent. the. two. simultaneous. equations. that.
were.needed.to.solve.for.currents.I1 and I2 ..These.equations.will.be.solved.simul-
taneously.to.determine.the.values.of.I1 and I2 .

. 3I1.-.2I2 =.12. Eq 2 14
. -2I1.+.6I2 =.12. Eq 2 15

. For.simultaneous.equation.solution,.multiply.left.hand.side.and.the.right.
hand.side.of.Eq ..2 .14.by.3.and.add.it.to.Eq ..2 .15:

. . 9I1.-.6I2 =.36
. .-2I1.+.6I2 =.12
. .——————
. . 7I1.=.48
. .∴.I1.=.6 .86.Amps

Then,.by.substituting.this.value.of.I1 into.Eq ..2 .15.yields:

. -2(6 86).+.6I2 =.12

Or,
. I2 =.4 .29.Amps

. Note:.The.values.of.unknown.currents.I1.and.I2.can.also.be.determined.by.
applying.Cramer’s.Rule.to.Eq ..2 .14.and.2 .15,.in.matrix.format,.and.linear.alge-
bra .

Circuit analysis using Cramer’s Rule and Linear Algebra

. Cramer’s. Rule. can. be. applied. to. solve. for. unknowns,. in. lieu. of. simul-
taneous. equations. or. substitution. methods,. after. set. of. equations. have. been.
formulated.using.the.loop.analysis.method.described.above ..Since.the.Cramer’s.
Rule.involves.matrices.and.linear.algebra,.it.is.the.method.that.electrical.circuit.
analysis.computer.software.is.premised.on ..The.application.of.Cramer’s.Rule.is.
illustrated.through.Example.2 .8.below .

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 65

Example 2 8
. The.values.of.all.known.parameters.for.the.following.multi-loop.circuit.are.
listed.in.the.table.below ..Find.the.values.of.currents.I1, I2, and I3 .

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66 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. In. this. example,. the. fundamental. strategy,. conventions. and. principles.
needed.to.calculate.the.three.unknown.currents.I1, I2.and.I3.would.be.the.same.
as.the.ones.described.in.Example.2 .4 ..The.obvious.difference.is.that.this.circuit.
has.a.total.of.four.loops—including.the.outermost.loop—and.has.three.unknown.
variables.in.form.of.currents.I1, I2.and.I3 Therefore,.we.will.need.a.minimum.
of. three. equations .. Those. three. equations,. as. before,. are. derived. by. applying.
the.Kirchhoff’s.Voltage.Law.to.each.of.the.three.inner.loops ..The.voltage.drops.
across.each.of.the.load.components.(or.resistors).are.defined.on.the.basis.of.the.
Ohm’s.law,.V.=.I .R .
. Before. we. embark. on. the. formulation. of. current. computation. equations,.
let’s.ensure.that.the.circuit.is.in.its.most.simplified.form ..In.that.vane,.by.inspec-
tion,.we.notice.that.the.two.series.resistors.in.the.bottom.loop,.R2.and.R7,.can.be.
added.together.or.combined.as.follows:

. R2-7.=.R2.+.R7

. This.simplification.and.assignment.of.voltage.drop.polarities.results.in.the.
following.circuit.schematic:

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 67

. Application.of.KVL.in.loop.1,.with.the.assumptions.that.I1 > I2.and.I3, and.

I2 > I3.yields:

I1R1 - V1 + (I1 + I2)R5 + (I1 - I3)R4 = 0

I1R1 - V1 + I1R5 + I2R5 + I1R4 - I3R4 = 0
(R1 + R5 + R4) I1 + I2R5 - I3R4 = V1 Eq 2 16

. Application.of.KVL.in.loop.2,.maintaining.the.assumption.that.I1 > I2.and.

I3, and.I2 > I3.yields:

- V2 + I2R3 + (I1 + I2)R5 – V3 + (I2 + I3)R6 = 0

- V2 + I2R3 + I1 R5 + I2R5 – V3 + I2R6+ I3R6 = 0
R5I1 + (R3 + R5 + R6)I2 + I3R6 = V2 + V3 Eq 2 17

. Application.of.KVL.in.loop.3,.maintaining.the.assumption.that.I1 > I2.and.

I3, and.I2 > I3.yields:

I3R2-7 - (I1 - I3)R4 - V3 + (I2 + I3)R6 = 0

I3R2-7 - I1R4 + I3R4 - V3 + I2 R6 + I3R6 = 0
- R4 I1+ R6 I2 + (R4 + R6 + R2-7) I3 = V3. Eq 2 18

. The.three.simultaneous.equations.thus.derived.are:

(R1 + R5 + R4)I1 + R5I2 - R4I3 = V1 Eq 2 16

R5I1 + (R3 + R5 + R6)I2 + R6I3 = V2 + V3 Eq 2 17
- R4 I1+ R6I2 + (R4 + R6 + R2-7) I3 = V3. Eq 2 18

. Substitution.of.the.given.resistor.and.voltage.source.values.into.Eq ..2 .16,.

Eq ..2 .17,.and.Eq ..2 .18.yields.the.following.simultaneous.equations:

21I1 + 7I2 - 4I3 = 20

7I1 + 13I2 + 3I3 = 17
- 4 I1 + 3I2 + 14 I3 = 12

. Apply.the.Cramer’s.rule.to.solve.for.the.three.unknown.currents.I1,.I2.and.
I3 ..The.augmented.matrix.thus.developed.would.be:

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68 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

The.coefficient.matrix,.denoted.as.A,.would.be:

The.determinant.of.the.coefficient.matrix,.denoted.as.|A|,.would.be:

|A| = 21{(13x14).–.(3x3)}.–.7{(7x14).–.(-4x3)}.–.4{(7x3).–.(-4x13)}.=.2571

. The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A1,.for.determining.the.value.
of.I1,.is.denoted.as.|A1|,.and

|A1| = 20{(13x14).–.(3x3)}.–.7{(17x14).–.(12x3)}.–.4{(17x3).–.(12x13)}.=.2466

. The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A2,.for.determining.the.value.
of.I2,.is.denoted.as.|A2|,.and

|A2| = 21{(17x14).–.(12x3)}.–.20{(7x14).–.(-4x3)}.–.4{(7x12).–.(-4x17)}.=.1434

. The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A3,.for.determining.the.value.
of.I3,.is.denoted.as.|A3|,.and

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 69

|A3| = 21{(13x12).–.(3x17)}.–.7{(7x12).–.(-4x17)}.+.20{(7x3).–.(-4x13)}.=.2601

. Applying.the.Cramer’s.rule,.the.unknown.variables,.currents.I1, I2.and.I3,.
can.be.calculated.by.dividing.the.determinants.of.substitutional.matrices.A1,.A2.
and.A3,.respectively,.by.the.determinant.of.the.coefficient.matrix.A .

Therefore,

diodes
. A.diode,.unlike.its.“functional”.predecessor—the.vacuum.tube.rectifier—
is. constructed. out. of. semiconductor. materials. such. as. silicone,. germanium,.
gallium.arsenide,.etc ..While.a.semiconductor.is.not.a.good.conductor.at.room.
temperature,.it.doesn’t.fall.distinctly.in.the.category.of.insulators,.such.as,.glass,.
ceramics,. urethanes,. plastics,. PVC’s,. etc ..A. semiconductor. can,. however,. be.
transformed. into. a. “partially”. or. “selectively”. conductive. substance. through. a.
process.called.“doping .”.The.term.doping.implies.addition.of.“impurities”.into.a.
pure.substance.like.silicone ..If.these.impurities.are.added.to.create.a.region.with.
a.predominant.concentration.of.negative.charge.carriers,.or.electrons,.the.end.re-
sult.would.be.the.formation.of.a.region.called.n-type.semiconductor ..At.the.same.
time,. if. impurities. are. added,. adjacently,. to. create. a. region. with. predominant.
positive.charge.carriers,.or.holes,.a.p-type.semiconductor.is.formed . The.plane.
where. the. p. and. n. doped. materials. interface. with. each. other. is. called. the. p-n
junction ..A.p-n.junction.is.where.the.essential.function.of.a.diode.takes.place.in.
response.to.the.application.of.proper.voltage .

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70 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. A.diode.can.be.viewed.as.a.device.that.functions.as.an.electronic.“check.
valve .”.As.we.know,.the.function.of.a.check.valve,.in.mechanical.or.hydraulic.
systems,.is.to.permit.the.flow.of.fluids.in.one.specific.direction ..In.other.words,.
an.attempt.by.the.fluid.to.move.in.the.reverse.direction.is.blocked.by.a.check.
valve ..A.diode.performs.the.same.function.in.the.flow.of.current ..A.diode.permits.
the.flow.of.current.only.from.a.higher.voltage.(or.electrical.potential).point.in.an.
electrical.circuit.to.a.lower.voltage.or.ground.potential.point ..This.unidirectional.
behavior.is.called.rectification,.and.this.function.of.a.diode.finds.a.common.ap-
plication. in. the. conversion. of. alternating. current. (AC). to. direct. current. (DC) ..
Common.application.of.diodes.in.rectifiers.and.other.equipment.are.discussed.
later.in.this.chapter .
. The.symbol.and.drawing.of.common.circuit.board.type.diode.are.shown.in.
Figure.2 .1 .

Figure 2 1:.Symbol,.diagram.and.schematic.of.a.basic.diode.circuit .

. The.left.side.of.the.diode,.labeled.“Anode”.is.normally.connected.to.the.
positive.or.higher.voltage.point.in.the.circuit ..The.right.side.of.the.diode,.labeled.
“cathode,”.on.the.other.hand,.is.normally.connected.to.the.ground,.negative,.or.
lower.potential.point.in.the.circuit ..When.a.diode.is.connected.in.this.manner,.it.
is.said.to.be.forward biased ..As.apparent.from.the.diagram.of.a.typical.diode.in.
Figure.2 .1,.a.band.on.one.side.of.the.diode.denotes.the.cathode.side.of.the.diode ..
If,.however,.the.voltage.is.reversed.such.that.the.anode.of.the.diode.is.connected.
to.the.negative.voltage.potential.and.the.cathode.is.connected.to.the.positive.po-
tential,.the.diode.is.said.to.be.reverse biased..The.current.response.of.a.diode.in.
forward.and.reverse.bias.modes.of.operation.is.depicted.in.Figure.2 .2 .
. In.Figure.2 .2,.VD.represents.the.forward.bias.voltage ..Forward.bias.voltage.
of.a.diode.is.the.voltage.at.which.the.diode.begins.to.conduct.current;.or.is.the.
voltage.where.the.diode.is.said.to.be.“turned.on .”.A.diode.can.be.perceived.as.a.
“self-actuating”.electronic.switch,.as.well ..The.forward.bias.voltage,.VD,.is.ap-

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 71

Figure 2 2:.Current.response.of.a.diode.in.forward.and.reverse.bias.modes

proximately,.0 7V.for.silicone.type.diodes.and.0 3 volts.for.germanium.diodes .

. As. depicted. in. Figure. 2 .2,. when. a. diode. is. reverse. biased. the. amount.
of.current.(or.reverse.current).it.conducts.is.negligible,.until.the.magnitude.of.
the. reverse. bias. voltage. approach. approaches. VBR,. breakdown. voltage .. The.
breakdown.voltage.is.also.called.the.VPIV,.Peak.Inverse.Voltage.or.VPRV,.Peak.
Reverse.Voltage ..The.reverse.voltage.is.considerably.higher.than.the.forward.bias.
voltage;.approximately.ten times.the.magnitude.of.VD ..Although,.technically,.all.
diodes.are.capable.of.rectifying.AC,.the.term.“rectifier”.is.essentially.reserved.
for.diodes.designed.to.operate.at.currents.in.excess.of.1A,.and.therefore,.utilized.
frequently.to.convert.AC.into.DC ..Conventionally,.the.term.diode.refers.to.ap-
plications.involving.currents.less.than.or.equal.to.1A .

Special Purpose Diodes

. Two. of. the. most. common,. special. purpose,. diodes. that. find. applications.
in.mainstream.electrical.or.electronic.equipment,.i .e ..variable.frequency.drives,.
inverters.or.converters.are.SCRs.and.Zener.diodes .

SCR:.The.acronym.“SCR”.stands.for.“silicone.controlled.rectifier,”.or.“semicon-
ductor.controlled.rectifier .”.These.specialty.diodes.are.also.referred.to.as.“thyris-
tors ”.Schematic.of.an.SCR.is.shown.in.Figure.2 .3 .

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72 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 2 3:.Symbol.or.diagram.for.an.SCR.or.Thyristor

. As. apparent. in. Figure. 2 .3,. an. SCR. differs. from. a. regular. diode,. mainly,.
due.to.an.added.feature.called.the.“gate .”.The.gate.serves.as.“trigger”.or.“fir-
ing”.mechanism.for.an.SCR ..Specific.voltage.application.at.the.gate.triggers.or.
“pulses”.the.SCR.on,.and.allows.the.current.to.flow ..The.diode.portion.of.the.
SCR.continues.to.conduct.after.the.gate.voltage.dissipates ..The.SCR,.or.diode.
portion.of.the.SCR,.stops.conducting.once.the.forward.bias.voltage.drops.below.
the.threshold.voltage,.VD .
. SCRs.are.mainly.used.in.devices.associated.with.the.control.of.high.power.
and.high.voltage ..Their.innate.characteristic.and.mode.of.operation.makes.them.
suitable.for.use.in.medium.to.high-voltage.AC.power.control.applications,.such.
as.lamp.dimming,.regulators.and.motor.control ..Thyristors.are.also.commonly.
used. for. rectification. of. high. power.AC. in. high-voltage. direct. current. power.
transmission.applications ..They.are.also.used.in.the.control.of.welding.machines .

Zener Diode:.Zener.diodes.are.similar,.in.construction,.to.basic.diodes ..The.key.

difference.is.that.Zener.diodes,.unlike.regular.diodes,.are.capable.of.recovering.
from.avalanche.reverse.bias.break.down.mode.when.the.reverse.bias.is.removed ..
Therefore,.as.a.mechanical.analogy,.one.could.compare.zener.diodes.to.“relief.
valves”. that. open. under. abnormally. high. pressure,. and. reinstate. their. normal.
blocking.function.once.the.pressure.subsides.to.a.nominal.level ..The.Zener.diode.
is.named.after.Clarence.Zener,.who.discovered.its.electrical.property ..The.sym-
bol.or.electronic.representation.of.a.Zener.diode.is.depicted.in.Figure.2 .4 .

Figure 2 4:.Symbol.and.diagram.for.Zener.diode

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 73

. A.Zener.diode.allows.current.to.flow.in.the.forward.direction.in.the.same.
manner.as.an.ideal.diode,.but.will.also.permit.it.to.flow.in.the.reverse.direction.
when.the.voltage.is.above.the.breakdown.voltage ..The.breakdown.voltage.is.also.
referred.to.as.the.“zener.knee.voltage,”.“zener.voltage”.or.“avalanche.point .”.Be-
cause.of.this.basic.characteristic.of.a.Zener.diode,.it.is.commonly.used.to.provide.
a.reference.voltage.for.voltage.regulators,.or.to.protect.other.semiconductor.de-
vices.from.momentary.voltage.pulses.or.excessive.voltage.“spikes .”.The.current.
response.of.a.Zener.diode.is.shown.in.Figure.2 .5 .

Figure 2 5:.Current.response.of.a.Zener.diode

Common Applications of Diodes

. Some.common.applications.of.diodes.are.as.follows:
1). Half.wave.rectifier
2). Full.wave.rectifier
3). Clamping.circuit
4). Base.clipper
5). Peak.clipper

. Among.the.diode.applications.listed.above,.the.two.most.common.ones.are.
(1).Half.Wave.Rectifier.and.(2).Full.Wave.Rectifier ..These.two.applications.are.
explored.below .

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74 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

half waVe reCtifier

. Half.wave.rectifier.is.a.circuit.consisting.of.two.core.components,.a.diode.
and. resistor .. See. Figure. 2 .6(a) ..As. shown. in. Figure. 2 .6(a),. the. sinusoidal.AC.
waveform. is. applied. to. the. input. side. of. the. diode-resistor. circuit .. The. diode,.
as.shown.in.Figure.2 .6(b),.is.the.core.“active”.component ..A.half.wave.rectifier.
circuit.banks.on.the.innate.characteristic.of.a.diode.to.allow.current.to.flow.only.
“one-way,”.in.the.forward.biased.direction ..In.other.words,.the.diode.permits.the.
current.to.flow.only.during.the.positive.half.of.the.AC.cycle ..When.the.AC.volt-
age.“dives”.into.the.negative.realm—acting.as.a.“check.valve”—the.diode.shuts.
off.the.flow.of.current ..This.response.of.the.diode.is.plotted.graphically.in.Figure.
2 .6(c),.in.form.of.a.series.of.positive.wave.crests;.average.of.which,.represents.
the.DC.voltage.produced .

Figure 2 6:.Half.wave.rectifier

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 75

. Note,.however,.that.half.wave.rectifiers.only.produce.one.positive.DC.crest.
per.AC.cycle ..The.DC.output.of.a.half.wave.rectifier.can.be.computed.through.
Eq ..2 .19 .

. . Vp
. Vdc.=. —— Eq 2 19
p

full waVe reCtifier

. Common. full. wave. rectifier. is. a. circuit. consisting. of. four. diodes. and. a.
resistor ..See.Figure.2 .7 ..The.sinusoidal.AC.waveform.applied.to.the.input.side.
of.the.four diode bridge and.resistor.circuit.is.shown.in.Figure.2 .7(a) ..The.four.
diode.bridge.configuration.shown.in.Figure.2 .7(b).is.the.essential.power.conver-
sion.segment.of.the.overall.full.wave.bridge.rectifier.circuit ..When.AC.voltage.
is.applied.between.terminals.A.and.B.on.the.input.side.of.the.diode.bridge,.as.
Vin,.the.positive.crest.of.the.sinusoidal.waveform.drives.current.through.terminal.
A,. diode. CR1,. resistor. R,. diode. CR4. to. terminal. B .. During. this. positive. crest.
initiated.flow.of.current,.diodes.CR1.and.CR4.are.forward.biased ..As.the.cur-
rent.assumes.this.course,.it.“drops”.a.positive.“half”.wave.across.the.resistor,.or.
terminals.C and.D ..This.positive.DC.crest.is.the.first.crest.from.the.left,.in.Figure.
2 .7(c) ..During.the.positive.half.of.the.AC.cycle,.diodes.CR2.and.CR3 are.reverse.
biased;.therefore,.they.do.not.conduct,.and.no.current.flows.through.the.CR2, R.
and.CR3 path .
During.the.negative.half.of.the.AC.cycle,.diodes.CR1.and.CR4.are.reverse.
biased.and.no.current.flow.through.them .However,.because.terminal.A.is.nega-
tive.during.the.negative.half.of.the.AC.cycle,.diodes.CR2.and.CR3 are.forward.
biased.and.the.current.flow.is.driven.from.terminal.B,.through.diode.CR3,.re-
sistor.R,.diode.CR2 .This.path.of.current.flow.also.results.in.a.positive.voltage.
drop,.or.positive.voltage.crest.across.terminals.C and.D ..This.positive.DC.crest.
is.represented.by.the.second crest.in.Figure.2 .7(c) ..Therefore,.one.AC.cycle.on.
the.Vin.side.results.in.two.positive.crests.on.the.Vout.side ..The.average.value.of.
the.positive.crests.shown.in.Figure.2 .7(c).represents.the.DC.output.of.this.full.
wave.bridge.rectifier.circuit ..Of.course,.the.DC.output.in.most.DC.power.supplies.
is.refined.or.corrected.into.a.straight.line.form.through.application.of.resistors,.
capacitors.and.inductors ..The.formula.for.full.wave.rectified.DC.voltage.is.repre-
sented.by.Eq ..2 .20 .

Eq 2 20

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76 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 2 7:.Full.wave.rectifier

transistors
. Similar.to.diodes,.transistors.are.semiconductor.devices ..The.approach.to.
constructing.transistors.is.similar.to.the.approach.used.for.fabrication.of.diodes ..
The.“n.and.“p”.doping.approach.employed.with.the.construction.of.transistors.is.
shown.in.Figure.2 .8 ..As.somewhat.evident.from.Figure.2 .8,.a.transistor—func-
tionally,.and.from.construction.point.of.view—appears.as.set.of.two.diodes.con-
nected.“back.to.back .”.There.are.many.types.of.transistors ..In.this.text,.we.will.
focus.on.the.type.of.transistors.referred.to.as.the.“bipolar”.or.FET,.field.effect.
transistors ..Within.the.bipolar.junction.transformer.category,.there.are.two.sub-
categories:.The.“npn”.and.the.“pnp”.transistors ..We.will.limit.our.discussion.to.
the.introduction.of.npn.type.transistors.in.this.text .
. Unlike.the.diode,.an.npn.transistor.consists.of.three.“doped”.zones:.(a).An.
n-doped.segment.that.known.as.the.“collector,”.(b).A.center.p-doped.segment.

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 77

Figure 2 8:.Bipolar.(FET).junction,.npn.transistor

referred.to.as.the.“base,”.and.(c).A.second.n-doped.segment.known.as.the.“emit-
ter .”.See.bottom.section.of.Figure.2 .8.for.the.relative.location.and.the.construc-
tion.of.an.npn.transistor ..The.interface.lines.where.the.collector—base.and.the.
base.to.emitter.regions.meet.are.referred.to.as.the.n-p,.collector.to.base.junction,.
and.the.p-n,.base.to.emitter.junction,.respectively ..As.shown.in.Figure.2 .8,.in.a.
normal.npn.transistor.application,.the.collector.to.base.junction.is.reverse.biased.
and.the.base.to.emitter.junction.is.forward.biased ..As.shown.in.Figure.2 .8,.com-
mon.configuration.and.application.of.a.transistor.resembles.a.back.to.back.con-
nection.of.two.diodes;.the.one.on.the.left.being.reverse.biased.and.the.one.on.the.
right,.forward.biased .
. The.symbol.used.to.represent.a.transistor.in.an.electrical.or.electronic.cir-
cuit.is.depicted.in.the.top.segment.of.Figure.2 .8,.with.proper.labeling.of.the.three.
terminals.of.the.transistors,.in.terms.of.collector,.base.and.emitter .

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78 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Common application of FET, bipolar junction transistors

Application of a transistor in a typical “output module” of a PLC:
A.transistor.can.be.applied.as.an.“electronic.switch”.to.execute.a.PLC.micro-
processor.command.in.the.field ..This.is.illustrated.in.form.of.a.transistor.based.
PLC.output,.operating.a.solenoid.valve,.as.shown.in.Figure.2 .9 ..Applying.ample.
positive.bias.to.the.left.of.R1.will.turn.“on”.the.npn.transistor,.causing.a.“short”.
to. ground ..This. permits. the. current. to. flow. through. the. solenoid. coil .. Flow. of.
current.through.the.solenoid.coil.generates.magnetic.flux.through.the.core.of.the.
coil,.thus.applying.magnetic.force.on.the.“plunger”.or.“pin”.in.the.core.of.the.
solenoid.coil ..Depending.on.the.design.of.the.solenoid,.the.magnetic.force.can.
either.open.or.close.the.solenoid.valve .

Figure 2 9:.Bipolar.(FET).junction.application.in.a.PLC.output.module

eleCtroniC deViCe aPPliCations on Printed CirCuit boards

. This. section. is. designed. to. provide. a. brief. introduction. to. a. common.
printed. circuit. (PCB). board. and. an. assortment. of. common. electronic. devices.

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 79

typically.installed.on.a.PCB.to.perform.control,.monitoring.and.data.collection.
functions ..Some.of.the.electronic.and.electrical.devices.identified.on.this.board.
are.explained.in.greater.detail.in.the.preceding.and.subsequent.chapters .
. The.devices.pin.pointed.in.Figure.2 .10.are.listed.below,.in.clockwise.order,.
beginning.from.the.top.right.corner:

1 .. A.toroid.type.inductor or coil.applied.for.DC.power.refining.and.filtering.
purpose .
2 .. DC.voltage regulator.applied.for.voltage.regulation.purposes ..See.Chapter.
3.for.a.comprehensive.discussion.on.regulation .
3 .. Solid. state. logic. gate. integrated circuit. micro-chip. applied. to. perform.
logic,. algorithm. and. computations. for. control. purposes ..This. type. of. IC.
consists.of.logic.gates.such.as.OR.gates,.NOR.gates,.Exclusive.OR.gates,.
AND.gates,.NAND.gates,.Flip.Flops,.etc .
4 .. A.typical,.low.voltage.electrical.fuse.for.protection.of.the.board.and.up-
stream.power.source.against.faults.and.shorts .
5 .. A.transistor,.with.collector,.base.and.emitter.pins.visible.to.the.right .
6 .. A.diode,.labeled.using.the.conventional.“CR”.prefix.based.nomenclature .
7 .. A.typical.“proprietary” integrated circuit (IC) device ..While.the.function-
al.specifications.of.such.devices.are.made.available.to.electronic.control.
engineers.for.application.purposes,.the.contents.and.design.of.such.devices.
are,.typically,.kept.confidential.and.are.not.published .

Figure 2 10:.Electrical.and.electronic.devices.on.a.printed.circuit.board-.I

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80 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Figure. 2 .11. depicts. another. segment. of. the. same. printed. circuit. control.
board ..The.devices.noted.in.this.segment.of.the.control.board,.in.clockwise.order,.
beginning.from.the.top.right.corner.are:

1 .. Power.transistor,.npn.(or.NPN);.with.collector.current.rating.of.30A.at.40V,.
capable.of.switching.at.a.maximum.frequency.200kHz ..Maximum.power.
rating.of.150W.DC ..The.black.heat.dissipating.fins.surrounding.the.power.
transistor. are. designed. to. radiate. waste. heat. and. to. protect. the. transistor.
against.overheating .
2 .. A.low.wattage.resistor.with.visible.color.coded.bands.identifying.the.resis-
tance.value.and.the.tolerance.specification.of.the.resistor .
3 .. Higher.wattage.ceramic.resistor ..Notice.the.remarkable.difference.in.the.
physical.size.and.construction.of.this.higher.wattage.and.higher.operating.
temperature.ceramic.resistor.and.its.lower.wattage.counterpart.described.
above ..The.ceramic.resistor.in.Figure.2 .11.is.encased.in.a.ceramic.enclo-
sure.to.withstand.higher.temperature.and.heat .
4 .. A.capacitor .
5 .. A.row.of.LEDs.designed.to.annunciate.the.state.of.various.inputs.received.
and.outputs.transmitted.to.electrical.and.electronic.equipment.in.the.field ..
Each.of.the.output.terminals.represents.a.hardware.based.command.from.
on-board.controls.out.to.the.field .

Figure 2 11:.Electrical.and.electronic.devices.on.a.printed.circuit.board-.II

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 81

. An.important.feature.that.is.instrumental.in.minimizing.the.time.it.takes.
to.replace.a.control.board,.in.case.of.board.malfunction,.is.the.“quick.connect/
disconnect”.type.terminal.strip—labeled.as.(1)—shown.on.the.right.side.to.the.
control.board.(PCB),.as.shown.in.Figure.2 .12 ..Prior.to.the.advent.of.this.quick.
connect/disconnect. type. terminal. strip,. board. replacement. required. meticulous.
examination. and. care. in. reading. the. electrical. drawings,. identification. of. each.
wire.and.terminal,.and.finally,.exercise.of.proper.craftsmanship.in.termination.of.
wires.to.ensure.correct.and.reliable.electrical.connections ..The.lack.of.such.dili-
gence.resulted.in.miswiring,.electrical.faults,.extensive.troubleshooting.period,.
prolonged.commissioning.time,.etc .
. When. disconnecting. a. control. board,. the. quick. connect/disconnect. ter-
minal. strip,. shown. in. Figure. 2 .12,. allows. technicians. and. engineers. to. simply.
pull.off.the.connector,.with.reasonable.certainty.that.wires.will.remain.securely.
intact.for.quick.reinstallation ..Since.all.wires.normally.remain.terminated.in.the.
connector,.once.the.new.(replacement).board.is.physically.secured.in.place,.the.
connector.is.pushed/plugged.onto.the.connecting.edge.of.the.new.board ..Note.
that.the.circuit.boards.and.respective.connectors.are,.typically,.equipped.with.an.
interlocking.feature.to.prevent.incorrect.orientation.of.the.connector ..As.obvious,.
incorrect.insertion.of.the.connector.onto.the.board.can.result.in.electrical.faults.
and.damage.to.the.electrical.devices .
. The. picture. of. the. circuit. board. in. Figure. 2 .12. also. shows. a. set. of. two.
LED’s,. labeled. as. item. (2) ..These. LEDs. serve. as. indicators. of. certain. control.
conditions.or.signals .

Figure 2 12:.Electrical.and.electronic.devices.on.a.printed.circuit.board—III

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82 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

`Three. devices. pointed. out. on. the. circuit. board. pictured. in. Figure. 2 .13. are. as.
follows:

1 .. A.large.size.circuit.board.capacitor

2 .. Higher.wattage.ceramic.resistor ..Notice.the.legend.on.the.right.side.of.the.
resistor ..Typically,.this.legend.includes.the.resistance.value.and.power.ca-
pacity.specifications .

3 .. Metal.oxide.varistor,.rated.100J.(100.Joules).and.1.kVA ..Metal.oxide.va-
ristor,.also.referred.to.as.MOV,.serves.as.stray.energy.arresting.device.on.
electronic. circuits. and. electrical. systems,. in. general .. In. this. capacity,. an.
MOV.serves.to.absorb.voltage.spikes.and.rogue.energy.that.might.other-
wise.spread.around.various.parts.of.a.circuit.board.or.electrical.control.sys-
tem ..Stray.energy.or.voltage.spikes,.left.unchecked,.can.damage.integrated.
circuits,. or. IC. semiconductor. chips .. ICs. are. relatively. sensitive .. They.
operate.at.low.voltages,.typically,.at.around.5.volts.DC ..The.MOV.in.this.
particular.case,.as.visible.in.the.picture,.is.designed.to.absorb.a.maximum.
of.100.Joules.of.electrical.energy ..The.“rate.of.absorption.of.this.energy,”.
or.the.power.absorption.capacity,.is.labeled.on.the.MOV.as.1.kVA;.to.be.
exact,.the.apparent.power.(S).rating.of.this.MOV.is.1,000.volt.amperes .

Figure 2 13:.Electrical.and.electronic.devices.on.a.printed.circuit.board-.IV

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 83

Self-assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 2

1 Determine.the.following.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.R1.=.5Ω,.R2.=.
R3=10Ω,.and.R4.=.R5.=.20Ω:
a).. Current.flowing.through.resistor.R1
b). Voltage.across.resistor.R5

2 ... What.is.the.current.through.the.6.Ω.resistor.in.the.circuit.shown.below?

3 ... Find.the.current.through.the.0 .5.Ω.resistor.in.the.circuit.shown.below .

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84 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

4 ... Determine.the.value.of.currents.I1,.I2.and.I3.in.the.circuit.shown.below.if.
the.voltage.source.V3.fails.in.short.circuit.mode ..The.specifications.of.all.
components.are.listed.in.the.table.below:

5 ... Use.current.division.to.determine.the.value.of.current.I1.in.the.circuit.be-
low:

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DC Circuit Analysis and Basic Electronic Devices 85

6 .. Using.Kirchhoff’s.voltage.law,.calculate.the.current.circulating.in.the.se-
ries.resistor.network.below:

7 .. Determine.the.value.of.voltage.source.current.in.the.parallel.circuit.below.
using.KCL,.Kirchhoff’s.Current.Law .
Ancillary question:.If.one.of.the.5Ω.resistors.is.removed.(or.replaced.with.
an. open. circuit). and. the. other. one. is. replaced. with. a. short. circuit,. what.
would.be.the.source.current?

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 3

Alternating Current (AC)

Fundamentals
Introduction
. This.chapter.begins.with.an.introduction.to.AC,.i .e ..alternating.current,.
and.segues.into.a.comparison.between.AC.and.DC ..This.comparison.accentu-
ates. the. complexity. of.AC. as. compared. with. DC. due. to. the. use. of. complex.
numbers. and. vectors. for. complete. representation. of.AC. entities. and. param-
eters ..In.this.chapter,.we.get.an.opportunity.to.appreciate.how.the.complexity.
of.AC.is.amplified.by.three.phase.AC.consideration.in.more.common,.industrial.
and.commercial.applications ..In.an.effort.to.allow.readers.ample.opportunity.to.
explore.and.learn.basic,.single.and.three.phase.AC.principles.and.mathemati-
cal.computations,.we.introduce.various.single.and.three.phase.AC.functions,.
equations. and. mathematical. techniques;. reinforced. by. examples. and. self-
assessments.problems ..The.depth.to.which.the.readers.may.endeavor.to.explore.
the.topics.in.this.chapter.depends.on.their.need,.appetite.and.aptitude .
Due.to.the.practical.applications.of.the.process.of.electrodeposition,.in.
the. coatings. industry—and. the. innate. relationship. between. electrodeposition.
and.electricity—this.process.will.be.defined.and.illustrated.through.equations.
and. practical. numerical. examples ..This. chapter. provides. the. reader. an. intro-
duction.to.AC.electrical.transformers.of.various.types;.single.phase.and.three.
phase ..Of.course,.similar.to.other.topics.in.this.text,.the.concepts,.principles,.
equations. and. applications. in. this. chapter. are. illustrated. with,. analogies,. nu-
merical.examples.and.end.of.the.chapter.problems ..All.in.all,.this.chapter.pro-
vides.an.adequate.introduction.to.alternating.current.and.prepares.the.reader.for.
intermediate.level.study.of.AC.concepts .

alternating Current (aC) Versus direCt Current (dC)

. The.contrast.between.AC.and.DC.isn’t.just.rooted.in.physics.but.goes.as.
far.back.as.the.1800s.when,.for.a.period.of.time,.both.vied.for.the.residential,.
commercial. and. industrial. markets .. Electricity. was. first. discovered. and. har-
nessed,.mostly,.in.the.DC,.or.direct.current.form ..However,.due.to.the.physical.
constraints.associated.with.transmission,.distribution.and.application.of.DC.in.

87
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88 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

industrial,.commercial.and.residential.applications,.AC.vanquished.DC.in.the.
power.distribution.arena ..Nevertheless,.today,.DC,.holds.its.own.in.low.voltage.
control.and.digital.logic.applications ..In.fact,.albeit.rare,.DC.is.being.reintro-
duced.in.the.ultra-high.voltage.realm ..The.900,000.Volt.DC.transmission.line.
system.project,.currently.underway.in.India,.would.serve.as.a.more.contempo-
rary.testimonial.in.that.regard ..This.ultra-high.DC.voltage.system.is.expected.
to.redistribute.surplus.power.from.India’s.hydroelectric.rich.north.east.region.
to.the.energy.starved,.high.growth,.central.region .
. If. we. could. attribute. the. acceptance. of.AC. for. residential,. commercial.
and.industrial.applications.to.one.pivotal.entity,.it.would.be.the.transformer.
and.concept.of.voltage transformation ..In.essence,.when.DC.was.first.distrib-
uted.and.transmitted.to.end.users,.it.was.at.a.fixed.voltage.level.because.DC.
voltage.transformation.was.not.feasible ..Due.to.resistance.in.the.transmission.
lines—as.stipulated.by.Ohm’s.Law:.V = IR—the.DC.power.generators.had.to.
be.located.in.the.vicinity.of.the.consumers.to.mitigate.the.undesirable.voltage.
regulation. issues .. Longer. transmission. runs. resulted. in. higher. resistance,. or.
“R,”. which,. in. turn,. resulted. in. larger. voltage. drop,. “V .”. In. the. mechanical.
fluids.realm,.this.would.be.analogous.to.unacceptable.pressure.drop—due.to.
frictional.head.losses—if.fluid.is.distributed.over.extended.distances.without.
some.sort.of.booster.pumps .
. Introduction.of.AC.accompanied.practical.means.for.“stepping.up”.and.
“stepping.down”.of.voltage.through.the.use.of.transformers ..So,.AC.could.be.
generated.at,.for.instance,.4,000.volts,.stepped.up.to.100,000.volts—through.
the. application. of. transformers—for. transmission. purposes,. and. miles. away,.
it.could.be.stepped.down.to.usable.levels,.such.as,.480.volt,.240.volts.or.120.
volts ..That.is,.mostly,.the.way.AC.is.generated,.transmitted.and.distributed.to.
consumers,.today .
. We.learnt.earlier.that.movement.of.electrons,.or.other.charged.particles,.
constitutes.electrical.current ..When.the.charged.particles.move.in.one.specific.
direction—such.that.there.is.a.net.displacement.in.their.position,.or.when.the.
charged.particles.travel.a.net.distance—direct current,.or DC.is.said.to.exist ..
On.the.other.hand,.when.the.electrons.or.charged.particles.oscillate.or.vibrate.
about.a.point—similar.to.a.pendulum—such.motion.of.charged.particles.con-
stitutes.alternating current, or AC .
. If.voltage.and.current.were.plotted.on.Cartesian.Coordinates,.the.result-
ing.graphs.would.be.as.depicted.in.Figures.3 .1.and.3 .2,.respectively ..In.fact,.if.
AC.voltage,.DC.voltage.and.current.were.compared.using.an.oscilloscope*,.the.
*Oscilloscope. is. an. electrical. instrument. used. to. graphically. view. and. analyze. voltage,. current,.

frequency.or.power.performance.of.electrical.or.electronic.systems.or.circuits .

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 89

graph.displayed.on.the.screen.would.be.similar.to.voltage.and.current.graphs.
shown.in.Figures.3 .1.and.3 .2,.respectively .

Figure 3 1: Voltage.comparison,.AC.versus.DC

As.we.examine.Figure.3 .1,.we.see.that.the.two.horizontal.flat.lines.rep-
resent.DC.voltage,.plotted.on.two.dimensional.X-Y.coordinates ..The.lower.flat.
line.represents.a.typical.12.volt.automotive.battery ..The.upper.flat.line,.labeled.
100.Volt.DC,.represents.the.DC.equivalent.of.110.VRMS,.or.156.Vpeak—i .e ..the.
typical.US.electrical.outlet.voltage ..The.100.Volt.DC.equivalent.of.110.VRMS.
applies. to. the. DC. power. derived. through. full. wave. rectification. of.AC. input.
power ..The.conversion.of.AC.to.DC.and.associated.computations.are.illustrated.
through.Example.3 .1.and.equations.introduced.in.the.electrodeposition.section .
. Further. exploration. of. Figure. 3 .1. reveals. that. the. x-axis. (or. abscissa).
represents.time,.t,.in.seconds ..The.Y-axis.(or.ordinate).represents.the.voltage.
magnitude,. V,. in. volts .. The. sine. waveform,. oscillating. about. the. time. axis,.
represents.the.AC.voltage,.varying.as.a.function.of.time,.t .
DC.and.AC.currents.can.also.be.contrasted.using.graphical.representa-
tions,. in. a. manner. similar. to. the. DC. and.AC. voltage. comparison. conducted.
above ..The.DC.and.AC.current.functions.are.depicted.in.Figure.3 .2.in.a.form.
that.is.similar.to.their.voltage.counterparts ..The.horizontal.flat.line.represents.
the. DC. current. set. up. by. virtue. of. the. DC. voltage. of. the. DC. power. source;.
which.can.be.a.battery.or.a.DC.power.supply ..The.Y-axis.of.this.current vs.
time.plot.represents.the.current.magnitude,.I,.in.Amps ..The.DC.current,.in.this.
case,.is.assumed.to.be.a.constant.3A ..The.sine.waveform,.oscillating.about.the.
time.axis,.represents.the.AC.current,.I(t),.varying.as.a.function.of.time,.t ..The.

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90 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

peak.or.maximum.value.of.the.AC.current,.in.this.case.is.assumed.to.be.10A ..
Note. that. in. this. illustration,. the.AC. current. appears. to. be. surfacing. into. the.
positive.current.territory.at.time.t1 ..If.one.were.to.assume.that.this.current.was.
produced. or. driven. by. the. voltage. depicted. in. Figure. 3 .1,. where. the. voltage.
broaches.through.the.x-axis.at.time.t.=.0,.one.could.say.that.the.current.is.lag-
ging behind the voltage ..As.we.will.explore.later,.in.greater.depth,.in.the.power.
factor.section,.such.a.situation.where.current.lags.behind.the.voltage.is.said.to.
cause.a.lagging power factor .

Figures 3 2:.Current.comparison,.AC.versus.DC

eleCtrodePosition—dC and the aVerage Value of aC

. Electrodeposition,. as. mentioned. earlier,. plays. an. important. role. in. the.
coatings.operations ..Simply.put,.it.involves.the.use.of.electrical.charge.for.the.
deposition.of.paint.pigments.to.metallic.surfaces ..When.electrical.charge.is.used.
to.transport.paint.pigments.to.a.metallic.surface,.the.pigments.tend.to.penetrate.
and.adhere.to.the.metal.surface.more.strongly,.uniformly.and.durably.than.if.the.
surface. were. painted. through. the. traditional. spray. or. brush. painting. methods ..
Since.electro.deposition.process.involves.net.displacement.of.relocation.of.the.
pigments,.DC.electrical.current.and.voltage.have.to.be.employed ..AC.voltage,.
due.to.the.periodic.oscillation.or.reversal.of.voltage.in.the.positive.and.negative.
realms,.would.not.deliver.the.net.displacement.of.the.pigment.particles .
. In. electro. deposition. or. electroplating. scenarios,. often. the. amount. of.
electroplating. required. is. specified. in. form. of. the. amount. of. charge. that. is.
needed.to.be.transferred.in.order.to.achieve.a.certain.thickness.of.electroplating.
or.electrodeposition ..The.basic.equation.that.is.useful.in.determining.how.long.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 91

a.known.amount.of.DC.current.must.be.passed.in.order.to.achieve.the.required.
charge.transfer.is:

Eq 3 1

Where,.q.=.charge.in.coulombs.of.faradays,.IDC.=.DC.current.and.t.=.time.in.
seconds ..Note.that.symbols.“q”.and.“Q”.may.be.used.interchangeably.to.denote.
charge .
. Conversion. of.AC. voltage. into. DC. voltage,. accomplished. through. the.
full.wave.rectification,.can.be.quantified.using.the.following.equation:

Eq 3 2

Where,

Eq 3 3

In. order. to. derive. the. DC. current. needed. to. compute. the. duration. of.
electrodeposition,. the. effective. resistance. of. the. plating. tank,. with. paint—or.
liquid.pigment.solution—is.needed ..This.effective.resistance.can.be.measured ..
With.the.effective.resistance.known,.the.DC.current.can.be.calculated.using.the.
Ohm’s.law:

Eq 3 4

. A.common.computation.associated.with.application.of.AC.and.DC.in.the.
electrodeposition.process.is.illustrated.in.Example.3 .1 .

Example 3 1
A.plating.tank.with.an.effective.resistance.of.150.ohm.is.connected.to.the.out-
put.of.a.full-wave.rectifier ..The.AC.supply.voltage.is.120Vrms ..Determine.the.
amount.of.time.it.would.take.to.perform.0 .01.Faradays.worth.of.electroplating?

Solution:
Background/Theory:. The. amount. or. coating. or. electroplating. being.
accomplished.in.this.example.is.specified.in.terms.of.the.electrical.charge.that.

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92 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

must.be.moved.or.transferred;.which.in.this.case.is.specified.in.Faradays ..Fara-
day.is.a.unit.for.quantifying.electrical.charge,.similar.to.Coulomb .

. 1.amp.=.1.Coulomb/sec
Or,
. 1(A) .(s).=.1.C
And,
. 96,487.Coulomb.=.1.faraday

. Therefore,.the.amount.of.charge.transfer,.in.Coulombs,.in.this.electrode-
position.case,.would.be:

. Since.we.are.interested.in.the.amount.of.time.it.takes.to.transfer.a.known.
amount.of.charge,.rearrangement.of.Eq ..3 .1.results.in:
. . q
. t.=. —
. . I

. The. next. step. entails. determination. of. the. DC. current. produced. by. the.
full.wave.rectification.of.120.Vmax.AC ..The.net.effect.of.full.wave.rectification.
of.AC.into.DC.is.illustrated.through.the.graphs.depicted.in.Figures.(a).and.(b),.
below ..The.graph.in.Figure.(a).shows.the.AC.waveform.on.the.input side.of.a.
full.wave.rectifier .

Figure (a)

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 93

The.graph.in.Figure.(b).shows.the.DC.output side.of.a.full.wave.rectifier;.
the.net.effect.being.the.“flipping”.or.reversing.of.the.negative.troughs.of.the.
AC.waveform.such.that.the.resulting.output.waveform.has.a.definite.average
value ..Note.that.the.average.of.the.sinusoidal.AC.waveform.is.zero.because.the.
AC.voltage.or.current.dwells.the.same.amount.of.time.in.the.positive.realm—or.
above.the.x-axis—as.it.does.in.the.negative.realm,.or.below.the.x-axis ..In.other.
words,.on.the.AC.side,.since.the.total.positive area.portended.by.the.voltage.or.
current.graphs.equals.the.corresponding.negative.areas.on.the.AC input.side.
of.the.rectifier,.the.average.value.is.zero,.and.the.DC.content—voltage.or.cur-
rent—on.the.AC.input.side.is.zero .

Figure (b)

. Based.on.the.data.provided,.we.must.first.convert.the.given.Vrms.voltage.
into.Vmax.using.Eq ..3 .3,.and.then.compute.VDC by.applying.Eq ..3 .2 ..As.shown.
below,.these.two.steps.are.followed.by.the.application.of.Ohms.Law,.in.form.of.
Eq ..3 .4,.to.compute.the.DC.current,.IDC .

Eq 3 3

Eq 3 2

And,

Eq 3 4

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94 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Then,.application.of.Eq ..3 .1.yields:

. . 964 .87.Coulombs
. t.=. ————————. =.1340.seconds
. . 0 .72.Coulombs/sec

alternating Current and imPedanCe

. As.explained.briefly.in.Chapter.1,.impedance.is.the.current.opposing.or.
current.impeding.characteristic.of.a.load.(or.conductor).in.an.AC.circuit ..As.
implied.in.the.definition.of.this.term,.impedance.is.an.alternating.current.(AC).
entity ..While.in.DC.circuits.the.factor.that.opposes.the.flow.of.current.is.resis-
tance,.the.entity.that.influences.the.flow.of.AC.current.is.impedance ..Imped-
ance,.like.AC.current,.voltage.and.power,.is.a.vector.entity.and,.therefore,.it.can.
be.fully.defined.by.two.key.characteristics,.the.magnitude.and.the.direction .

Mathematical and Geometric Representation of Complex AC Entities

. Vector,.complex.number.based.entities,.such.as.impedance,.AC.current.
and.voltage.can.be.expressed.or.quantified.in.the.following.forms:

a). Polar.or.Phasor.form
b). Rectangular.form
c). Sinusoidal.form
d). Exponential.form

Polar or Phasor form

. The. terms. polar. and. phasor. are. used. synonymously .. Phasor. or. polar.
representation. of.AC. entities. such. as. impedance,. current,. voltage. and. power.
requires.definition.of.the.magnitude.of.the.respective.entity.and.the.direction.
in.degrees.(°) ..The.polar/phasor.representation.of.AC current.would.be.repre-
sented.as.follows:

I.=.Im∠θ°. Eq ..3 .5

Where,.I.is.the.vector.or.complex.value.of.AC.current ..The.magnitude.of.the.
overall.AC.current,.unless.otherwise.specified,.is.the.maximum.or.peak.value,.
and.is.denoted.by.Im ..In.the.phasor.representation.of.AC.current.above,.θ°.is.
the.angle.of.the.AC.current .
. As.an.example.of.phasor/polar.representation.of.AC.current,.consider.a.
current.I.=.10∠30°.A ..In.this.phasor.representation.of.AC.current,.10.repre-

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 95

sents.the.peak.or.maximum.magnitude.of.AC.current.in.amps,.and.30°.repre-
sents.the.angle.of.the.current ..This.is.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .3 ..This.perception.
or.understanding.of.AC.current,.as.a.vector,.is.analogous.to.the.role.of.a.force.
vector.in.mechanical.or.civil.engineering.realms;.such.as,.in.the.study.of.stat-
ics,.where,.the.magnitude.of.a.vector.entity.such.as.force.may.be.defined.in.
Newtons.(N).or.pounds.force.(lbf).and.the.direction.of.the.force.in.degrees .

Figure 3 3:.Vector.representation.of.phasor.value.of.AC.current

. Note.that.in.most.practical.applications.and.computations,.the.root.mean.
square.value.of.current,.or.Irms,.is.used.instead.of.the.maximum/peak.magni-
tude.of.current.Imax ..For.instance,.the.overcurrent.protection.devices,.i .e .,.fuses,.
breakers—and. circuit. isolation. apparatus. like. the. disconnect. switches—to.
name.a.few,.are.specified.in.rms.terms ..The.same.is.true.for.AC.voltages .

reCtangular form
. Rectangular. representation. of.AC. entities. such. as. impedance,. current,.
voltage. and. power. entails. numerical. definition. of. those. entities. in. form. of.
horizontal.and.vertical,.vector,.components ..An.AC.current.of.10∠30°.A.rms,.
represented.in.the.polar.or.phasor.form,.can.be.translated.to.the.corresponding.
rectangular.for.as:.8 .66.+.j5.A.rms;.where.the.horizontal.component.of.8 .66A.
represents.the.“real”.component.of.the.overall.AC.current.and.5A.represents.the.
“imaginary”.or.“reactive”.component.of.the.overall.AC.current ..This.conver-
sion.of.the.AC.current.from.its.phasor.to.rectangular.form.can.be.accomplished.
through.a.scientific.calculator.or.by.performing.trigonometric.calculations ..The.
trigonometric.approach.would.involve.the.computation.of.horizontal.and.verti-

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96 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

cal.components.of.the.rectangular.form,.as.follows:

Ireal.=.10Cos30°.=.10(0 .866).=.8 .66.A

And,
Ireactive.=.10Sin30°.=.10(0 .5).=.5.A

. In.the.mechanical.engineering.or.kinetics.realm,.the.rectangular.represen-
tation.of.AC.current.would.be.similar.to.the.representation.of.a.10∠30°.mph.
velocity.vector.in.form.of.its.horizontal.and.vertical.components.as.8 .66.mph.
and.5.mph,.respectively .

sinusoidal or trigonometriC form

. The.sinusoidal.representation.of.AC.parameters.or.entities.involves.the.
application.of.trigonometry ..Sinusoidal.representation.of.an.AC.entity,.such.as.
AC.voltage,.would.be.a.follows:

V.=.V(t).=.VmSin(ωt.+.θ). Eq 3 6

Where,.“V”.and.V(t).denote.sinusoidal.AC.voltage,.Vm.is.the.maximum.or.peak.
voltage,. ω. represents. the. angular. frequency,. in. rad/sec,. and. θ. represents. the.
angle.of.the.AC.voltage,.in.degrees ..Figure.3 .4,.depicts.this.AC.voltage.func-
tion.in.the.graphical.form .

Figure 3 4 Graphical.representation.of.sinusoidal.voltage

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 97

Note.that.the.AC.current.I,.or.I(t),.would.be.represented.by.a.graph,.very.
similar. to. the. voltage. V(t). graph,. with. the. exception. of. the. fact. that. the. I(t).
wave.form.would.be.shifted.to.the.left.or.right.of.the.voltage.wave.form,.de-
pending.upon.whether.the.reactance.of.the.AC.load.is.predominantly.inductive.
or.capacitive ..This.is.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .5.by.a.sinusoidal.voltage.and.cur-
rent.graph.of.a.scenario.with.predominantly.inductive.load;.where,.the.current.
is.lagging.the.voltage .

Figure 3 5 Graphical.contrast.between.AC.voltage.and.current.wave.forms

Continuing.with.our.example.of.the.10∠30°.A.rms.AC.current,.we.can.
illustrate.its.sinusoidal.AC.form.by.converting.the.phasor.AC.rms.current.value.
into.its.sinusoidal.form.as:

I(t).=.Irms.Sin.(ωt.+.θ°).A-rms,.in.the.general.form,. Eq 3 7

And,
I(t).=.10.Sin.(377t.+.30°).A-rms,.in.this.specific.case .

Since,

In. peak. or. maximum. value. form,. the. sinusoidal. representation. would. be. as.
follows:

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98 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

I(t).=.14 .1.Sin.(377t.+.30°).A

. Where,.the.coefficient.14 .1.represents.the.maximum value.of.the.current,.

in.amps.(A),.and.30°.represents.the.angle.of.the.current ..The.377.coefficient.of.
time.“t”.represents,.ω,.the.angular.frequency.of.AC.in.radians.per.second ..This.
value.of.377.rad/sec.is.derived.from.the.standard.US.alternating.current.source.
frequency.of.60.Hz,.or.60.cycles/sec ..The.AC.frequency.in.Great.Britain.and.
some.of.the.former.British.colonies.is.50.Hz ..The.conversion.from.60.Hz.to.377.
rad/sec.can.be.explained.mathematically.as.follows:

. ω. =.2 .π .f. Eq 3 8
. . =.2 .(3 .14) .(60).=.377.rad/sec

exPonential form
. The. exponential. representation. of. an.AC. parameter—whether. it. is. cur-
rent,.voltage,.impedance.or.power—is.somewhat.similar.in.form.to.the.polar/
phasor. form ..This. is. because. the. exponential. form. consists. of. the. maximum.
value.and.the.angle ..For.instance,.the.14 .1∠30°amp.AC.current.example.we.
discussed.earlier,.would.be.represented.in.the.exponential.form.as.follows:

I. =.Imejθ. Eq 3 9
=.14 .1ej30.A

imPedanCe analysis
. The.concept.of.impedance.was.introduced.in.Chapter.1 ..In.this.section,.
we.will.cover.mathematical.and.graphical.representation.and.basic.computa-
tional.methods.pertaining.to.impedance ..Because.impedance.is.a.vector,.it.can.
be.drawn.or.depicted.as.an.arrow.whose.length.represents.the.magnitude.of.the.
impedance.while.its.orientation,.expressed.in.degrees,.represents.the.angle.of.
the.impedance ..Since.a.vector.can.be.analyzed.or.split.into.its.horizontal.and.
vertical.components,.impedance.“Z”.can.be.drawn.in.the.vector.diagram.for-
mat.as.shown.in.Figure.3 .6 .
. As.introduced.in.Chapter.1,.when.an.AC.circuit.is.consists.of.resistance,.
capacitance.and.inductance,.impedance.Z.can.be.stated.mathematically.in.form.
of.equations.3 .10.and.3 .11 .
. The.unit.for.impedance.is.ohm,.or.Ω;.similar.to.the.unit.for.resistance,.R,.
capacitive.reactance,.Xc,.and.inductive.reactance,.XL ..Consistency.of.units.be-
tween.R, XL, XC.and.Z.is.requisite.for.the.following.mathematical.definitions.
for.Z to.hold.true:

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 99

Figure 3 6:.Graphical.representation.of.impedance.Z in.vector.form

Z.=.R + Zl + Zc. Eq 3 10

Z.=.R + jXl - jXc. Eq 3 11

It’s.obvious.from.examination.of.the.above.two.equations.that:

Zl = jXl Eq 3 12

Zc = -jXc Eq 3 13

. Where,.Zl.is.the.impedance.contribution.by.the.inductance.in.the.AC.cir-
cuit.and.Zc is.the.impedance.contribution.by.the.capacitance.in.the.AC.circuit ..
The.units.for.all.impedances.are.ohms,.or.Ω .
. Complete. comprehension. of.AC. circuit. analysis. and. associated. com-
putations.requires.basic.appreciation.of.how.AC.circuit.components,.such.as.
resistances,. capacitances. and. inductances,. are. converted. into. their. respective.
impedance.contributions.before.they.are.consolidated.into.an.overall.equiva-
lent.or.combined.impedance ..In.most.cases,.the.derivation.of.other.AC.circuit.
parameters,.such.as.current,.voltage.and.power,.is.undertaken.after.determina-
tion.of.the.total.or.equivalent.impedance .

Example 3 2
. Determine. the. equivalent,. or. total,. impedance. ZEq. and. the. source. rms.
current,.I,.in.the.AC.series.circuit.below .

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100 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. According.to.Eq ..3 .10.and.Eq ..3 .11:

Z.=.R + Zl + Zc. Eq 3 10

. Or, Z.=.R + jXl - jXc. Eq 3 11

Current “I” calculation:

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 101

Example 3 3
. Determine.the.equivalent,.or.total,.impedance.ZEq.and.the.rms.value.of.
the.source.current.I.in.the.AC.parallel.circuit.below .

Solution:
. Solution.strategy:.Convert.the.given.inductance.value.of.L.=.3.mH.into.
its.equivalent.inductive.reactance.XL,.and.subsequently.into.its.impedance.con-
tribution.ZL ..Then,.combine.the.resistance.R.and.ZL.values.into.the.equivalent.
impedance.ZEq.by.applying.the.formula.for.combination.of.parallel.circuit.ele-
ments .

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102 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Current “I” calculation:

transformers
. Earlier.in.this.chapter,.we.introduced.the.concept.of.transformers.and.the.
historically.pivotal.role.transformers.played.in.the.predominant.acceptance.of.
AC.over.DC ..In.this.section,.we.will.explore.the.technical.principles,.applica-
tions. and. computations. associated. with. single. phase. transformers .. We. will.
touch.on.some.fundamental.characteristics.of.three.phase.transformers,.as.well .
. Let’s.begin.by.exploring.the.construction.of.a.simple,.single.phase,.AC.
transformer.based.on.our.first.introduction.of.magnetic.flux.in.Chapter.1 ..We.
will.build.upon.the.toroidal.core.example.we.introduced.in.Chapter.1.by.adding.
an.AC.voltage.source.to.the.conductor.coiled.onto.the.left.side.of.the.core,.as.
shown.in.Figure.3 .7,.and.by.winding.Ns.number.of.turns.of.a.conductor.on.the.
right.side.of.the.same.toroidal.core ..This.converts.the.toroidal.core.into.a.basic.
transformer.with.Np.number.of.turns coiled.on.the.AC.source.side.and.Ns.turns.
on.the.side.that.is.connected.to.the.load .

Figure 3 7

Primary and Secondary Side of a Transformer:.The.side.or.segment.of.

the.transformer.that.is.connected.to.the.power.source.is.referred.to.as.the.pri-
mary.side ..The.segment.of.the.transformer.that.is.connected.to.the.load.is.called.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 103

the.secondary.side ..Note.that.the.toroidal.transformer.depiction.in.Figure.3 .7.

above.is.simplified.for.voltage.transformation.principle.illustration.purpose ..In.
actual,.practical.and.commercial.applications,.the.primary.and.secondary.wind-
ings.of.a.toroidal core transformer.are.concentric,.with.the.core.in.the.center.
as.shown.in.the.Figure.3 .8.below .

Figure 3 8: Toroidal.core.transformer.by.Omegatron®

. Even.though.we.used.a.toroidal.core.in.this.basic.transformer.example,.
we.could.have.used.a.more.common.rectangular.or.square.core.which.would.
make.this.transformer.resemble.an.ordinary.transformer.as.shown.in.Figure.3 .9.
below .

Figure 3 9: Ideal.transformer.with.complete.primary.and.secondary.circuits .

. As. we. examine. Figures. 3 .7. and. 3 .9,. we. notice. that. one. of. the. voltage.
source. (VAC). terminals. is. grounded ..This. permits. the. other. terminal. to. serve.
as.the.higher.potential,.or.“hot,”.terminal ..Hence,.the.current.flows.from.left.
to.right,.or.in.the.clockwise.direction.through.the.primary.circuit.of.the.trans-
former ..Applying.the.right.hand.rule,.as.explained.in.Chapter.1,.would.result.in.

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104 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

a.clockwise.magnetic.flux.ф.through.the.core ..On.the.secondary.side,.through.
converse.application.of.the.right.hand.rule,.the.clockwise.core.flux.ф.results.in.
the.induction.of.current.emerging.from.the.top.left.side.of.the.secondary.circuit ..
This.induced.current.flows.in.a.clockwise.fashion.through.the.load.as.shown.
in.Figure.3 .9 ..Note.that.the.direction.of.flow.of.AC.current,.on.the.primary.or.
secondary.sides.of.the.transformer,.signifies.the.direction of flow of AC power
or AC energy,.from.the.source.to.the.load .
. The Dot Convention for Transformers:.The.dots.shown,.in.Figures.3 .7.
and. 3 .9,. on. the. primary. and. secondary. sides. of. the. transformer,. indicate. the.
direction of each winding relative to the others ..Voltages.measured.at.the.dot.
end.of.each.winding.are.in.phase ..In.other.words,.they have the same angle ..By.
convention,.the.current.flowing.into.the dot end of a primary coil.will.result.in.
current.flowing.out.of.the.dot end of a secondary coil
. Ideal vs Real Transformers:.A. thorough. and. comprehensive. study.
of. “real”. transformers. is. complex .. Core. and. winding. losses. in. most. real.
transformers.constitute.a.small.percentage—less.than.5%—of.the.total.power.
transformed .. Therefore,. for. simplicity,. transformer. circuit. analyses. are. often.
conducted.on.the.premise.that.they.are.“ideal”.and.“lossless .”.This.means.that.
the. power. fed. into. an. ideal. transformer,. on. the. primary. side,. is. equal. to. the.
power.put.out.on.the.secondary.side ..In.this.text,.we.will.limit.the.scope.of.our.
discussion.to.ideal.transformers,.with.just.a.brief.introduction.to.the.concept.of.
core.and.winding.losses.associated.with.real.transformers .
. An.ideal.transformer.can.be.modeled.as.shown.in.Figure.3 .10 .
. The.two.parallel.vertical.lines,.in.the.middle.of.the.ideal.transformer.dia-
gram.shown.in.Figure.3 .10,.represent.the.assumption.that.the.core.of.an.ideal.
transformer.consists.of.a.ferromagnetic.or.magnetic.material .
. Some. of. the. formulas. that. govern. relationships. between. various. basic.
operational.parameters.of.an.ideal.transformer.are.as.follows:

. . NP
. Turns.Ratio.=.a.=.——. Eq 3 12
. . NS

. . Eq 3 13

. . Eq 3 14

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 105

Figure 3 10: Ideal transformer model

. . Eq 3 15

Where,
. Np.=.Number.of.winding.turns.on.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer
. Ns =.Number.of.winding.turns.on.the.secondary.side
. Vp.=.Voltage.applied.on.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer
. Vs.=.Voltage.on.the.secondary.side.of.the.transformer
. Ip =.Current.flowing.through.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer
. Is =.Current.flowing.through.the.secondary.side.of.the.transformer
. S1-ф.=. Single.phase.AC.power.being.transmitted.by.the.transformer

. Since.turns.ratio.a.represents.a.ratio.of.the.primary.turns.to.secondary.
turns,.it.is.unit-less ..Voltages.and.currents.referred.to,.typically,.in.transformer.
circuit.analysis.and.specifications,.are.in.RMS.form ..Also,.when.transformer.
voltages.and.currents.are.measured.using.voltmeters.and.clamp-on.ammeters,.
respectively,.the.resulting.measurements.are.in.RMS.form ..This.is.the.reasons.
why.many.brands.of.voltmeters.and.ammeters.are.labeled.as.True RMS Volt-
meters.and.True RMS Ammeters,.respectively ..In.Eq ..3 .15,.S1-ф.represents.the.
single.phase.AC.power;.or,.to.be.more.accurate,.AC.apparent.power,.S ..Appar-
ent.power.is.discussed,.in.greater.detail,.in.Chapter.4 ..Practical.significance.of.
the.ideal.transformer.equations.is.illustrated.through.Example.3 .4

Example 3 4
. The. primary. of. the. transformer. shown. in. Figure. 3 .9. is. fed. from. a. 120.
VAC.source ..As.apparent.from.the.circuit.diagram,.the.transformer.has.four.(4).
turns.on.the.primary.and.eight.(8).turns.on.the.secondary ..The.current.measured.
on.the.primary,.using.a.clamp-on.ammeter,.is.2A ..Determine.the.following.un-

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106 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

known.parameters:
. (a).Turns.ratio
. (b).Secondary.current,.Is
. (c).Secondary.voltage,.Vs

Solution:
. The.scenario.described.in.this.example.can.be.illustrated.pictorially.by.
annotating.the.circuit.diagram.Figure.3 .9.as.follows:

(a).According.to.ideal.transformer.equation.Eq ..3 .12,

. . NP
. Turns.Ratio.=.a.=. ——
. . NS

As.given,.Np.=.4.and.Ns.=.8 .

(b).According.to.ideal.transformer.equation.Eq ..3 .14,

Since.the.turns.ratio.was.computed.as.½.in.part.(a),.and.primary.current.Ip.is.
given.as.2A.in.the.problem.statement,

(c).According.to.ideal.transformer.equation.Eq ..3 .13,

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 107

. Since.the.turns.ratio.was.computed.as.1:2.or.½.in.part.(a),.and.primary.
voltage.Vp.is.given.as.120V.in.the.problem.statement,

. In.Example.3 .4,.the.number.of.secondary.turns,.NS,.is.twice.the.number.
of.primary.turns,.Np;.resulting.in.the.secondary.voltage.that.is.twice.the.magni-
tude.of.the.primary.voltage ..This.configuration.is.called.a.“step up”.transformer.
configuration ..In.other.words,.the.transformer.is.being.used.to.boost.or.step.up.
the.primary.voltage ..Conversely,.as.shown.in.Figure.3 .11,.if.the.primary.wind-
ings.are.greater.than.the.secondary.windings,.the.transformer.would.constitute.
a. “step. down”. transformer .. Such. configuration. is. used. to. reduce. incoming.
utility.or.source.voltage.to.a.desired.lower.voltage.that.is.compatible.with.the.
driven. load. or. equipment .. See. self-assessment. problem. 4,. at. the. end. of. this.
chapter,.for.a.practical.illustration.of.a.step.down.transformer.scenario.and.as-
sociated.analysis .

Figure 3 11:.A.Step.down.transformer.configuration

. The. ideal. transformer. model. shown. in. Figure. 3 .11. can. be. expanded. to.
include.impedance.on.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer.and.the.impedance.
of.the.load ..If.those.two.impedances.are.introduced.into.the.discussion,.as.is.
the.case.in.practical.AC.electrical.systems,.the.AC.transformer.circuit.would.be.
represented.by.the.circuits.shown.in.Figures.3 .12.(a).and.(b) .

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108 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 12: (a) Ideal. transformer. model. with. impedance. consideration. (b).
Alternate.representations.of.an.ideal.transformer.equivalent.circuit .

. Note.that.the.left.to.right.arrows.denote.the.flow.of.AC.power,.from.the.
source.to.the.load ..The.explanation.of.the.nomenclature.used.in.Figure.3 .12.(a).
and.(b).is.as.follows:

. Vac. =AC.voltage.source
Vp= Voltage.on.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer
Vs= Voltage.on.the.secondary.side.of.the.transformer
a = Turns.ratio.=.Np/Ns
. Zp= Impedance.between.the.AC.voltage.source.and.the.primary.coil.of.
the.transformer .
Zs= Impedance.of.the.load.connected.to.the.secondary.side.of.the.trans-
former .
. Z′s= Impedance. of. the. load. as. seen. from. the. primary. side. of. the. trans-
former.=.a2 .Zs

. Impedances.Zp.and.Zs do.not.represent.the.impedances.of.the.transformer.
itself ..In.other.words,.Zp.represents.the.combined.impedance.of.all.circuit.ele-
ments.connected.to.the.primary.side.of.the.transformer.and.Zs.represents.the.
load.impedance.or.the.combined.impedance.of.all.circuit.elements.connected.to.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 109

the.secondary.side.of.the.transformer ..Simplification.of.the.transformer.circuit.
involved.in.the.transition.from.Figure.3 .12.(a).to.Figure.3 .12.(b).can.be.fol-
lowed.through.the.basic.steps.listed.below:

1). Combine.the.impedances.of.all.circuit.elements.connected.between.the.
primary. side. of. the. transformer. and. the.AC. voltage. source .. This. com-
bined.impedance.is.represented.by.Zp .

2). Combine.the.impedances.of.all.circuit.elements.connected.between.the.
secondary.side.of.the.transformer.and.the.load ..This.combined.impedance.
is.represented.by.Zs .

3). The.combined.secondary.impedance.Zs.is.reflected.to.the.primary.side—
or.appears.from.the.primary.side.of.transformer—as.Z′s ..The.symbol.Z′s.
is.read.as.“Z”.sub.“s”.prime ..The.relationship.between.Zs,.Z′s.and.the.
turns.ratio.a.is.represented.by.the.Eq ..3 .16.below:

Z′s =.a2 .Zs. Eq 3 16

4). The. original. transformer. circuit. with. numerous. elements. can. then. be.
shown.in.a.simplified.or.condensed.form—with.only.three.elements:.Vac,.
Zp.and.Z′s—as.shown.in.Figure.3 .12.(b) .

Example 3 5
. Calculate. the. equivalent. impedance. as. seen. from. the. vantage. point. of.
the.AC.source.Vac.in.the.circuit.shown.below ..The.transformer.in.the.circuit.is.
assumed.to.be.ideal ..The.values.of.the.primary.and.secondary.circuit.elements.
are:.XLp.=.2Ω,.Rp.=.4Ω,.Rs.=.10Ω,.XLs.=.5Ω,.Np.=.100,.Ns.=.200 .

Solution:
. Note.that,.for.the.sake.of.simplicity,.the.primary.and.secondary.inductors.
are.given.in.form.of.their.reactances.“XL”.instead.of.actual.inductance.values,.

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110 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

in.form.of.Henries ..As.explained.earlier.in.this.chapter,.in.the.process.of.reduc-
ing.the.AC.circuits.to.an.equivalent.impedance.form,.the.individual.inductive.
and.capacitive.reactances.are.combined.in.form.of.their.respective.impedance,.
or.Z,.contributions ..In.other.words,.XLs.are.represented.by.ZLs.and.XCs.are.
represented.by.ZCs .
. Employing.steps.(1).through.(4).from.the.section.above.results.in.the.fol-
lowing.computation.and.the.equivalent.circuit:

On.the.primary.side:.ZLp =.jXLp.=.j2Ω
Therefore,.ZP.=.Rp.+.ZLp = 4.+.j2Ω

On.the.secondary.side:.ZLs =.jXLs.=.j5Ω
Therefore,.Zs.=.Rs.+.ZLs = 10.+.j5Ω

a = Turns.ratio.=.Np/Ns.=.100/200.=.1/2
Z′s =.a2 .Zs
Z′s =.(1/2)2 . (10.+.j5Ω).=.2 .5.+.j1 .25Ω
Zeq= Zp + Z′s = (4.+.j2Ω).+.(2 .5.+.j1 .25Ω).=.6 5 + j3 25Ω

Or,

And,.combination.of.the.two.impedances,.as.supported.by.the.math.above.in:

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 111

The.final.equivalent.impedance.Zeq.can.be.represented.in.rectangular.complex.
form.as:

The.Zeq.derived.in.the.rectangular.for.above.can.be.stated.in.polar.or.phasor.
form.as:

Zeq= 6 .5.+.j3 .25Ω.=.7 27∠26 6°

. This. conversion. from. rectangular. to. phasor. form. can. be. accomplished.
through. a. scientific. calculator,. with. complex. math. feature. or,. as. illustrated.
earlier.in.this.chapter,.through.application.of.Pythagorean.Theorem.and.trigo-
nometry .

Common single Phase aC transformer aPPliCations

. Three.common.single.phase.transformer.configurations.are.described.in.
this.section,.accompanied.by.their.respective.schematics .

Generic step-up or step-down single phase transformer application:

Even.though.the.single.phase.transformer.schematic.shown.in.Figure.3 .13.rep-
resents.greater.number.of.turns.on.the.primary.side.versus.the.secondary.side—
implying.that.it.is.a.step.down.transformer—this.transformer.could.be.wired.
or.connected.in.a.reverse.fashion,.resulting.in.a.step.up.voltage.transformation.
function .

Figures 3 13: Generic.step-down.single.phase.transformer.configuration

Step down voltage transformation—residential power distribution:

Single.phase.transformer.schematic.shown.in.Figure.3 .14.represents.step.down.
voltage.transformation.typically.utilized.in.residential.power.distribution.ap-

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112 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

plications ..As. shown. in. the. schematic,. typically,. 7200. volts—in. phase. (ф).
to. neutral. three. phase.Y. power. supply. configuration—are. fed. to. the. primary.
of. a. single. phase. power. transformer ..The. secondary. of. the. residential. power.
distribution.transformer.is.split.or.“tapped”.into.two.segments,.with.the.center.
tap. connected. to. a. neutral. or. ground .. Such. secondary. configuration. allows.
electricians.to.utilize.both.120.volt,.ф—neutral,.segments.for.multiple.120.volt.
loads.at.a.particular.residence ..On.the.other.hand,.for.the.240.volt.loads,.such.
as.clothes.dryers,.water.heaters,.HVAC.systems.and.electric.ranges,.the.electri-
cians.connect.the.line.side.of.the.respective.load.breakers.across.terminals.X1.
and.X2,.phase.to.phase .
. As.shown.in.Figure.3 .14,.the.7200.volts.presented.to.the.primary.of.this.
residential.power.distribution.transformer.are.stepped.down.to.the.secondary.
voltage.of.240.volts ..Both.terminals.X1.and.X2.are.energized.or.“hot .”.That.is.
why,.if.you.examine.a.typical.residential.breaker.panel,.you.will.note.that.the.
breakers.for.loads.such.as.HVAC.systems,.dryers,.water.heaters.and.ranges.are.
installed. in. duplex. or. dual. formation .. In. other. words,. two. breakers. are. con-
nected.per.circuit;.one.on.each.energized.phase ..See.the.breaker.interlocking.
bar—mechanically. interconnecting. the. two. breakers. together. for. simultane-
ous.operation—in.Figure.3 .15 ..This.interlocking.or.duplexing.feature.permits.
simultaneous. breaking/operation. of. both. energized. phases. when. the. breaker.
trips.or.is.turned.off ..The.schematic.segment.of.Figure.3 .15.shows.the.electrical.
interface.and.location.of.the.breakers.in.two.phase.systems .

Figures 3 14: Step.down,.residential.power.distribution.transformer

Figures 3 15: Step.down,.residential.power.distribution.transformer.with.load

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 113

Load to source, power isolation transformer: In.most.industrial.and.

many.commercial.facilities,.equipment.such.as.arc.welders,.intermittent.mo-
tor.loads.and.other.types.of.switching.loads.tend.to.feedback.electric.“spikes”.
or.“noise”.to.the.supply.line.or.supply.bus ..Such.undesirable.noise.and.spikes.
on. the. supply. line. or. feeder. are. subsequently. seen. by. all. loads. sharing. the.
same. supply. line .. Such. switching. of. electromagnetic. circuits. also. results.
in. generation. of. electromagnetic. radiation .. This. electromagnetic. radiation,.
sometimes.referred.to.as.EMI,.or.electromagnetic.interference,.can.have.an.
adverse. effect. on. sensitive. electronic. equipment. such. as. computers,. TVs,.
audio/video.stereo.systems,.VFDs.or.variable.frequency.drives,.PLCs.(Pro-
grammable.Logic.Controllers),.PCs.(Personal.Computers).and.other.types.of.
electronic.equipment ..The.electrical.noise.on.the.utility.or.power.supply.lines.
and.EMI.often.tend.to.cause.trips,.faults.and.computational.errors.in.sensitive.
electronic.equipment .
. There. are. various. methods. for. attenuating. or. eliminating. the. electri-
cal. noise. on. the. power. supply. lines. and. power. distribution. systems .. Some.
such. approaches. include. the. application. of. capacitors. and. electrical. filters.
that. serve. as. “sponges”. or. noise. absorbers ..Another. common. method. for.
protecting. against. electrical. noise. consists. of. an. isolation. transformer .. See.
Figure.3 .16.for.a.schematic.of.a.typical,.single.phase.isolation.transformer ..A.
distinguishing.characteristic.of.an.isolation.transformer.is.that.it’s.primary.to.
secondary.winding.turns.ration.is.1:1 ..In.other.words,.in.isolation.transform-
ers,.the.number.of.turns.on.the.primary.side.equals.the.number.of.turns.on.
the.secondary.side ..So,.the.primary.and.secondary.voltages.are.the.same ..The.
net.gain.is.the.“cleansing”.of.voltage.or.current.achieved.through.conversion.
electrical.current.to.magnetic.flux.ф.on.the.primary.side.and.subsequent.con-
version.of.the.flux.to.electrical.AC.current.in.the.load.or.secondary.side.of.the.
transformer ..This.flux.to.current.and.current.to.flux.conversion.of.depicted.in.
Figure.3 .11 .

Figures 3 16: Load.to.source,.1:1,.power.isolation.transformer .

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114 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

autotransformers
. An. autotransformer. is. a. type. of. transformer. that. requires. fewer. wind-
ings.and.a.smaller.core ..Therefore,.it.offers.an.economical.and.lighter.means.
for.converting.voltage.from.one.level.to.another.as.compared.with.its,.regular,.
two.winding.counterparts ..Practical,.cost.effective,.application.of.an.autotrans-
former.is,.typically,.limited.to.voltage.ratio.of.about.3:1 .

Figure 3 17: Autotransformer

. A. typical. autotransformer. has. one. winding. and. four. electrical. connec-

tions,.referred.to.as.taps ..In.autotransformers,.a.portion.of.the.winding.serves.as.
the.primary.as.well.as.the.secondary ..See.Figure.3 .17.where.the.winding.span-
ning.from.terminals.X1.to.X2.serves.as.the.primary.as.well.as.the.secondary .

Voltage regulation, Voltage regulators and

buCK boost transformers
. Envision.a.scenario.where.you.own.and.manage.a.small.factory.that.oper-
ates.on.an.8.to.5.day.shift ..Assume.that.all.power.is.turned.off.at.the.main.breaker.
at.the.end.of.the.day ..As.the.first.person.to.arrive.at.the.facility.in.the.morning,.
in.an.effort.to.assess.the.power.quality.of.your.facility,.you.measure.the.voltage.
at.the.main.breaker.before.any.electrical.equipment.is.turned.on ..Let’s.assume.
that. the. voltage. you. measure. is. 480.VRMS .. If. you. measure. the. voltage. at. that.
main. breaker,. once. again,. after. turning. on. all. of. the. routine. load,. as. well. as,.
your.production.machinery,.you.will.most.likely.read.some.lower.voltage,.say.
460.VRMS ..This.reduction.in.voltage,.as.load.is.added.to.the.power.distribution.
system,.when.quantified.as.a.percentage,.is.referred.to.as.voltage.regulation ..As.
the.load.on.a.power.distribution.system.is.increased,.the.current.being.pulled.or.
demanded,.from.the.source,.by.the.load,.increases ..Since.the.ultimate.mechani-
cal. source. of. electrical. energy. has. definite. or. limited. capacity,. or. limited. and.
relatively.constant.power,.P,.as.the.demand.for.current.I.rises,.the.voltage.sags,.
proportionally ..This.can.be.explained.on.the.basis.of.Eq ..3 .17.and.3 .18 .

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 115

For.DC.systems,.P.=.V .I,.or,

. . P. . . P
. I.=. —. or,. V.=. —. Eq 3 17
. . V. . . I

In.AC.systems, S, AC.Apparent.Power.= V I, or,

. . Eq 3 18

. As.more.current.is.demanded.by.loads,.more.current.flows.through.DC.
supplies.and.AC.power.transformers ..This.results.in.a.voltage.drop.on.the.load.
side.of.the.DC.power.supply.or.AC.power.transformer,.as.the.load.approaches.
the.maximum.power.capacity.of.the.system ..For.some.voltage.regulation.can.
be.best.understood.and.applied.in.its.mathematical.form.as.stated.in.Eq ..3 .19 .

. . Eq 3 19

Where,
VNL.=.voltage.measured.at.the.source.under.no.load.condition
VFL.=.voltage.measured.at.the.source.under.full.load.condition

Note. that. Eq .. 3 .19. may. appear. in. a. slightly. different. form. in. some. texts,. as.
stated.in.Eq ..3 .20 .

. . Eq 3 20

. In.Eq ..3 .20,.VRated.is.considered.synonymous.with.the.full.load.voltage,.

VFL ..In.other.words,.the.rated.voltage.is.assumed.to.be.the.voltage.when.the.
system.is.operating.at.full.load .
. As.apparent.from.Eq ..3 .19,.in.an.ideal.“utopian”.scenario,.voltage.regu-
lation. would. approach. “0 .”. In. other. words,. in. an. ideal. situation,. the. voltage.
magnitude.at.the.source.would.stay.constant.as.the.load.escalates.from.no.load.
to.rated.or.full.load.level ..A.source.that.offers.a.low.or.negligible.regulation.
is. sometimes. referred. to,. by. electricians. or. electrical. engineers,. as. a. “stiff”.

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116 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

source .. In. a. typical. power. distribution. system,. a. voltage. regulation. of. 1%.
would. be. considered. as. acceptable. over. input. voltage. variations. of. +10%. to.
–20% ..Voltage.regulation.tends.to.be.larger.(or.worse).in.inductive.load.sys-
tems.as.compared.with.resistive.load.systems ..Power.distribution.systems.with.
larger.voltage.regulation.are.sometimes.referred.to.as.exhibiting.‘loose’.voltage.
regulation .

Example 3 6
. Assume.that.the.second.(rated.or.full.load).voltage.measured.in.the.volt-
age. regulation. scenario. captured. in. the. first. paragraph. of. this. section. is. 460.
VRMS ..Determine.the.voltage.regulation .

Solution:
VNL.=.480.V,.given
VFL.=.460.V,.given

Apply.Eq ..3 .9:

.
.
.

. Loose.or.unacceptable.voltage.regulation.can.be.remedied.through.vari-
ous.means,.three.of.such.methods.are.listed.below:

1).Application.of.buck-boost.voltage.regulating.transformers
2).Application.of.voltage.regulating.transformers
3).Application.of.ferroresonant,.magnetic.saturation.based,.transformers

. We. will. elaborate. on. the. more. common. buck-boost. voltage. regulating.
transformer.in.this.text ..A.schematic.diagram.of.a.buck-boost.voltage.regulat-
ing.transformer.is.shown.in.Figure.3 .18 ..This.type.of.voltage.regulator.is.built.
around.an.auto-transformer ..It.has.a.movable.contact.that.makes.electrical.con-
nection.with.available.coil.taps .
. A. buck-boost. autotransformer. type. voltage. regulator. can. raise. voltage.
(boost).or.lower.voltage.(buck).as.Necessary ..These.regulators.are,.typically,.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 117

rated.+/-.10%;.meaning.that.they.are.capable.of.maintaining.the.output.(or.sec-
ondary).voltage.within.+/-.1%.in.response.to.+/-.10%.variation.of.the.input.(or.
primary).voltage .

Figures 3 18: Buck-boost.voltage.regulating.autotransformers

three Phase aC
. While.single.phase.AC.is.based.on.one.energized.phase.(or.conductor).
and. a. ground. or. neutral,. three. phase.AC. systems. consist. of. three. energized.
phases. (or. conductors) .. Some. three. phase.AC. systems. consist. of. three. ener-
gized. conductors. and. a. grounded. neutral .. Note. that. electrical. engineers. and.
electricians.often.refer.to.the.energized.conductors.as.“hot”.conductors ..When.
measuring. voltages. in. single. phase. or. three. phase. systems,. the. energized.
or. “hot”. terminal. or. conductor. is. touched. with. the. red. (anode). probe. of. the.
voltmeter.and.the.black.(cathode).probe.is.connected.to.the.neutral.or.ground.
terminal ..See.Figure.3 .19.below.for.a.contrast.between.a.single.phase.system.
and.a.three.phase.system ..The.single.phase.circuit,.shown.in.Figure.3 .19.(a),.is.
powered.by.a.120.volt.AC.source ..This.single.phase.AC.source.is.assumed.to.
have.an.angle.of.0° ..Therefore,.complete.vector.or.phasor.representation.of.the.
source.voltage.would.be.120∠0°.VAC ..The.load.in.this.single.phase.AC.circuit.
is.represented.by.impedance.“Z .”
. On.the.other.hand,.Figure.3 .19.(b).represents.a.three.phase.AC.circuit,.
with.a.three.phase.AC.source.supplying.power.to.three.phase.AC.load ..Note.
that.the.three.phases.in.the.three.phase.AC.system.are.identified.as.phases.A,.B.
and.C ..The.three.phase.load.consists.of:.(a).impedance.ZA,.connected.between.
phase.A.and.the.neutral,.(b).impedance.ZB,.connected.between.phase.B.and.the.
neutral,.and.(c).impedance.ZC,.connected.between.phase.C.and.the.neutral ..In.
many.common.three.phase.AC.load.scenarios—such.as.three.phase.motors—
the.impedance.values.for.each.of.the.three.phases.are.equal ..When.the.three.
phases.present.equal.impedance,.the.three.phase.load.is.said.to.be.balanced ..In.
other.words:

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118 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

ZA.=.ZB.=.ZC.=.Z

. Unequal. phase. impedances. result. in. an. imbalanced. load. condition,. un-
equal.line.currents,.and.in.some.cases,.unequal.line.voltages ..Under.most.nor-
mal.circumstances,.the.neutral.current.IN in.Y-loads.is.negligible ..However,.un-
der.unbalanced.load.conditions,.IN.is.non-zero ..Therefore,.neutral.line.current.
IN.is.often.monitored.by.installing.a.current.transformer.(CT).on.the.neutral.
leg.of.the.three.phase.system ..See.additional.discussion.on.current.transform-
ers.and.their.application.in.the.next.section ..Due.to.the.fact.that.the.line.fuses.
or.breakers.protecting.the.three.phase.systems.are.sized.typically.with.the.as-
sumption.of.balanced.phase.loading,.when.loads.phases.become.unbalanced,.
currents.in.one.or.more.of.the.three.phases.can.exceed.the.fuse.or.breaker.trip.
threshold;.thus,.resulting.in.the.clearing.or.“blowing”.of.the.fuse.or.tripping.of.
the.breaker .

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 19: (a) Single. phase.AC. system .. (b) Three. phase.AC. system,. Y-
configuration .

three Phase aC systems Vs. single Phase aC systems

. The. advantages. of. three. phase.AC. systems. over. their. single. phase.AC.
counterparts.are.as.follows:

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 119

a). Three. phase. circuits. and. power. distribution. systems. are. more. efficient.
than.single.phase.systems ..In.other.words,.three.phase.power.distribution.
systems.can.deliver.the.same.magnitude.of.power.with.fewer.and.smaller.
conductors .

b). Unlike.single.phase.induction.motors,.three.phase.AC.induction.motors.
do.not.require.additional.starting.windings .

c). Unlike.single.phase.induction.motors,.three.phase.AC.induction.motors.
provide.uniform.torque ..Single.phase.motors.often.tend.to.deliver.pulsat-
ing.torque .

d). When.rectifying.AC.current.to.DC.current,.three.phase.AC.rectification.
yields.smoother,.relatively.ripple.free,.DC .

Current transformers
. Current.transformers.are.transformers.that.are.used.to.measure.or.sample.
currents. in.AC. electrical. circuits .. In. measurement. applications,. a. current.
transformer,.abbreviated.as.“CT,”.is.connected.to.metering.instrumentation.to.
display. the. magnitude. of.AC. current. through. an.AC. ammeter. or. some. other.
form.of.annunciation,.such.as.a.computer.based.HMI,.Human.Machine.Inter-
face,.system ..As.shown.in.Figure.3 .20.below,.the.conductor.whose.current.is.
to.be.measured,.is.routed.through.the.CT ..When.current,.I,.flows.through.the.
conductor,.it.produces.magnetic.flux—with.magnetic.flux.density.B—in.the.cy-
lindrical.core.of.the.CT ..This.magnetic.flux,.as.explained.in.Chapter.2,.initiates.
the.flow.of.current.through.the.windings.of.the.CT ..The.current.ICT.induced.in.
the.windings.of.the.CT.is.a.proportional.representation.of.the.current.I.flowing.
through.the.conductor.being.monitored ..The.proportional.relationship.between.
I.and.ICT.can.be.represented,.mathematically,.by.Eq ..3 .21 .
. . I
. ICT.=. —. Eq 3 21
. . N

Figure 3 20:.Current.transformer.operating.principle ..By:.Beizl,.April.15,.2009 .

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120 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. When.CTs.are.used.to.measure.phase.or.line.currents.in.three.phase.AC.
systems,.they.are.installed.in.a.fashion.depicted.in.Figure.3 .21 ..The.CT.installa-
tion.photographed.and.shown.in.Figure.3 .21.pertains.to.a.situation.where.only.
the.three.energized.phases.need.to.be.metered;.a.CT.on.the.neutral.is,.therefore,.
not.needed .

Figure 3 21:.Current.transformers.used.as.part.of.metering.equipment.for.three.
phase.400Amp.electricity ..By:.Ali,.December.13,.2004 .

. While.majority.of.CT.applications.pertain.to.metering.or.display.of.AC.
current,.in.form.or.another,.CTs.are.often.applied.for.control.purposes ..When.
CTs.are.included.in.electrical.power.distribution.systems.for.control.purposes,.
they. are. terminated. at—or. connected. to—the. input/output. (I/O). blocks. of. a.
control.system,.such.as,.a.Programmable.Logic.Controller.(PLC).or.a.Direct.
Digital. Control. (DDC). System .. In. such. control. applications,. the. current. in-
duced.in.the.CT.windings.is.often.scaled.or.transduced.to.a.low.voltage.signal.
at.the.I/O.blocks ..In.many.control.systems,.the.PLC.or.DDCs.CPU.(Central.
Processing. Unit). make. control. decisions. on. the. basis. of. the. scaled. signal,.
available. at. the. CT. I/O. block,. by. continuous. monitoring. and. comparison. of.
the.real.time.current.signal.against.“High”.or.“Low”.set.points ..These.“High”.
or.“Low”.set.points.are.embedded.in.the.program.or.algorithm.of.the.PLC.or.
DDC;. where,. control. programs,. typically,. cycle. at. the. rate. of. approximately.
once.per.20.milliseconds ..The.scan.rates.are.a.function.of.the.complexity.of.
the.program.and.the.number.of.inputs.and.outputs.included.in.the.architecture.
of. the. overall. control. system .. Tripping. of. breakers,. shutting. down. of. equip-
ment,.turning.on.of.alarms.and.horns.are.a.few.examples.of.controls.functions.
executed.on.the.basis.of.current.sensed.by.CTs ..Schematics.in.Figures.3 .22.(a).
and. (b). show. the. distinction. between. CTs. being. applied. in. single. phase.AC.
scenarios.versus.three.phase.AC.scenarios .

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 121

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 22:.(a).Current.transformer.applied.to.a.single.phase.AC.circuit,.for.
metering.purposes ..(b).Current.transformers.applied.to.a.three.phase.AC.cir-
cuit,.for.metering.purposes .

three Phase aC transformers

. Three.phase.transformers,.like.the.basic.single.phase.transformers,.serve.
the. purpose. of. transforming. voltage. from. one. magnitude. to. another .. Like.
single. phase. transformers,. three. phase. transformers. can. be. used. as. isolation.
transformers,.where.the.primary.and.secondary.voltages.are.the.same.and.the.
main.purpose.of.the.transformer.is.to.insulate.and.isolate.a.sensitive.load.from.
electrical.noise.and.voltage.fluctuations.prevalent.on.the.AC.supply.line ..Three.
phase.transformers’.intrinsic.and.operational.parameters,.such.as.impedance,.
voltage.and.current—similar.to.their.single.phase.counterparts—are.represent-
ed.by.complex.numbers.and.vectors ..Upon.close.examination.of.Figure.3 .19.

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122 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(b).it.is.apparent.that.in.three.phase.transformers,.the.voltages.and.currents.for.
each.of.the.three.phases.are.separated.by.120° .
. Three. identical. single-phase. transformers. can. be. connected. to. form.
a. 3-phase. bank .. Primary. and. secondary. sides. of. such. a. bank. of. three. phase.
transformers.can.be.connected.in.Star.(Y)-Delta.(Δ),.Star.(Y)-Star.(Y).or.Delta.
(Δ)-Delta.(Δ).combinations ..Various.possible.three.phase.transformer.configu-
rations.are.shown.in.Figures.3 .23.through.3 .30 .
. When. determining. the. voltages. and. currents. in. a. 3-phase. transformer,.
one.must.employ.the.line.and.phase.relationship.of.star.or.delta.connections.
along. with. the. ratio. of. transformation. between. the. coupled. windings. as. ex-
plained.in.the.various.transformer.configurations.below .

Three Phase Δ-Δ Transformer Configuration

. Most.transformers,.unless.otherwise.specified,.are.delivered.to.customers.
or.installation.sites.without.final.terminations.or.“pre-configuration;”.meaning,.
unless. otherwise. specified,. they. are. not. prewired. for.Δ-Δ,.Δ-Y,.Y-Δ,. or.Y-Y.
application ..One.could.view.an.“un-configured”.three.phase.transformer.as.a.
combination.of.three.single.phase.transformers ..As.such,.a.set.of.three.individ-
ual.single.phase.transformers.could.be.wired.or.configured.as.Δ-Δ,.Δ-Y,.Y-Δ,.or.
Y-Y ..If.three.individual.transformers.are.connected.together.as.depicted.in.Fig-
ure.3 .23.(a),.the.resulting.configuration.would.be.a.Δ-Δ.three.phase.transformer ..
Where.the.points.labeled.X1.through.X6.and.H1.through.H3.are.terminals,.wire.
termination. points,. or. physical. connection. points .. The. schematic. version. of.
this.Δ-Δ.transformer.would.be.represented.by.Figure.3 .23.(b) ..The.schematic,.
as. usual,. conveys. the. functional. information. about. the. transformer .. In. other.
words,.the.schematic.illustrates.how.the.voltage.and.current.get.transformed.
between.the.primary.and.secondary.of.the.transformer .

(a)

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 123

(b)
Figure 3 23: Δ-Δ,.or.Delta-Delta,.3-phase.transformer.configuration ..(a).wiring.
diagram,.(b).schematic

. As.shown.in.Figure.3 .23.(b),.key.mathematical.relationships.between.the.
phase. voltages. and. line. voltages,. and. phase. currents. and. line. currents. are. as.
follows:

. VP-Pri.=.VL-Pri.=.V. Eq 3 22

. VP-Sec.=.VL-Sec. Eq 3 23

. . Eq 3 24

. . Eq 3 25

Where,
VP-Pri. =. Primary.phase.voltage.=.V
VL-Pri. =. Primary.line.voltage.= V
VP-Sec. =. Secondary.phase.voltage
VL-Sec. =. Secondary.line.voltage

I. =. Primary.line.current
IP-Pri. =. Primary.phase.current
. IP-Sec. =. Secondary.phase.current
IL-Pri. =. Primary.line.current.= I
IL-Sec. =. Secondary.line.current

. For.the.sake.of.simplicity,.and.in.congruence.with.the.context.and.scope.
of.this.text,.we.will.limit.the.discussion.in.this.three.phase.transformer.section.

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124 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

to.the.magnitudes.of.currents.and.voltages ..Of.course,.when.full.vector.or.pha-
sor.analyses.of.voltages.and.currents.are.required,.the.angles.of.voltages.and.
currents.must.be.considered.in.conjunction.with.the.respective.magnitudes .
. As.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .24,.the.line.voltage.and.line.current.transforma-
tions.for.Δ-Δ.three.phase.transformers.are.governed.by.the.following.equations:

. Eq 3 26

..

. . Eq 3 27

Figure 3 24: Δ-Δ,.or.Delta-Delta,.voltage.and.current.transformation

Three Phase Δ-Y Transformer Configuration

. The. wiring. diagram. for. a. three. phase.Δ-Y. transformer. is. depicted. in.
Figure.3 .25(a) ..In.this.diagram,.terminals.H1.through.H3.represent.the.primary.
“Δ”. connection. points. and. terminals. X0. through. X3. represent. the. secondary.
“Y”. connection. points .. In. the. wiring. diagram,. in. accordance. with. electrical.
convention,.the.solid,.circular,.black.dot.represents.an.internal.connection.that.
determines.the.Δ.or.Y.configuration.of.the.transformer.primary.or.secondary ..
The.wires.connecting.the.solid.black.dot.terminals.are,.sometimes,.referred.to.
as.“jumpers .”.The.hollow,.circular,.rings.represent.the.terminals.where.external.
field.connections.are.terminated ..The.schematic.version.of.this.Δ-Y.transformer.
is.shown.in.Figure.3 .25.(b) .

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 125

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 25: (a) Δ-Y,. or. Delta-Wye,. transformer. wiring. diagram,. (b) Δ-Y,.
transformer.schematic

. As.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .25.(b),.key.mathematical.relationships.between.
the.phase.voltages.and.line.voltages,.and.phase.currents.and.line.currents.are.as.
follows:

. VP-Pri.=.VL-Pri. Eq 3 28

. . Eq 3 29

. . Eq 3 30

I P-Sec =.I L-.Sec. . Eq 3 31

.

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126 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Where,
VP-Pri. =. Primary.phase.voltage.=.V
. VL-Pri. =. Primary.line.voltage.=.VLine-Delta.=.V
. VP-Sec. =. Secondary.phase.voltage
. VL-Sec. =. Secondary.line.voltage.=.VLine-Y

. IL-Pri. =. Primary.line.current.=.I
. IP-Pri. =. Primary.phase.current
. IP-Sec. =. Secondary.phase.current.= ILine-Y
. IL-Sec. =. Secondary.line.current.= ILine-Y
.
. For.a.Δ-Y.three.phase.transformers,.as.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .26,.the.volt-
age.and.current.transformations.can.be.assessed.using.the.following.equations:

. . Eq 3 32

. . Eq 3 33

Figure 3 26: Δ-Y,.or.Delta-star,.3-phase.voltage.and.current.transformation

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 127

Three Phase Y-Δ Transformer Configuration

. The.wiring.diagram.of.a.three.phase.Y-.Δ.transformer.is.shown.in.Figure.
3 .27.(a);.where.the.points.labeled.H0.through.H3.represent.the.“Y”.primary.
terminals.and.points.X1.through.X3.represent.the.Δ.secondary.terminals ..The.
schematic.version.of.this.Y-Δ.transformer.is.represented.by.Figure.3 .27.(b) .

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 27: (a) Y-Δ,. or. Wye-Delta,. transformer. wiring. diagram,. (b) Y-Δ,.
transformer.schematic .

. As. illustrated. in. Figure. 3 .27. (b),. in. a.Y-Δ. three. phase. transformer,. the.
phase.and.line.voltages;.and.phase.and.line.currents.can.be.calculated.using.the.
following.equations:

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128 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. . Eq 3 34

. VL-Sec.=.VP-Sec. Eq 3 35

. IP-Pri.=.IL-Pri. Eq 3 36

. . Eq 3 37

. As.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .28,.key.mathematical.formulae.for.transforma-
tions.between.the.primary.and.secondary.voltages.and.primary.and.secondary.
currents.are.follows:

. . Eq 3 38

. . Eq 3 39

Where,
VP-Pri.=.Primary.phase.voltage
VL-Pri.=.Primary.line.voltage = V.=.VLine-Y
VP-Sec.=.Secondary,.Δ,.phase.voltage
VL-Sec.=.Secondary,.Δ,.line.voltage

IL-Pri.=.Primary.line.current.=.I.=.ILine-Y
IP-Pri.=.Primary.phase.current
IP-Sec.=.Secondary,.Δ,.phase.current
IL-Sec.=.Secondary,.Δ,.line.current

Three Phase Y-Y Transformer Configuration

. The.wiring.diagram.of.three.phase.Y-.Y.transformer.is.shown.in.Figure.
3 .29.(a);.where.the.points.labeled.H0.through.H3.represent.the.“Y”.primary.
terminals.and.points.X0.through.X3.represent.the.Y.secondary.terminals ..Note.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 129

Figure 3 28: Y-Δ,. or. Star-Delta,. 3-phase. voltage. and. current. transformation.
schematic

that.the.neutrals.on.primary.and.secondary.windings.of.Y-Y.transformers.may.
or.may.not.be.grounded ..As.shown.in.Figures.3 .29.(a).and.(b),.the.Y-Y.trans-
former,.in.this.specific.example,.has.grounded.neutrals.on.the.primary.and.sec-
ondary.sides ..The.decision.to.ground.the.neutrals,.or.to.leave.them.“floating,”.
is. premised. on. specific. concerns. associated. with. noise,. harmonics. and. load.
balancing ..Schematic.version.of.this.Y-Y.transformer.is.depicted.in.Figure.3 .29.
(b) ..The.term.“floating,”.in.the.electrical.domain.implies.isolation.of.a.circuit.
or.point.from.a.verified.low.resistance.ground ..Floating.electrical.circuits.could.
belong.to.an.AC.or.DC.system;.regardless,.such.points.would.exhibit.voltages.
above.ground,.i .e ..+/-.5.VDC,.+/-.10.VDC,.+/-.24.VDC,.14.VAC,.24.VAC,.110.
VAC,.etc .

(a)

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130 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(b)
Figure 3 29: (a) Y-Y,.or.Star-star,.3-phase.transformer.wiring.diagram (b) Y-Y,.
or.Star-Star,.3-Phase.transformer.schematic

. For.a.typical.Y-Y.three.phase.transformer,.as.depicted.in.Figure.3 .29.(b),.
mathematical.relationships.between.the.phase.and.line.voltages.and.phase.and.
line.currents.are.as.follows:

. . Eq 3 40

. . Eq 3 41

. IP-Pri.=.IL-Pri.=.I. Eq 3 42

. IL-Sec.=.IP-Sec. Eq 3 43

. As.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .30,.key.mathematical.formulas.for.transforma-
tions.between.the.primary.and.secondary.voltages.and.primary.and.secondary.
currents.are.follows:

. . Eq 3 44

. IL-Sec.=.a .IL-Pri.=.a .I. Eq 3 45

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 131

Where,
V.=.VL-Pri = Primary.line.voltage
VL–N, Pri. =. Primary.line.to.neutral.voltage.=.Primary.phase.voltage
VL-N, Sec. =. VP-Sec.=.Secondary.phase.voltage,.or,.line.to.neutral.second-
ary.phase.voltage
VL-Sec =. Secondary.line.voltage

I =. Primary.line.current.=.IL-Pri
IP-Pri. =. Primary.phase.current
IP-Sec. =. Secondary.phase.current
IL-Sec. =. Secondary.line.current

Figure 3 30: Y-Y,.or.Star-star,.voltage.and.current.transformation

Example 3 7
. Consider. the. power. distribution. system. shown. in. the. schematic. below ..
Determine.the.following.unknown.parameters.on.the,.Y,.load.side.of.the.trans-
former.given.that.the.turns.ratio.is.2:1:

a). |IL-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.load.or.secondary.line.current
b). |IP-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.secondary.phase.current.or.load.phase.current
c). |VP-Pri.|.=.Magnitude.of.phase.voltage.on.the.source.or.primary.side.of.the.
transformer
d). |VL-Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.line.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.of.the.
transformer
e). |VP-Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.phase.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.of.
the.transformer
f). |VL-N,.Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.line.to.neutral.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.
side.of.the.transformer

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132 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
a). Using.Eq ..3 .42
. IP-Pri.=.IL-Pri.=.10∠30°.Amps

b). According.to.Eq ..3 .43.and.as.computed.in.part.(a):

.
.

c). According.to.Eq ..3 .40:

d). According.to.Eq ..3 .41:

e). As.computed.in.part.(d),.|VL-Sec|.=.240V ..Then,.using.Eq ..3 .41:

.
.

.
.

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 133

. And,.by.rearranging.Eq ..3 .41

f). According.to.the.rearranged.version.of.Eq ..3 .27,.in.part.(e):

. Vp-Sec.=.VL-N,.Sec.and,

Self-Assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 3

1 .. A. plating. tank. with. an. effective. resistance. of. 100. ohm. is. connected. to.
the. output. of. a. full-wave. rectifier ..The.AC. supply. voltage. is. 340Vpeak ..
Determine.the.amount.of.time,.in.hours,.it.would.take.to.perform.0 .075.
faradays.worth.of.electroplating?

2 .. Determine.the.source.current.Irms.in.the.AC.circuit.below .

3 .. Calculate. the. impedance. ZEQ. as. seen. by. the.AC. voltage. source. in. the.
circuit.below:

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134 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

4 .. A.single.phase.1.kVA.resistive.load,.designed.to.operate.at.240.VAC,.has.
to.be.powered.by.a.480.VAC.source ..A.transformer.is.applied.as.shown.in.
the.diagram.below ..Answer.the.following.questions.associated.with.this.
scenario:
(a). Would.the.transformer.be.connected.in.a.“step up”.configuration.or.
a.“step down”.configuration?
(b). When.installing.the.transformer,.what.turns.ratio,.a,.should.it.be.con-
nected.for?
(c). What.would.be.the.secondary.current,.Is,.when.the.load.is.operating.
at.full.capacity?
(d). What.would.be.the.primary.current.at.full.load?

5 .. Calculate.the.equivalent.impedance.as.seen.from.the.vantage.point.of.the.
AC.source.Vac.in.the.circuit.shown.below ..The.transformer.in.the.circuit.
is.assumed.to.be.ideal ..The.values.of.the.primary.and.secondary.circuit.
elements.are:.Xlp.=.1Ω,.Rp.=.4Ω,.Rs.=.10Ω,.XLs.=.5Ω,.XCs.=.10Ω,.Np.=.
100,.Ns.=.200 .

6 .. The.no.load.voltage.at.the.main.switch.yard.of.a.manufacturing.facility.is.
13,400.VAC ..The.voltage.regulation.of.the.main.switch.yard.is.4% ..What.
is.the.rated.full.load.voltage.that.is.most.likely.to.be.measured.on.the.load.
side.of.the.main.switch.yard?

7 .. Consider. the. power. distribution. system. shown. in. the. schematic. below ..
Determine.the.following.unknown.parameters.on.the,.Y,.load.side.of.the.
transformer.given.that.the.turns.ratio.is.2:1:

a). |IL-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.load.or.secondary.line.current
b). |IP-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.secondary.phase.current.or.load.phase.current
c). |VP-Pri.|.=.Magnitude.of.Phase.voltage.on.the.source.or.primary.side.
of.the.transformer

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Alternating Current (AC) Fundamentals 135

d). |VL-Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.Line.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.
of.the.transformer
e). |VP-Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.Phase.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.
of.the.transformer
f). |VL-N,.Sec.|.=.Magnitude.of.Line.to.neutral.voltage.on.the.load.or.sec-
ondary.side.of.the.transformer

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 4

DC and AC Power
Introduction
This.chapter.begins.with.an.introduction.to.concepts.of.energy,.DC.power,.
and. DC. system. efficiency .. DC. power. and. efficiency. discussion. sets. the. stage.
for.the.more.complex.concepts.of.single.phase.AC.power.and.AC.energy ..And,.
discussion.of.single.phase.AC.serves.as.a.suitable.segue.for.consideration.of.the.
more.complex.subject.of.three.phase.AC.power ..Significance.of.efficiency.and.
energy.will.be.explained.within.the.context.DC.power.and.AC.power ..Once.the.
basic.understanding.of.AC.and.DC.power.is.clear,.we.will.be.better.poised.to.
examine.the.flow.of.power.and.energy.from.the.point.of.generation.to.the.point.of.
consumption ..The.flow.of.power.and.energy.from.some.common.sources.such.as.
steam.and.water.to.electricity.are.described,.with.illustrations.in.form.of.example.
problems.and.self-assessment.problems ..The.flow.of.power.from.utility.to.pumps.
is.discussed.in.the.“Wire.to.Water”.section .

Power
Power. can. be. defined. in. multiple. ways .. Power. can. be. defined. as. the.
rate.of.performance.of.work,.rate.of.generation.of.energy,.and.even.as.rate.of.
application. of. torque .. This. is. congruent. with. the. fact. that. work,. energy. and.
torque.are.equivalent ..All.three.can.be.quantified.or.measured—in.the.Metric.or.
SI.system—as.N-m.(Newton-meters).or.J.(Joules) ..In.the.US.unit.realm,.work,.
energy.and.torque.can.be.measured.in.ft-lbf,.in-lbf,.Btu.(British.thermal.unit),.
Hp-hr.(horsepower-hour),.etc ..Since.power.is.a.derivative.of.energy.with.respect.
to.time,.its.units.in.the.SI.or.metric.realm.are.N-m/s.(Newton-.meters/second).or.
J/s.(Joules/second) ..And,.the.units.for.power.in.the.US.domain.are.ft-lbf/s.(foot-
pound. force/second),. in-lbf/s. (in-pound. force/second),. Btu/s. (British. thermal.
units/second).and.hp.(horsepower) .
. The.power.and.energy.relationships.stated.above.gain.practical.significance.
when.stated.mathematically.as.follows:

137

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138 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. . Eq 4 1

. Where,.E.represents.energy,.W.represents.work.and.τ.denotes.torque .
Two.common.forms.of.energy.in.the.mechanical.and.civil.realm.are.as.follows:

. Eq 4 2
.

Eq 4 3
.

. Eq 4 4

. Eq 4 5

Where,
m. =. mass.of.an.object,.in.kg.(SI.units.system)
g. =. Acceleration.due.to.gravity.=.9 .8m/s2.(SI.units.system)
h. =. elevation.of.the.object,.in.meters
v. =. Velocity.in.m/s
F. =. Force.in.N.(Newtons)
d. =. Distance,.in.meters,.over.which.the.object.is.pushed.or.pulled.by.force,.
F
l = Moment.arm,.or.perpendicular.distance,.in.meters,.from.the.fulcrum,.at.
which.the.force.is.applied

. In.order.to.illustrate.that.potential.energy,.kinetic.energy,.work.and.torque.
can.ultimately.be.measured.in.joules.and.kWh.(unit.for.electrical.energy),.let’s.
expand.Equations.4 .2.through.4 .5.into.N-m.and.Joules:
.
.
.
.

.
. .
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DC and AC Power 139

.
.

Since. the. four. forms. of. energy. correspond. and. correlate. to. the. basic. unit. of.
energy,.Joule,.the.basic.unit.of.electrical.power.can.be.derived.as:

.
Conversely,
.

. Now,. in. order. to. demonstrate. the. interchangeability. between. electrical.

energy.and.hydrocarbon.fuel.(i .e ..fuel.oil,.natural.gas,.propane,.gasoline,.etc .),.
let’s.extrapolate.the.conversion.of.1.kWh.into.the.Btus.and.dekatherms:

.
.
.
.

.
. Following.the.energy.and.power.unit.conversion.methods.illustrated.above,.
one.can.perform.operating.energy.cost.comparison.between.alternative.pieces.of.
equipment .

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140 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Example 4 1
. Which.of.the.following.two.water.heaters.would.cost.the.least.to.operate,.
on.annual.cost.basis,.under.the.given.assumptions?

A .. Electric Water Heater:

Estimated.annual.energy.consumption:.5000 kWh
Efficiency:.100%
Cost.Rate:.$0 10/kWh

B .. Natural Gas Water Heater:

Estimated.annual.energy.consumption:.Same as the electric water heater
Efficiency:.100%
Cost.Rate:.$10 87/DT

Solution:
. Since. the. cost. rate. for. electrical. energy. and. the. annual. electrical. energy.
consumption.for.the.electric.water.heater.are.given:
. Total. annual. cost. for. operating. the. electric water heater. (5000 kWh)
($0 10/kWh) = $500

. The.annual.energy.consumption.by.the.gas water heater,.assumed.to.be.the.

same.as.the.electric.water.heater.=.5000 kWh

. Then,. the. annual. energy. consumption. by. the. gas. water. heater,. in. DT. or.
MMBtu.would.be.=.(5000 kWh) (3412Btu/kWh)(1DT/1,000,000Btu) = 17 06
DT

. Since.the.natural.gas.cost.rate.is.given.as.$10 87/DT,.the.annual.operating.
cost.for.the.gas.water.heater.would.be.=.(17 06 DT) ($10 87/DT) = $185 44

Answer:.The.gas.water.heater.would.cost.substantially.less.to.operate.than.the.
electric.water.heater .

Electric Motor Horsepower Required to Move/Convey Mass*

Conveyance. of. material. through. powered. conveyors,. aside. from. the.
selection.and.design.of.other.pieces.of.equipment,.requires.sizing.and.specification.
of.conveyor.motors ..Two.simple.formulas.that.can.be.used.to.assess.the.brake.

*Thermodynamics.Made.Simple.for.Energy.Engineers,.By:.S ..Bobby.Rauf)

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DC and AC Power 141

horsepower. required. to. move. “loose”. (i .e .. aggregate. bulk. materials. like. sand,.
flour,.grain,.sugar,.etc .).or.discrete.“unit”.mass.(i .e ..solid.objects.like.steel.parts,.
fabricated.mechanical.components,.wooden.objects,.etc .,.are.listed.below:

. . Eq 4 6

. F.=.ṁ.∆v. Eq 4 7

Where,
P = Power.in.J/s.or.Watts.=.brake.horsepower.required.at.the.motor.shaft .
F = Linear.force.required.to.move.the.conveyor.(or.conveyor.belt),.loaded.
with.the.aggregate.or.unit.mass.to.be.moved
∆v = Change.in.the.velocity.of.aggregate.or.unit.mass.being.conveyed,.in.the.
direction.of.the.applied.force.and.in.the.direction.the.material.is.being.
moved .
ṁ = Mass.flow.rate .

Application.of.this.method.for.assessing.the.size.of.a.conveyor.motor.is.illustrated.
through.Example.4 .2

Example 4 2
. Sand.drops.at.the.rate.of.20,000.kg/min.onto.a.conveyor.belt.moving.with.
a.velocity.of.2 .0.m/s .
(a). What.force.is.required.to.keep.the.belt.moving?
(b). What. is. the. minimum. motor. size. that. should. be. specified. for. this.
application?

Solution:
(a). F.=.ṁ .Δ.v.=.(20,000.kg/min) .(2 .0.m/s.–.0.m/s) .(1/60.min/s)
. . =.666 .67.kg .m/s2.or,.F.=.666 .67.N

(b). Power.=.P.=.F ..v.=.(666 .67.N). ..(2.m/s)

. . =.1333 .3.N-m/s.=.1333 .3.J/s.=.1333 .3.Watts
. Since.746.W.=.1.hp,.minimum.motor.horsepower.required:
. . =.1333 .3/746.=.1 .79.hp
. ∴.Specify.a.2.hp.(standard.size).motor

DC Power
Power.in.direct.current.realm.is.equivalent.to.power.in.the.mechanical.realm,.

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142 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

for.most.practical.purposes ..DC.electrical.power.is.also.referred.to.as.the.“real”.
power ..DC.power.is.called.real.because,.unlike.AC.power,.it.can.be.transformed.
entirely. into. work. or. other. forms. of. energy,. i .e .. heat. energy,. potential. energy,.
kinetic. energy,. etc .. Such. transformation. can. be. assessed. through. power. and.
energy.relationships.discussed.earlier.in.this.chapter ..Eq ..4 .8.below.represents.
one.way.to.correlate.DC,.real,.power.to.mechanical.work.performed .

. Eq 4 8
.
Where,
W. =.Mechanical.work.performed.under.DC.electrical.power,.measured.in.
Joules.(or.N-m) .
P. =.DC.electrical.power,.in.Watts.(or.J/s) .
t. =.DC.power.application.duration,.in.seconds.(s)

DC.power.can.be.defined.mathematically.as.stipulated.in.Eq ..4 .9 .

. . Eq 4 9

Where,
. P. =.DC.electrical.power,.in.Watts.(or.J/s)
. V. =.DC.voltage.measured.in.volts.(V)
. I. =.DC.current.measured.in.amps.(A)

We. can. quantify. mechanical. work. in. terms. of. voltage,. current. and. time. by.
substituting.Eq ..4 .9.into.Eq ..4 .8:

. . Eq 4 10

. In.the.SI.or.Metric.unit.system,.DC.power.or.“real”.power.is.traditionally.
measured.in.Watts,.kW,.MW,.GW,.TW.(10.12.W) ..Where.k.=.1000,.M.=.1000,000,.
G.=.1.billion.and.T.=.1.trillion .
Some. of. the. more. common. power. conversion. factors. that. are. used. to.
convert.between.SI.System.and.US.system.of.units.are.listed.below:

. 1 .055.kJ/s.=.1 .055.kW.=.1.Btu/s
. One.hp.=.746.Watts.=.746.J/s.=.746.N-m/s.=.0 .746.kW.=.550.ft-lbf/sec

. In.the.SI.or.Metric.unit.system,.DC.energy.or.“real”.energy.is.traditionally.
measured.in.Wh,.kWh,.MWh,.GWh,.TWh.(10.12.Wh) .

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DC and AC Power 143

. Some.mainstream.conversion.factors.that.can.be.used.to.convert.electrical.
energy.units.within.the.SI.realm.or.between.the.SI.and.US.realms.are.referenced.
below:

. 1000.kW.x.1h.=.1.MWh
. 1.Btu.=.1055.J.=.1 .055.kJ
. 1.Btu.=.778.ft-lbf
. 1.hp.x.1.hour.=.1.hp-hour

Example 4 3
. An. automobile. is. parked. with. parking. lights. left. on. for. one. hour .. The.
automobile.battery.is.rated.12.VDC.and.the.lamps.are.incandescent ..If.all.of.the.
parking.lamps.are.drawing.a.combined.current.of.4A,.what.is.the.total.energy.
consumed.by.the.parking.lights,.in.form.of.heat.and.light?

Solution:
. Apply.Eq ..4 .10:

.
single Phase aC Power
. AC,.single.and.three.phase,.was.introduced.in.Chapter.3 ..In.Chapter.3,.we.
also.discussed.the.differences.between.DC,.single.phase.AC.and.three.phase.AC ..
In.this.chapter,.in.addition.to.the.DC.power.discussion.in.the.foregoing.section,.
we.will.focus.mostly.on.single.phase.and.three.phase.power ..While.single.phase.
AC.power.is,.primarily,.power.or.rate.of.performance.of.work,.it.differs.from.DC.
power,.real.power.or.mechanical.power.in.the.fact.that.it.is.not.devoted.entirely.
to.performance.of.work.or.conversion.into.other.forms.of.energy ..In.most.cases,.
a. percentage.of.AC. power. is. “sequestered”.in. form. of. electromagnetic.energy.
and. power .. This. percentage. of.AC. power. is. not. available. for. performance. of.
mechanical.work.or.conversion.to.other.forms.of.energy;.instead,.it.is.dedicated.
toward. charging. and. discharging. inductances. and. capacitances. in. the. AC.
electrical.system ..Yet,.the.utility.or.the.power.company.must.generate.and.supply.
the.entire.AC.power.to.sustain.all.customers.regardless.of.the.size.of.inductances.
and.capacitances.in.their.systems .
. The. term. “single. phase.AC”. implies. that. the.AC. power. source. consists.
of.one.energized.or.higher.electrical.potential.conductor.or.terminal ..The.other.
conductor,. wire. or. terminal. serves. as. a. neutral. and. is. typically. connected. to.

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144 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

building. or. power. distribution. system. ground .. Mechanical. engineers,. with.

thermodynamic. background,. could. view. the. energized. line. or. terminal. as. the.
“heat.source”.and.could.apply.the.analogy.of.“heat.sink”.to.the.neutral.or.ground ..
This. analogy. is. premised. on. the. fact. that,. for. heat. engines. to. perform. work.
through.steam.turbines,.the.superheated.steam.must.have.a.heat.source.and.a.heat.
sink.to.traverse.between .
. As. introduced. briefly. in. Chapter. 3,. total. AC. power. is. called. Apparent.
Power. and. is. denoted. by. S .. Note. that. the. apparent. power. symbol. S. is. bold.
faced ..The.bold.font.signifies.that.fact.that.apparent.power.is.a.vector.and.can.be.
“completely”.represented.by.a.complex number.that.consists.of.a.magnitude.and.
an.angle .
. Fundamental. mathematical. definition. of. single. phase. AC. power. is.
represented.in.terms.of.Eq ..4 .11.and.Eq ..4 .12 ..The.magnitude.and.angle.of.single.
phase.AC.apparent.power.can.be.can.be.determined.through.Equations.4 .13.and.
4 .14,.respectively ..The.vector.values.of.single.phase.AC.voltage.and.current.can.
be. calculated. using. Equations. 4 .15. and. 4 .16,. respectively .. The. magnitudes. of.
single.phase.AC.voltage.and.current.can.be.calculated.using.Equations.4 .17.and.
4 .18,.respectively ..Values.of.P,.Q.and.|S|.can.also.be.calculated.in.terms.of.VRMS,
R, X.and.Z.as.shown.in.equations.4 .19,.4 .20.and.4 .21 .

. Eq 4 11

. Eq 4 12

. Eq 4 13

Q
Angle of S = –q S = Tan -1
P . Eq 4 14

. Eq 4 15

. Eq 4 16

. Eq 4 17

. Eq 4 18

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DC and AC Power 145

. . Eq 4 19

. . Eq 4 20

. . Eq 4 21

Where,

θ = Angle.of.apparent.power S
P =.Real.power,.or.real.component.of.apparent.power.S,.measured.in.Watts,.kW.
or.MW .
Q =.Reactive.power,.or.imaginary.component.of.apparent.power.S,.measured.in.
VARs,.or,.Volt-Amperes.Reactive,.kVAR.or.MVAR .

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146 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

j.=.Unit.vector,.with.a.magnitude.of.“1”.or.unity,.portending.an.angle.of.90°.with.
respect.to.the.x-axis ..As.explained.in.Chapter.3,.unit.vector.j.can.be.written.in.
polar.or.phasor.form.as.1∠90° .
X = Reactance,.in.Ω

Since.apparent.power.S.is.represented.as.a.vector.with.horizontal.component.
“P”.and.vertical.component.“Q,”.in.Eq ..4 .12,.an.alternate.method.for.calculating.
the. magnitude. of. apparent. power. S. (vector). can. derived. on. the. Pythagorean.
Theorem.as.stipulated.by.Eq ..4 .22 ..The.angle.of.apparent.power.vector.S.could.
still.be.computed.using.Eq ..4 .14 .

Eq 4 22

Power Factor: A. concept. that. is. inherently. important. in. most. analysis. and.
consideration.of.AC.power.is.“Power.Factor .”.While.power.factor.is.discussed,.
in.detail,.in.Chapter.5,.as.a.prelude.to.that.detailed.discussion.and.to.complete.the.
discussion.of.single.phase.AC.power,.mathematical.definition.of.power.factor.is.
stated.below.in.form.of.equations.4 .23.and.4 .24 .

Eq 4 23

. PF.=.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θ.v.-.θI). Eq 4 24

Where,

. θv.=.Angle.of.AC.voltage
. θI.=.Angle.of.AC.current

Example 4 4
. A.156Sin377t.sinusoidal.voltage.is.connected.across.a.load.consisting.of.a.
parallel.combination.of.a.10.Ω.resistor.and.a.5Ω inductive reactance .
(a). Determine.the.real.power.dissipated.by.the.resistor .
(b). Determine.the.reactive.power.sequestered.in.a.5Ω parallel.reactance .
(c). Calculate.the.total.apparent.power.delivered.to.this.parallel.R.and.X.circuit.
by.the.AC.voltage.source .

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DC and AC Power 147

Solution:
. The.circuit.diagram.for.this.scenario.would.be.as.depicted.below:

a). We. can. apply. Eq .. 4 .19. to. determine. the. power. dissipated. or. consumed.
in. the. 10Ω. resistor .. However,. we. must. first. derive. the. VRMS. from. the.
given.AC.voltage.of.156Sin377t ..This.is.due.to.the.fact.that,.by.convention,.
coefficient.156.stated.in.the.give.AC.voltage.function.of.156Sin400t.is.the.
peak.or.maximum.voltage,.Vm .\As.discussed.in.Chapter.3.and.stipulated.
by.Eq ..3 .3:

. Then,.according.to.Eq ..4 .19:

.. .

b). Apply. Eq .. 4 .20. to. determine. the. reactive. power. sequestered. in. the. 5Ω.
parallel.reactance .

.
c). Apply. Eq .. 4 .12. to. calculate. the. total. apparent. power. S. delivered. to. this.
parallel.R.and.X.circuit.by.the.AC.voltage.source .

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148 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Note:.We.can.also.apply.Eq ..4 .22.to.verify.the.magnitude.of.the.total.apparent.

power.S.delivered.to.this.parallel.R.and.X.circuit:

.
.
.
Note.that.jQ.reactive.power.entity.is.entered.into.the.apparent.power.calculation.
as. +jQ. because. of. the. fact. that. inductance. in. the. given. AC. circuit. results. in.
positive.impedance.contribution.or.“+jX .”

Ancillary:. Reader. is. encouraged. to. verify. the. apparent. power. of. 2720.VA. by.
applying. equation. 4 .21 .. Hint:. The. Z,. in. this. case. must. be. computed. through.
parallel.combination.of.R.and.ZL.as.shown.below:

Eq 4 25

Example 4 5
. The.AC. circuit. shown. below. depicts. a. simplified,. single. phase,. one-line.
diagram.of.a.“special.purpose”.power.generating.station ..Assume.that.there.is.no.
voltage.drop.between.the.generator.and.the.power.distribution.system ..The.line.
current.is.measured.to.be.1,000.amps,.rms ..Calculate.the.following.if.the.power.
factor.is.known.to.be.0 .9:

a). Magnitude. of. the. apparent. power. presented. to. the. power. distribution.
system .
b). Magnitude.of.the.real.power.presented.to.the.power.distribution.system .

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DC and AC Power 149

Solution:
a). Magnitude. of. the. apparent. power. presented. to. the. power. distribution.
system:

. Since.we.are.interested.in.the.magnitude.of.the.single.phase.AC.power:

. Where,.V.and.I.are.RMS.values ..Note.that,.by.convention,.the.156V.in.the.
given.AC.voltage.function.is.VP,.or.the.peak.value .

.
b). Magnitude.of.the.real.power.presented.to.the.power.distribution.system.can.
be.determined.by.rearranging.and.applying.4 .23.as.follows:

Eq 4 23

.
three Phase aC Power
. As. explained. in. Chapter. 3,. while. single. phase. AC. offered. substantial.
advantages.over.DC.in.terms.of.transmission.of.power.from.power.generating.
stations.to.consumers,.three.phase.AC.took.electrical.power.transmission.to.an.
even.higher.level.of.efficiency.and.effectiveness ..Having.explored.the.concepts,.
principles.analytical.techniques,.equations.and.conventions.associated.with.single.
phase.AC,.in.the.last.section,.we.are.now.adequately.prepared.to.explore.basic.yet.
practical. concepts,. principles. analytical. techniques,. equations. and. conventions.

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150 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

associated. with. three. phase. AC .. Because. conveyance. and. transformation. of.

electrical.energy.into.mechanical.and.other.forms.of.energy.is.more.effective.and.
efficient.in.three.phase.configuration.than.single.phase.configuration,.larger.loads.
and.large.transfers.of.electrical.power.and.energy.are.mostly.conducted.in.three.
phase.formation ..Therefore,.we.find.most.large.motors.and.other.types.of.loads,.
with.a.few.exceptions,.in.industrial.and.commercial.facilities,.to.be.three.phase .
. Analytical. techniques,. mathematical. formulas,. schematics. and. other.
types.of.three.phase.drawings.tend.to.be.more.complex.than.their.single.phase.
counterparts ..Due.to.the.profundity.and.complexity.of.three.phase.AC,.we.will.
limit.our.discussion.of.three.phase.AC.power,.in.this.section,.to.the.basic.level .
Efficient.and.effective.application.of.three.phase.AC.requires.that.the.load,.on.
each.of.the.three.phases.be.as.equal.as.possible ..When.the.loads.on.each.of.the.
three.phases.are.equal,.three.phase.AC.system.is.said.to.be.balanced .
Basic.three.phase.power.formulas.are.listed.below:

Eq 4 27

Eq 4 28

. Eq 4 29

. Eq 4 30

Where,

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DC and AC Power 151

Example 4 6
. The. AC. circuit. shown. below. depicts. a. three. phase,. one-line. schematic.
of. a. hydroelectric. power. generating. station,. modeled. after. the. Three. Gorges.
Dam,.China ..Assume.that.there.is.no.voltage.drop.between.the.generator.and.the.
primary.side.of.the.transmission.system.transformer ..The.line.current.is.measured.
to.be.22,453 amps, RMS ..Calculate.the.following.if.the.power.factor.is.known.to.
be.0 9:

a). Magnitude.of.the.apparent.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .
b). Magnitude.of.the.real.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .

Solution:
(a). Magnitude.of.the.apparent.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines:
. Note. that. the.AC. voltage. function. is. specified. in. RMS. form. and. not. in.

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152 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

“peak”.or.“maximum”.form ..Therefore,.we.don’t.need.to.derive.the.RMS.
voltage ..The.line.current.is.given.in.RMS.form,.as.well .

According.to.Eq ..4 .30:

Therefore,

(a). Magnitude. of. the. real. power. presented. to. the. transmission. lines. can. be.
determined.by.rearranging.and.using.Eq ..4 .23:
.
. .

.
. .
.
effiCienCy
. Efficiency.is.defined,.generally,.as.the.ratio.of.output.to.input ..The.output.
and.input,.in.general,.could.be.in.form.of.power,.energy,.torque.or.work ..Efficiency.
assumes.a.more.specific.definition.when.considered.in.the.context.of.a.specific.
form.of.energy,.work.or.power ..The.concept.of.efficiency,.when.applied.in.the.

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DC and AC Power 153

electrical.engineering.domain,.typically,.involves.power.or.energy .
In.electrical.engineering,.when.power.is.the.subject.of.analysis,.efficiency.is.
defined.as.follows:

. . Output.Power.
. Efficiency.in.percent.=.h.=. ———————. x.100. Eq 4 31
. . Input.Power

Where,
h (Eta) is.a.universal.symbol.for.efficiency

. In.electrical.engineering,.when.energy.is.the.subject.of.analysis,.efficiency.
is.defined.as.follows:

. . Output.Energy.
. Efficiency.in.percent.=.h.=. ———————. x.100. Eq 4 32
. . Input.Energy

. Although.work.is.not.used.as.commonly.in.the.computation.of.efficiency,.
in.the.electromechanical.realm,.where.applicable,.the.overall.system.efficiency.
calculation,.based.on.work,.could.be.stated.as.follows:

. . Work.Performed.by.the.Electromechanical.System.
Efficiency.(%).=.h.=. ————————————————. x.100. Eq 4 33
. . Input.Energy

. As.obvious.from.the.definitions.of.efficiency.above,.since.energy.cannot.be.
created,.efficiency.cannot.exceed.“1”.or.100% ..The.decimal.result.for.efficiency.
is.often.converted.to,.and.stated.as,.a.percentage.value .
In.the.following.section,.we.will.explore.the.relationship.between.power.
and.efficiency.in.steam,.mechanical.and.electrical.systems,.and.develop.better.
understanding. of. the. flow. of. power. in. steam. type. electrical. power. generating.
systems .

Power ConVersion from steam to eleCtriCal form

. The. power. delivered. by. steam. to. the. turbine. blades,. call. it. PSteam,. in. a.
simplified—no. heat. loss,. no. kinetic. head. loss,. no. potential. head. loss. and.
zero. frictional. head. loss—scenario. can. be. represented. by. the. mathematical.
relationship. stated. in. form. of. Eq 4 34 .. In. the. context. of. flow. of. energy. from.
steam.to.electricity,.functional.relationship.between.electrical.power,.PElectrical,.
generator.efficiency.ηGenerator,.steam.turbine.efficiency.ηTurbine,.and.PSteam.can.
be.expressed.in.form.of.Eq 4 35

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154 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

1P
Steam = (hi - hf) ṁ Eq 4 34

2P
Electrical = (PSteam) (ηTurbine). ..(ηGenerator) Eq 4 35

. See. the. power. flow. diagram. depicted. in. Figure. 4 .1 .. Even. though. this.
diagram. refers. to. the. flow. of. power,. in. conformance. with. Eq .. 4 .32,. it. applies.
just.as.well.to.flow.of.energy ..This.diagram.shows.the.harnessing.of.power.and.
energy. contained. in. superheated. steam—with. high. enthalpy. or. heat. content—
and. their. conversion. to. mechanical. brake. horsepower. in. the. steam. turbine ..
The. brake. horsepower. thus. imparted. onto. the. turbine. shaft. is. conveyed. to. the.
electrical.power.generator,.typically,.through.direct.coupling.of.the.turbine.and.
generator.shafts ..The.generator,.subsequently,.converts.the.brake.horsepower.and.
mechanical.energy.into.electrical.power.(Watts,.kW,.MW,.etc .).and.energy.(Wh,.
KWh,.MWh,.etc .) .
. However,. as. annotated. in. Figure. 4 .1,. the. transformation. of. power. and.
energy.from.steam.to.electricity.is.de-rated.first.in.the.turbine.and.later.in.the.
generator.by.respective.efficiencies .

Figure 4 1: Steam. to. wire. power. and. energy. flow—steam. power. generation.
system

1,2Thermodynamics Made Simple for Energy Engineers,.By:.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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DC and AC Power 155

. The.flow.of.power.and.energy.from—steam.to.electricity—as.depicted.in.
Figure.4 .1,.is.also.referred.to.as.“steam.to.wire”.flow.of.power.and.energy ..Of.
course,.the.electrical.power.galvanized.by.the.generator.is.presented.to.the.power.
distribution.grid.via.necessary.switchgear.and.transformers .

Figure 4 2: Water.to.wire.power.and.energy.flow .

Power ConVersion from water to eleCtriCal form

. In.hydroelectric.power.plants,.power.and.energy.is.transferred.from.water.
to. electrical. form,. via. hydraulic. turbines .. This. flow. of. power. and. energy—
referred. to. as. “Water to Wire”. flow. of. power—is. illustrated. in. Figure. 4 .2 ..
The. power. carried. by. the. water. to. the. turbine. blades. is. called. “Water Horse
Power,”.or.WHP;.sometimes,.also.referred.to.as.hydraulic horsepower.or.fluid
horse power .. As. explained. in. the. next. section,. when. energy. or. power. flows.
from.electrical.power.source.to.the.fluid,.through.a.hydraulic.pump,.the.WHP.is.
considered.equivalent.to—or.referred.to.as—PP,.the.pump horse power .
. The. transformation. of. power. from. hydraulic. form. to. electrical. can. be.
computed.through.equations.similar.to.the.ones.listed.below:

. . Eq 4 36
WHP.

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156 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Eq 4 37

Where,
WHP =.Water.horse.power,.imparted.the.water.onto.the.turbine,.in.hp .
hA =.Net.head.added.to.the.water,.in.ft,.by.virtue.of.the.height.of.water.in.
the.reservoir .
γ.=.Specific.weight.or.weight.density.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3
∆P.=.Differential.pressure,.across.the.turbine,.in.pounds.per.ft2

. In. the. context. of. flow. of. energy. from. water. to. electricity,. functional.
relationship.between.electrical.power,.PElectrical,.generator.efficiency.ηGenerator,.
turbine.efficiency.ηTurbine,.and.WHP.can.be.expressed.in.form.of.Eq 4 38

PElectrical = (WHP) (ηTurbine). ..(ηGenerator) Eq 4 38

. See. the. power. flow. diagram. depicted. in. Figure. 4 .2 .. Even. though. this.
diagram. refers. to. the. flow. of. power,. in. conformance. with. Eq .. 4 .38,. it. applies.
just.as.well.to.flow.of.energy ..This.diagram.shows.the.harnessing.of.power.and.
energy. contained. in. water—including. potential. head,. kinetic. head. pressure.
heads—and. their. conversion. to. mechanical. brake. horsepower. in. the. turbine ..
The. brake. horsepower. thus. imparted. onto. the. turbine. shaft. is. conveyed. to. the.
electrical.power.generator,.typically,.through.direct.coupling.of.the.turbine.and.
generator.shafts ..The.generator,.subsequently,.converts.the.brake.horsepower.and.
mechanical.energy.into.electrical.power.(Watts,.kW,.MW,.etc .).and.energy.(Wh,.
KWh,.MWh,.etc .) .
. However,. as. annotated. in. Figure. 4 .2. and. supported. by. Eq .. 4 .38,. the.
transformation.of.power.and.energy.from.water.to.electricity.is.first.depreciated.
in. the. turbine. and. later. in. the. generator. by. respective. efficiency. values. of. the.
turbine.and.generator .
The. flow. of. power. and. energy. from—water. to. electricity—as. depicted.
in.Figure.4 .2,.is.also.referred.to.as.“water to wire”.flow.of.power.and.energy ..
Electrical.power.generated.by.the.generator.is.routed.to.the.power.grid.through.
the.necessary.switchgear.and.transformers .

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DC and AC Power 157

Power ConVersion in hydrauliC PumP systems—

wire to water transformation of Power and energy
. Hydraulic.pumps,.driven.by.electric.motors,.represent.the.exact.converse.of.
the.hydroelectric.power.generating.systems ..The.flow.of.power.in.electric.pump.
applications. follows. the. path. depicted. in. Figure. 4 .3 .. Equations. 4 .36. and. 4 .37.
are.still,.mathematically,.pertinent ..However,.as.annotated.in.form.of.equations.
4 .39.and.4 .40,.the.WHP.equations.are.interpreted.in.a.context.that.is.opposite.of.
equations.4 .36.and.4 .37 .

.WHP . Eq 4 39

.WHP Eq 4 40

WHP = (PElectrical) ..(ηMotor) (ηPump) Eq 4 41

Where,
WHP =.PP.=.Water.horse.power.imparted.by.the.pump.and.motor.system.
onto.the.water,.measured.in.hp ..Also.referred.to.as.“pump.horse.power”.or.
“fluid.horse.power .”

Figure 4 3: Wire.to.water.power.flow—hydraulic.pump.system
discussion.on.equations.4 .39,.4 .40.and.4 .41,.cont’d:

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158 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

hA =.Net.head.added.by.the.pump.and.motor.system.onto.the.water,.measured.
in.ft .
γ.=.Specific.weight.or.weight.density.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3 .
∆P.=.Differential.pressure,.across.the.pump,.measured.in.pounds.per.ft2 .

.
P
. Electrical.=.Electrical.power.drawn.by.the.motor,.from.the.power.source.or.utility .
ηMotor.=.Motor.efficiency .
ηPump =.Pump.efficiency .

.. As. evident. from. Figure. 4 .3,. Eq .. 4 .39,. Eq .. 4 .40. and. Eq .. 4 .41,. in. electric.
motor. and. hydraulic. pump. systems,. power. and. energy. is. transferred. from. an.
electrical.power.source.to.a.hydraulic.or.fluid.system ..Because.in.this.scenario.the.
energy.stems.from.the.power.grid—transported.by.power.transmission.wires—
and.terminates.into.the.fluid,.it.is.referred.to.as.wire to water.flow.of.energy.and.
power .
. In. electric. motor. and. pump. systems—as. annotated. in. Figure. 4 .3. and.
supported. by. Eq .. 4 .41—during. the. transformation. of. power. and. energy. from.
electricity.to.water,.energy.is.first.depreciated.in.the.motor.and.later.in.the.pump.
by.respective.efficiency.values.of.the.motor.and.the.pump .
Some.of.the.efficiency,.energy.flow.and.power.flow.principles.and.methods.
described.above.are.illustrated.through.Examples.4 .7.and.4 .8.and.self-assessment.
problems.at.the.end.of.the.chapter .

Example 4 7
. As.an.energy.engineer,.you.are.charged.with.the.task.to.estimate.the.heat.
content. or. enthalpy,. hi,. of. the. superheated. steam. that. must. be. fed. to. a. steam.
turbine.in.order.to.supply.10 MW.(Megawatt).of.electrical.power.to.the.electrical.
grid ..Assume.that.there.is.no.heat.loss.in.the.turbine.system.and.that.difference.
between.the.enthalpies.on.the.entrance.and.exit.ends.of.the.turbine.is.converted.
completely. into. work,. minus. the. inefficiency. of. the. turbine .. All. of. the. data.
available.and.pertinent.to.this.project.is.listed.below:

—. Electrical.Power.Generator.Efficiency:.90%
—. Steam.Turbine.Efficiency:.70%
—. Mass.flow.rate.for.steam,.ṁ:.25.kg/s.(55.lbm/s)
—. Estimated.exit.enthalpy,.hf,.of.the.steam:.2875.kJ/kg.(1239.Btu/lbm)

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DC and AC Power 159

Solution
. Strategy: In.order.to.determine.the.estimated.enthalpy,.hi,.of.the.incoming.
steam,.we.need.to.start.with.the.stated.output.(10 MW).of.the.generator.and.work.
our.way.upstream.to.derive.the.energy.delivered.to.the.vanes.of.the.turbine ..The.
assumption.that.there.is.no.heat.loss.in.the.turbine.system.and.that.the.difference.
between.the.enthalpies.on.the.entrance.and.exit.ends.of.the.turbine.is.converted.
completely. into. work,. minus. the. inefficiency. of. the. turbine,. implies. that. the.
energy.delivered.by.the.steam.is.equal.to.the.net.energy.delivered.to.the.turbine.
vanes ..Also,.note.that.net.energy.delivered.to.the.turbine.vanes.is.reduced.or.de-
rated.according.to.the.given.efficiency.of.the.turbine .

Solution in SI/Metric Units

Since,.1J/s.=.1W.and.1.kJ/s.=.1.kW,

Power output of the generator.=.10.MW.=.10,000.kW

. . =.10,000 kJ/s

Brake.horsepower.delivered.by.the.turbine.to.the.generator,.through.the.turbine.
shaft.is.determined.as.follows:

.
Power.delivered.by.the.steam.to.the.turbine.vanes.is.determined.as.follows:

. Of.course,.we.could.obtain.the.same.result,.in.one.step,.by.rearranging.and.
applying.Eq ..4 .35.as.follows:

. Since. the. difference. in. the. turbine. entrance. and. exit. enthalpies,. in. this.
scenario,.is.equal.to.the.energy.delivered.to.the.turbine.vanes:

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160 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Psteam = (hi - hf) ṁ Eq 4 34

Solution in US/Imperial Units

Power.output.of.the.generator.=.10.MW.=.10,000.kW.=.10,000.kJ/s
Since.1 .055.kJ.=.1 .0.Btu,

Power output of the generator =.(10,000.kJ/s). ..(1/1 .055.kJ/Btu)

. . = 9,479 Btu/s

Brake.horsepower.delivered.by.the.turbine.to.the.generator:

Power.delivered.by.the.steam.to.the.turbine.vanes.is.determined.as.follows:

Since. the. difference. in. the. turbine. entrance. and. exit. enthalpies,. once. again,. is.
equal.to.the.energy.delivered.to.the.turbine.vanes:

Psteam = (hi - hf) ṁ Eq 4 34

Verification: The.accuracy.of.the.initial.enthalpy,.hi,.value.of.1512 Btu/lbm.can.

be.verified.by.simple.unit.conversion.to.the.metric.form.as.follows:

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DC and AC Power 161

. .
.

. .

Example 4 8
. Pressures.on.the.intake.and.exit.ends.of.a.turbine.are.measured.to.be.50.
psia.and.10.psia,.respectively ..The.volumetric.flow.rate.for.the.fluid.(water).is.120.
ft3/sec ..See.the.diagram.below ..The.turbine.is.driving.an.electric.generator.with.
nameplate.efficiency.of.90% ..Calculate.the.following:

a). Water.horsepower.delivered.by.the.water.to.the.turbine .
b). Brake.horsepower.delivered.by.the.turbine.to.the.shaft.driving.the.generator ..
The.efficiency.of.the.turbine.is.65% .
c). Maximum.power.generated,.in..kWs,.by.this.hydroelectric.power.generating.
system .

Solution
Given:
Pin.=.50.psia
Pout.=.10.psia
∆P.=.40.psia

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162 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

∆P.Conv ..to.psf.=.40.lb/in2.x.144.in2/ft2.=.5,760.psf

Turbine.Efficiency.=.65.%
Generator.Efficiency.=.90.%

a). According. to. Eq .. 4 .32,. water. horsepower. delivered. by. the. water. to. the.
turbine.can.be.stated.as:

b). Brake. horsepower. delivered. by. the. turbine. to. the. generator—via. the.
shaft—at.a.turbine.efficiency,.ht,.of.65%:
. BHP. =.WHP.x.ht
. . =.1257.hp.x.0 .65
. . =.817 hp

c). Maximum.power.generated,.in.kWs,.by.this.hydroelectric.power.generating.
system,.with.the.generator.efficiency, hg,.of.90%:
. Electrical.Power.Generated.(EHP*),.in.kW.=.BHP.x.hg ..x.0 .746.kW/hp
. . =.817.hp.x.0 .9.x.0 .746.kW/hp
. . =.549.kW

Example 4 9
. A.pump.is.to.be.installed.to.supply.a.maximum.of.200.ft3/sec.at.a.gage.
pressure.(∆P).of.8,000.psf ..Determine.the.size.of.the.motor.required.and.the.size.
(kVA).of.the.transformer.for.this.system ..Assume.that.the.efficiency.of.the.pump.
is.85%.and.that.the.nameplate.efficiency.of.the.“custom”.designed.special.motor.
is.92% ..Power.factor.of.the.transformer.is.0 .8 ..The.frictional.and.other.hydraulic.
losses.are.negligible .

*Electric. Horse. Power,. abbreviated. as. EHP,. is. loosely. used. to. refer. to. generated. electrical. power.
measured.in.Horse.Power,.hp.or.kW .

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DC and AC Power 163

Solution
. Solution. strategy. in. this. case. would. be. to. use. Eq .. 4 .32. to. compute. the.
WHP ..Then,.the.amounts.of.real.power.“P”.drawn.by.the.motor.and.delivered.by.
the.motor.would.be.computed.based.on.the.given.efficiencies.of.the.pump.and.
the.motor ..Once.the.real.power.drawn.by.the.motor.is.computed,.we.can.use.the.
power.factor.of.the.transformer.to.compute.the.kVA,.or.apparent.power.rating.
“S,”.of.the.transformer .

Given:
. ∆P.=.8000.psf
. V.=.Volumetric.Flow.Rate.=.200.cu-ft/sec
. Pump.Efficiency.=.85.%
. Motor.Efficiency.=.92.%
. Power.factor.of.the.transformer.=.0 .8

. According. to. Eq .. 4 .32,. water. horsepower. delivered. by. the. pump. to. the.
water.can.be.stated.as:

. According.to.the.wire.to.water.(hydraulic.pump).power.flow.diagram.in.
Figure.4 .3:

. Once.again,.according.to.the.wire.to.water.power.flow.diagram.in.Figure.
4 .3:

.
. .
.
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164 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Then,. according. to. Eq .. 4 .23,. the. apparent. power,. S. (kVA). rating. of. the.
feeder.transformer.would.be:

Self-assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 4

1 .. Consider. a. hydroelectric. reservoir. where. water. is. flowing. through. the.

turbine.at.the.rate.of.1100.ft3/sec ..See.the.diagram.below ..The.turbine.exit.
point.is.700.ft.lower.than.the.elevation.of.the.reservoir.water.surface ..The.
turbine. efficiency. is. 90%. and. the. total. frictional. head. loss. through. the.
penstock.shaft.and.turbine.system.is.52.ft .
a). Calculate.the.power.output.of.the.turbine.in.MWs .
b). If.the.efficiency.of.the.Electric.Power.Generator.is.92%,.what.would.
the. electric. power. output. be. for. this. hydroelectric. power. generating.
system?

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DC and AC Power 165

2 .. Which.of.the.following.two.water.heaters.would.cost.the.least.to.operate,.
on.annual.cost.basis,.under.the.given.assumptions?
A .. Electric.Water.Heater:
. Estimated.annual.energy.required.to.heat.the.water:.9000 kWh
. Efficiency: 95%
. Cost.Rate:.$0 10/kWh
B .. Natural.Gas.Water.Heater:
. Estimated. annual. energy. required. to. heat. the. water:. Same. as. the.
Electric.water.heater
. Efficiency:.98%
. Cost.Rate: $10 87/DT

3 .. A.computer.manufacturing.company.is.testing.a.prototype.for.the.amount.
of.heat.it.dissipates.as.wasted.energy.over.a.10.hour.period.of.operation ..
The.computer.is.powered.by.a.24V.DC.power.supply.and.is.designed.to.
draw.3A.of.current ..Determine.the.total.energy.dissipated.in.Btu .

4 .. In. response. to. a. significant. near. miss. incident. and. midair. fire. on. a. new.
commercial. jet. aircraft,. a. governmental. agency. is. performing. forensic.
analysis.on.the.type.of.Lithium.Ion.aircraft.battery.suspected.to.be.the.root.
cause ..Estimate.the.amount.of.current.involved.in.the.suspected.fault.on.
the.basis.of.the.following.forensic.data:
—. Total.energy.released.in.the.catastrophic.failure.of.the.battery:.866.kJ
—. Estimated.duration.of.fault:.2.seconds
—. Rated.voltage.of.the.battery:.3 .7.VDC

5 .. A.156Sin377t.sinusoidal.voltage.is.connected.across.a.load.consisting.of.a.
parallel.combination.of.a.20 Ω.resistor.and.a.10Ω capacitive reactance .
. (a).Determine.the.real.power.dissipated.by.the.resistor .
. (b). Determine. the. reactive. power. stored. in. a. 10Ω parallel. capacitive.
reactance ..(c).Calculate.the.total.apparent.power.delivered.to.this.parallel.
R.and.X.circuit.by.the.AC.voltage.source .

6 .. A.156Sin400t.sinusoidal.voltage.is.connected.across.an.unknown.resistive.
load .. If. the. power. dissipated. in. the. resistor. is. 1000. Watts,. what. is. the.
resistance.of.the.resistive.load?

7 .. The.AC.circuit.shown.below.depicts.a.three.phase,.one-line,.schematic.of.
a.hydroelectric.power.generating.station ..Assume.that.there.is.no.voltage.

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166 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

drop.between.the.generator.and.the.primary.side.of.the.transmission.system.
transformer ..The.line.current.is.indicated.by.an.EMS.system.to.be.10 kA,
RMS ..Calculate.the.following.if.the.power.factor.is.known.to.be.0 95:
a). Magnitude.of.the.apparent.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .
b). Magnitude.of.the.real.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .
c). The.RMS.line.to.neutral.voltage.at.the.source .

8 .. A. pump. is. to. be. installed. on. the. ground. floor. of. a. commercial. building.
to.supply.200.ft3/sec.of.water.up.to.an.elevation.of.100.ft ..Determine.the.
minimum.size.of.the.motor.for.this.application ..Assume.that.the.efficiency.
of.the.pump.is.80% ..The.weight.density.of.water.γ.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3 .

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Chapter 5

Power Factor
Introduction
. Power.factor.was.briefly.introduced.in.Chapter.4.in.order.to.gain.com-
plete. and. comprehensive. understanding. of. the. concepts,. principles. and. ap-
plication.of.AC.power ..Power.factor.stems.from.the.fact.that.AC.current.lags.
behind.or.leads.the.AC.voltage.in.AC.circuits.or.systems.that.are.predominantly.
inductive ..Conversely,.AC.current.leads.the.AC.voltage.in.AC.circuits.or.sys-
tems.that.are.predominantly.capacitive ..If.an.AC.circuit.is.purely.resistive,.or.
if.the.inductive.reactance.is.completely.offset.by.the.capacitive.reactance.in.the.
circuit,.the.voltage.and.current.would.be.completely.coincident,.resulting.in.the.
perfect.“utopian”.power.factor.of,.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .1 .

Figure 5 1: Coincident.AC.voltage.and.current.and.perfect.power.factor .

. In.AC. electrical. systems. where. inductive. reactance,. XL,. exceeds. XC,.

AC.current.and.voltage.will.not.be.coincident ..The.current.will.lag.behind.the.
voltage.with.respect.to.time.and.phase.angle;.resulting.in.a.power.factor.that.
is.less.than.“1”.or.100% ..See.Figures.5 .2.and.5 .3 ..The.graph.shown.in.Figure.
5 .2.shows.AC.voltage.and.current.plotted.as.a.function.of.time,.while.Figure.
5 .3.depicts.AC.voltage.and.current.plotted.as.a.function.of.phase.angle ..Upon.
167

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168 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

closer.examination.one.can.discern.the.fact.that,.in.both.of.these.graphs,.the.
current.function.(or.graph).follows.the.voltage.function.in.the.rise.and.fall.be-
low.the.horizontal.(abscissa).axis ..This.would.constitute.a.lagging.power.factor.
scenario,.explained.in.greater.detail.in.later.in.this.chapter ..At.this.point,.note.
that.the.“leading”.and.“lagging”.qualifier.associated.with.the.term.power.fac-
tor.is.always.assessed.from.current’s.vantage.point ..In.other.words,.it.is.always.
the.AC.current.that.is.lagging.behind,.leading.or.in.synch.with.the.AC.voltage .
. One.way.to.remember.that.the.current.lags.behind.voltage.in.predomi-
nantly.inductive.circuits.and.that.the.current.leads.the.voltage.in.predominantly.
capacitive.circuits.is.through.a.well-known.mnemonic:

ELI the ICE man

–. The.L.in.ELI means.inductance ..The.E.(voltage).comes.first,.then.the.
I. (current). lags. behind .. Inductive. reactance. produces. a. lagging. power.
factor

–. The. C. in. ICE. means. capacitance .. The. I. (current). comes. first. (leads).
then.the.E.(voltage).comes.later ..Capacitive.reactance.produces.a.leading.
power.factor .

. In.this.chapter,.we.will.explore.the.physical.aspects.of.power.factor.in.
greater. detail,. and. we. will. illustrate. the. difference. between. lagging. power.
factor. and. leading. power. factor .. We. will. explain. and. demonstrate. potential.
economic.benefit.that.can.be.derived.from.improvement.of.power.factor.in.AC.
systems ..We.will.explain.the.consequence.of.low.power.factor.on.the.energy.
productivity*,. energy. cost. and. the. life. of. electrical. equipment ..We. will. con-
clude.the.power.factor.discussion.with.the.introduction.of.conventional.alterna-
tives.for.power.factor.improvement .

Power faCtor
. Power. factor. of. an.AC. system. may. be. defined. “qualitatively”. as. the.
capacity. of. an.AC. system. to. covert. transmitted. or. delivered. apparent. power.
to. actual. work. or. other. forms. of. energy ..The. mathematical. or. “quantitative”.
definition. of. power. factor—as. introduced. in. Chapter. 4—is. represented. by.
equations.5 .1.and.5 .2 .
. . |P|
. PF.=.Power.Factor.=. — Eq 5 1
. . |S|
*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers,.By.S ..Bobby.Rauf .

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Power Factor 169

Figure 5 2: Lagging.power.factor.graph.as.a.function.of.time .

Figure 5 3: Lagging.power.factor.graph.as.a.function.of.phase.angle .

. PF.=.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θV.-.θI) Eq 5 2

Where,
|P|.=.Magnitude.of.the.real.component.of.AC.apparent.power
|S|.=.Magnitude.of.the.overall.AC.apparent.power
θv.=.Angle.of.AC.voltage
θI.=.Angle.of.AC.current,.also.denoted.as.φI

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170 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

lagging Power faCtor

. Since. loads. in. most. industrial,. commercial. and. institutional. facilities.
consist. of. inductive. equipment. such. as. motors,. transformers,. solenoids,. etc .,.
the. inductive. reactance,. XL,. in. such. facilities,. exceeds. any. capacitive. reac-
tance,.XC,.that.might.be.present ..When.AC.voltage.is.applied.to.such.predomi-
nantly.inductive.systems,.the.resulting.AC.current.lags.behind.the.voltage ..If.
this.lag.were.measured.in.terms.of.phase.angle,.the.voltage.angle.θV.would.be.
greater.than.the.current.angle.θI,.the.angular.difference.would.be.positive.and.
would.be.quantified.as.(θV - θI) ..The.cosine.of.this.angular.difference.would.
represent.the.lagging.power.factor.of.the.AC.system.and.would.be.a.stated.in.
form.of.Eq ..5 .2 ..Alternatively,.power.factor.or.the.“efficiency”.of.conversion.of.
AC.apparent.power,.S,.to.real.power.P.(rate.of.performance.of.work,.or.deliv-
ery.of.torque.and.energy).could.be.represented.by.the.ratio.of.the.magnitudes.
of.the.real.power.P.and.apparent.power.S,.as.stipulated.by.Eq ..5 .1 .

Note:.Since.cosine.of.any.angle.that.lies.in.the.1st.or.4th.quadrants.of.the.Carte-
sian.coordinates.is.positive,.power.factor.would.be.a.positive.number—declin-
ing.with.increasing.angular.difference—whether.or.not.the.current.lags.behind.
the.voltage .

Example 5 1:
In.an.AC.system,.the.voltage.angle θV.=.65°.and.the.current.angle.φI.=.20° .
a). Calculate.and.define.the.power.factor
b). Calculate.and.define.the.power.factor.if.the.voltage.and.current.angles.
are.reversed .
Solution:
c). Cos(65°-.20°).=.Cos(45°).=.0 .707;.or.70 .7%.lagging
d). Cos(20°-.65°).=.Cos(-45°).=.Cos(+45°).=.0 .707;.or.70 .7%.leading

lagging Power faCtor from imPedanCe PersPeCtiVe

. A.basic.AC.circuit.with.a.lagging.power.factor,.as.depicted.in.Figure.5 .4,.
would.consist.of.resistance.and.inductance,.represented.by.R.and.XL,.respec-
tively ..As.shown.in.Figure.5 .4,.the.AC.voltage.source,.Vac,.drives.AC.current.I.
through.the.total.resistance.R.and.the.total.inductance.L.in.the.AC.system ..Cus-
tomarily,.R.would.represent.not.only.the.resistive.loads.in.the.overall.system.
but.also.the.inherent.resistance.of.the.power.distribution.system,.i .e .,.resistance.
of.the.conductors.and.other.current.carrying.devices ..The.total.inductance.in.
the.system,.L,.could.be.an.aggregate.of.the.inductances.of.all.inductors.in.the.
system,.i .e .,.motors,.solenoids,.transformers,.etc ..The.total.inductance,.L,.could.

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Power Factor 171

be.represented.by.its.inductive.reactance.XL,.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .4,.or.by.its.
impedance.contribution,.ZL.as.annotated.in.Figure.5 .5 ..While,.in.practice,.there.
may.be.some.capacitance.and.capacitive.reactance.in.the.system,.for.the.sake.
of.simplicity,.it.is.assumed.that.this.AC.system.is.predominantly.inductive,.XL
>> XC, or.XC.is.negligible .

Figure 5 4: AC.circuit.with.a.lagging.power.factor

. One.salient.effect.of.the.dominant.inductive.reactance.XL.in.this.circuit.
is.that.it.causes.the.current.to.lag.behind.the.voltage ..The.current.lags.behind.
the.voltage.in.terms.of.time.as.well.as.the.angle.as.depicted.graphically.in.the.
Figures.5 .5.(a).and.(b) .
. While. Figure. 5 .4. illustrates. the. physical—circuit. element—aspect. of. a.
predominantly. inductive.AC. electrical. system. and. Figure. 5 .5. highlights. the.
resulting.discordance.between.the.voltage.and.current.waveforms,.Figure.5 .6.
helps.us.visualize.the.formation.of.a,.less.than.perfect,.non-unity.power.factor.
in.terms.of.vectors .
. The. combination. of. the. resistance. and. the. inductance. in. the. circuit. to.
form.the.total.impedance.of.the.circuit.is.depicted.in.form.of.vectors.R.and.ZL
and Z, respectively,.in.Figure.5 .6.(a) . Note.that.the.impedance.contribution.of.
inductance.in.the.circuit.is.represented.by.the.vector.ZL.pointing.straight.up.at.
an.angle.of.90° ..As.discussed.earlier.in.this.text,.impedance.contribution.ZL.
by.the.inductance.L,.or.inductive.reactance.XL.in.an.AC.system,.is.denoted.in.
complex. (rectangular). number. form. as. jXL . Where,. unit. vector. “j”. is. repre-
sented.in.polar/phasor.form.as.1∠90°,.and.is.responsible.for.assigning.the.90°.
angle.to.ZL .
. As.always,.resistance.R.possesses.an.angle.of.zero;.therefore,.it.is.repre-
sented.by.a.horizontal.vector.along.the.x-axis.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .6.(a) .
. Vector. addition. of. vectors. ZL. and. R. results. in. the. resultant. vector. Z
Where,. Z. represents. the. total. or. equivalent. impedance. of. the. predominantly.
inductive.AC. circuit ..As. ostensible. from. the. Figure. 5 .5. (a),. magnitude. of. Z,.
denoted.as.|Z.|,.is.a.geometric.hypotenuse.of.the.triangle.formed.by.component.

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172 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(a). Current.lagging.the.voltage.in.time.domain .

(b) Current lagging the voltage in phase angle domain.

Figure 5 5: AC.circuit.with.a.lagging.power.factor;.current.lagging.the.voltage.
in.phase.angle.and.time.domains .

vectors.R.and.ZL ..Therefore,.as.annotated.in.Figure.5 .5.(a),.Z.can.be.repre-

sented.in.polar.form.as.|Z.|∠θ°,.or.in.rectangular.form.as.R + jXL .
. One.of.the.methods.for.assessment.of.power.factor.requires.the.knowl-
edge.of.AC.voltage.and.AC.current.in.polar.or.phasor.form ..The.voltage.is.as-
sumed.to.be.at.an.angle.of.0°.and.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .4,.represented.in.vector/

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 Power Factor
Figure 5 6: Graphical.analysis.of.lagging.power.factor

173
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174 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

polar.form.as.|V.|∠0° . The.current.is.not.known ..The.current.can.be.determined.

by.applying.ohms.law.as.follows:

Then,.by.definition.and.in.accordance.with.Eq ..5 .2,

. PF.=.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θV.-.θI)
Since,.in.this.lagging.power.factor.case,

θV = 0°
. And, ɸI = θI = - θ°
. PF.=.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θV.-.θI).=.Cos{0.-.(θ°)}
Or,. Power.Factor.=.Cosine.of.the.angle.of.the.impedance,.Z .
. PF.=.Cos.(θZ) Eq 5 3

Example 5 2
. A.110∠0°.voltage.is.applied.to.load.consisting.of.a.10Ω.resistance.and.
10Ω.inductive.reactance,.in.series ..Calculate.the.power.factor.as.seen.by.the.
source .

Ancillary:.Verify.the.result.using.Eq ..5 .1 .

Solution:
. The.circuit.diagram.for.this.system.would.appear.as.follows:

. Eq ..5 .3,.derived.above,.can.be.applied.to.determine.the.power.factor.if.
the.angle.of.the.total.impedance.were.known ..The.total.impedance.can.be.as-
sessed,.in.polar/phasor.form,.using.a.scientific.calculator.or.through.the.angle.
computation.formula.covered.in.the.preceding.chapters .

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Power Factor 175

Ancillary: In. order. to. verify. the. power. factor. computed. above,. as. obvious.
from.Eq ..5 .1,.we.need.to.find.the.real.power.component.P.and.the.total.apparent.
power.S.dissipated.in.the.given.circuit .
. Apparent.power.S.can.be.calculated.using.Eq ..4 .1.introduced.in.Chapter.4 .

. . Eq 4 11

However,.we.must.calculate.the.phasor.value.of.the.AC.current.first .

Note: The.negative.angle.of.the.current,.with.the.voltage.angle.being.0°,.sig-
nifies.the.fact.that.the.current.is.lagging.behind.the.voltage,.and.therefore.the.
power.factor.will.be.a.lagging.power.factor .

S.=.V .I*.=.(110∠0°) .(7 .78∠45°).=.856∠45°

Note:."*".stands.for.conjugation.of.the.original.current.angle
Then,.P.=.|S| .Cos(45°).=.|856| .Cos(45°).=.605W
And,.Q.=.|S| .Sin(45°).=.|856| .Sin(45°).=.605W.{Redundant}

. . P. . 605
∴.PF.=. —. =. ——. 0 .707.or.70 .7%.lagging
. . |S|. . 856

leading Power faCtor from imPedanCe PersPeCtiVe

. A. basic.AC. circuit. with. a. leading. power. factor,. as. depicted. in. Figure.
5 .7,. would. consist. of. resistance. and. capacitance,. represented. by. R. and. XC,.
respectively ..As. shown. in. Figure. 5 .7,. the.AC. voltage. source,. Vac,. drives.AC.
current.I.through.the.total.resistance.R.and.the.total.capacitance.C.in.the.AC.

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176 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

system ..The.resistance,.R,.would.represent.not.only.the.resistive.loads.in.the.
overall.system.but.also.the.inherent.resistance.of.the.power.distribution.system,.
i .e .,.resistance.of.the.conductors.and.other.current.carrying.devices ..The.total.
capacitance.in.the.system,.C,.could.be.an.aggregate.of.the.capacitances.in.the.
system,. transmission. line. capacitance,. etc .. Leading. power. factor. can. also. be.
caused. by. machines. (i .e .. certain. power. generators). that. might. be. operating.
at. a. leading. power. factor,. computer. switched. mode. power. supplies,. etc ..The.
total.capacitance,.C,.is.represented.by.its.capacitive.reactance.XC,.as.shown.
in.Figure.5 .7,.or.by.its.impedance.contribution,.ZC.as.annotated.in.Figure.5 .9 ..
While,.in.practice,.there.may.be.some.inductance.and.inductive.reactance.in.the.
system,.for.the.sake.of.simplicity,.it.is.assumed.that.this.AC.system.is.predomi-
nantly.capacitive,.XC >> XL, or.XL.is.negligible .

Figure 5 7: AC.circuit.with.a.leading.power.factor

. One.distinct.effect.of.the.dominant.capacitive.reactance.XC.in.this.circuit.
is.that.it.causes.the.current.to.lead.the.voltage ..The.current.leads.the.voltage.in.
terms.of.time.as.well.as.the.angle,.as.depicted.graphically.in.the.Figure.5 .8.(a).
and.(b) .
. While. Figure. 5 .7. illustrates. the. physical—circuit. element—aspect. of. a.
predominantly. capacitive.AC. electrical. system. and. Figure. 5 .8. highlights. the.
resulting.discordance.between.the.voltage.and.current.waveforms,.Figure.5 .9.
depicts.the.formation.of.a,.less.than.perfect,.non-unity.power.factor.in.terms.of.
vectors .
. The. combination. of. the. resistance. and. the. capacitance. in. the. circuit. to.
form.the.total.impedance.of.the.circuit.is.depicted.in.form.of.vectors.R.and.ZC
and Z, respectively,. in. Figure. 5 .9. (a) . Note. that. the. impedance. contribution.
of.capacitance.in.the.circuit.is.represented.by.the.vector.ZC.pointing.directly.
downward.at.an.angle.of.-90° ..As.discussed.earlier.in.this.text,.impedance.con-
tribution.ZC.by.the.capacitance.C.or.capacitive.reactance.XC.in.an.AC.system.

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Power Factor 177

(a) Current leading the voltage in time domain.

(b) Current leading the voltage in phase angle domain.

Figure 5 8: AC.circuit.with.a.leading.power.factor;.current.leading.the.voltage.
in.phase.angle.and.time.domains

is.denoted.in.complex.(rectangular).number.form.as—jXC . Where,.unit.vector.
“-j”.is.represented.in.polar/phasor.form.as.1∠-90°,.and.is.responsible.for.as-
signing.the.-90°.angle.to.ZC .
. Resistance.R.portends.an.angle.of.zero;.therefore,.it.is.represented.by.a.
horizontal.vector.along.the.x-axis.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .9.(a) .

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178 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 5 9: Graphical.analysis.of.leading.power.factor

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Power Factor 179

. Vector. addition. of. vectors. ZC. and. R. results. in. the. resultant. vector. Z
Where,. Z. represents. the. total. or. equivalent. impedance. of. the. predominantly.
capacitive.AC. circuit ..As. obvious. from. the. Figure. 5 .9. (a),. magnitude. of. Z,.
denoted.as.|Z|,.is.a.geometric.hypotenuse.of.the.triangle.formed.by.component.
vectors.R.and.ZC ..Therefore,.as.annotated.in.Figure.5 .9.(a),.Z.can.be.repre-
sented.in.polar.form.as.|Z.|∠-θ°,.or.in.rectangular.form.as.R – jXC .
. One.approach.for.assessment.of.power.factor.requires.the.knowledge.of.
AC.voltage.and.AC.current.in.polar.or.phasor.form ..The.voltage.is.assumed.
to.be.at.an.angle.of.0°.and.as.shown.in.Figure.5 .7,.represented.in.vector/polar.
form.as.|V.|∠0° . The.current.is.not.known ..The.current—as.with.the.lagging.
power.factor.scenario—can.be.determined.by.applying.ohms.law.as.follows:

Then,.by.definition.and.in.accordance.with.Eq ..5 .2,

. PF.=.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θV.-.θI)

In.this.leading.power.factor.case,

θV = 0°
. And, ɸI = + θ°, or.just θ°

. PF. =.Power.Factor.=.Cos(θV.-.θI).=.Cos(0.-.(θ°)
. . =.Cos(-θI).=.Cos(θ°)
Or,. Power.Factor.=.Cosine.of.the.angle.of.the.impedance,.Z .
. PF. =. Cos(θZ),.which.is.the.same.as.in.the.lagging
. . . power.factor.scenario Eq 5 3

Example 5 3
. A.110∠0°.voltage.is.applied.to.load.consisting.of.a.10Ω.resistance.and.
10Ω.capacitive.reactance,.in.series ..Calculate.the.power.factor.as.seen.by.the.
source .

Ancillary:.Verify.the.result.using.Eq ..5 .1 .

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180 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
. The.circuit.diagram.for.this.system.would.appear.as.follows:

. Eq ..5 .3,.derived.above,.can.be.applied.to.determine.the.power.factor.if.
the.angle.of.the.total.impedance.were.known ..The.total.impedance.can.be.as-
sessed,.in.polar/phasor.form,.using.a.scientific.calculator.or.through.the.angle.
computation.formula.covered.in.the.preceding.chapters .

. As.shown.in.Figure.5 .9.(b),.Z,.in.the.leading.power.factor.scenario.lies.in.
the.fourth.quadrant,.therefore,.θZ = -45°

∴.Power.Factor.=.PF.=.Cos.(θZ).=.Cos.(-45°).=.0 .707,.or.70 .7%.leading .

Note: Because.power.factor.computation.is.based.on.“Cosine”.of.impedance.
angle,.power.factor.remained.the.same.as.we.transitioned.from.10Ω.inductive.
reactance.system.in.Example.5 .2.to.a.10Ω.capacitive.reactance.system.in.Ex-
ample.5 .3;.it.simply.transformed.from.being.lagging.to.leading .

Ancillary: In. order. to. verify. the. power. factor. computed. above,. as. obvious.
from.Eq ..5 .1,.we.need.to.find.the.real.power.component.P.and.the.total.apparent.
power.S.dissipated.in.the.given.circuit .
. Apparent.power.S.can.be.calculated.using.Eq ..4 .1.introduced.in.Chapter.4 .

. . Eq 4 11

However,. as. in. Example. 5 .2,. we. must. calculate. the. phasor. value. of. the.AC.
current.first .

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Power Factor 181

Note: The.positive.angle.of.the.current,.with.the.voltage.angle.being.0°,.sig-
nifies.the.fact.that.the.current.is.leading.the.voltage,.and.therefore.the.power.
factor.will.be.a.leading.power.factor .

S.=.V .I*.=.(110∠0°) .(7 .78.∠ –.45°).=.856∠ –.45°

Note:."*".stands.for.conjugation.of.the.original.current.angle
Then,.P.=.|S| .Cos(-45°).=.|856| .Cos(-45°).=.-605W
And,.Q.=.|S| .Sin(-45°).=.|856| .Sin(-45°).=.-605W.{Redundant}
Or,.S.=.P.+.jQ.=.605.+.j(-605).=.605.-.j605.VA

. . P. . 605
∴.PF.=. —. =. ——. 0 .707.or.70 .7%.lagging
. . |S|. . 856

Example 5 4
An.XL.=10Ω.capacitive.reactance.worth.of.capacitance.is.added.in.series.with.
the.series.resistor.and.inductive.reactance.AC.circuit.from.Example.5 .2 .
(a). Draw.the.circuit.diagram.for.the.new.circuit .
(b). Determine.the.net.impedance.of.the.new.circuit .
(c). Calculate.the.new.power.factor .

Solution:
(a)

(b). Since.all.elements.in.the.modified.circuit.are.connected.in.series,.the.total.
or.net.impedance.in.this.AC.circuit.would.be.as.follows:

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182 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Z.=.R.+.jXL.-.jXC.=.10Ω.+.j10 Ω.-.j10 Ω.=.10 Ω,

. . or,.Z.=.10Ω.∠0°Ω

(c). Since,. in. this. case,. the. inductive. reactance. is. completely. offset. by. the.
capacitive. reactance,. the. net. or. total. impedance. is. composed. solely. of.
pure.resistance.of.10Ω ..As.discussed.earlier.in.this.chapter.and.Chapter.4,.
power.factor.in.circuits.that.are.purely.resistive.or.have.“0”.net.reactance,.
is.“1”.or.100% .
. . This.can.be.proven.by.applying.Eq ..5 .3.derived.earlier,.and.recogniz-
ing.the.fact.that.θZ,.the.angle.of.total.impedance.Z,.as.derived.in.part.(b).
is.0°:

. Power.Factor.=.Cosine.of.the.angle.of.the.impedance,.Z .
. . Or,.PF.=.Cos(θZ).=.Cos(0).=.1

. As. obvious. by. now,. in. essence,. Example. 5 .4. shows. us. how. capacitive.
reactance.can.be.added.to.improve.or.correct.power.factor.in.a.predominantly.
inductive.AC.circuit ..This.serves.as.an.appropriate.segue.into.the.next.section.
that.pertains.to.the.Power.Factor.Correction .

Power faCtor CorreCtion

. There. are. multiple. methods. for. correcting. power. factor .. Some. of. the.
more.common.approaches.for.correcting.power.factor.are.as.follows:

a). Addition.of.power.factor.correcting.capacitors
b). Addition.of.power.factor.correcting.inductors
c). Frequency.manipulation

. The.power.factor.correction.method.chosen.depends.on.the.composition.
or. design. of. the.AC. system .. In. general,. if. the. power. factor. is. less. than. “1,”.
or.100%,.due.to.the.predominance.of.inductive.reactance,.XL,.capacitance.or.
capacitive.reactance,.XC,.must.be.added.in.series.or.shunt.to.raise.the.power.
factor.closer.to.100% ..In.fact,.Example.5 .4—where.10Ω.of.XL.is.offset.by.the.
addition. of. 10Ω. of. XC—is. a. classic. illustration. of. this. approach .. Frequency.
manipulation.method.is.applicable.when,.in.addition.to.resistance,.the.both.in-
ductive.and.capacitive.reactances.are.present ..As.described.later.in.this.chapter,.
when.the.power.factor.is.less.than.100%.due.to.the.dominance.of.capacitance.in.
an.AC.electrical.system,.inductive.reactance.may.be.introduced.into.the.circuit.
to.offset.the.capacitive.reactance.and.improve.the.system’s.power.factor .

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Power Factor 183

Addition of capacitance or capacitive reactance

. Since.power.factor.correcting.capacitors,.essentially,.impact.the.AC.cir-
cuits.or.systems.through.addition.of.capacitive.reactance.XC, or ZC = - jXC,.
their.addition to.a.predominantly.inductive.circuit.yields.different.results.de-
pending.upon.whether.they.are.connected.in.series.with.the.load.or.in.parallel.
(or. shunt) .. Example. 5 .4. represents. a. scenario. where. power. factor. correcting.
capacitance. is. added. in. series .. Comprehensive. discussion. on. the. distinction.
between.addition.of.power.factor.correcting.capacitors.in.parallel.versus.series.
is. beyond. the. scope. of. this. text .. Recognizing. the. fact. that. the. difference. in.
parallel.versus.series.addition.of.capacitors.is.mainly.due.to.the.difference.in.
parallel.versus.series.addition.of.impedances,.in.general,.should.suffice .
. Power. factor. correcting. capacitors. can. also. be. viewed. as. devices. used.
to.reduce.current.in.power.systems ..Capacitors.do.so.by.providing.a.leading.
current.to.loads.that.require.lagging.current ..In.other.words,.capacitors.provide.
“off-.setting”.current.for.inductive.loads .
. Another.side.benefit.in.the.use.of.a.series.capacitor.is.in.the.fact.that.they.
can.reduce.voltage.drop,.especially.in.motors.starting.situations.and.other.high.
impulse.loads ..This.can.be.attributed.to.the.fact.that.capacitors,.as.discussed.
earlier.in.this.text,.don’t.permit.instantaneous.drop.or.rise.in.voltage .
. There. are. multiple. approaches. for. assessment. of. capacitance. required.
for.specific.improvement.of.power.factor ..One.method.relies.on.the.knowledge.
of.existing.and.desired.reactive.powers,.Q1.and.Q2,.respectively;.the.operat-
ing.voltage.and.the.frequency ..The.formula.for.determination.of.the.required.
capacitance.as.follows:

. . (Q1.–.Q2)
. C.=. ———— Eq 5 4
. . 2pfV2

Where,
. C. =. Capacitance,.in.Farads,.required.to.reduce.the.reactive.power.from.Q1.
to.Q2
. Q1. =. Initial,.higher,.reactive.power,.in.VARs
. Q2. =. Improved,.lower,.reactive.power,.in.VARs
. V. =. Voltage,.in.Volts
. f. =. Frequency,.in.Hz

. This. formula. is. premised. on. the. following. mathematical. definitions. of.
reactive.power.Q:

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184 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. . V2
. |Q|.=. —. =. V22pfC. Eq 5 5
. . XC

Or,.for.inductive.reactance:

. . V2. . V2
. |Q|.=. —. =. ——. Eq 5 6
. . XC. . 2pfC

. An.electrical.engineer.may.use.Eq ..5 .4.to.determine.the.capacitance.re-

quired.to.improve.the.power.factor,.by.a.specific.amount,.in.lieu.of.the.apparent.
power.(S).reduction.approach ..The.apparent.power.based.power.factor.calcula-
tion.method.is.illustrated,.later,.through.Example.5 .7 .

Example 5 5
. The. HMI. (Human. Machine. Interface). monitor. of. an. EMS. system,.
monitoring.a.chilled.water.pump.motor,.is.showing.that.the.motor.is.drawing.
a.reactive.power,.Q1,.of.50.kVARs ..Funding.has.been.allocated.as.a.part.of.a.
DSM.(Demand.Side.Management).energy.conservation.project.to.improve.the.
power.factor.of.the.motor.branch.circuit.such.that.the.reactive.power.is.reduced.
to.Q2.of.10.kVARs ..The.branch.circuit.is.operating.at.240.VRMS ..The.system.
frequency.is.60.Hz ..Calculate.the.amount.of.capacitance.that.must.be.added.to.
achieve.the.power.factor.improvement.project.objective .

Solution:
Apply.Eq ..5 .4:

. . (Q1.–.Q2). . (50.kVAR.–.10.kVAR
. C.=. ————. =. —————————
. . 2pfV2. . 2p(60Hz)(240V)2

. . (50,000.VAR.–.10,000.VAR)
. =. ————————————. =. 0 .001843F.=.1 .84.mF
. . 2p(60Hz)(240V)2

Example 5 6
Power Factor Improvement and Cost Savings: An. air. compressor.
station.is.consuming.2,000.kW.at.a.power.factor.of.0 .7 ..The.utility.company.
charges.a.$5 .00/kVA.per.month.as.penalty.for.poor.power.factor ..What.would.
be.the.annual,.pre-tax,.savings.if.capacitors.could.be.installed.and.power.factor.
improved.to.0 .9?

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Power Factor 185

Solution:
. Since.the.objective.is.to.assess.the.cost.savings.on.the.basis.of.apparent.
power. S. (kVA). reduction,. we. must. determine. the. apparent. power. S1. being.
drawn.by.the.air.compressor.motor.at.the.existing.power.factor.of.0 .7.(70%),.
and.the.apparent.power.S2.at.the.desired.power.factor.of.0 .9.(90%) ..We.can.
compute.S1 and.S2.by.rearranging.and.applying.Eq ..5 .1 .

. . |P|
. PF.=.Power.Factor.=. — Eq 5 1
. . |S|

Rearrange.Eq ..5 .1:

. . |P|
. Magnitude.of.Apparent.Power.|S|.=. —
. . PF

Therefore,

. . |P|. . 2,000.kW
. Magnitude.of.existing.apparent.power.|S1|.=.——. =. ————
. . PF1. . 0 .7

. . =.2857.kVA

. . |P|. . 2,000.kW
. Magnitude.of.desired.apparent.power.|S2|.=. ——. =. ————
. . PF2. . 0 .9

. . =.2222.kVA

Note.that.real.power.drawn,.which.is.a.function.of.the.actual.work.performed.
or.torque.generated,.remains.unchanged.at.2,000.kW .

= (2857kVA – 2222kVA) . $5 . (12 Months/Year)

kVA - Month
.
= $38,095

Automatic Switching PF Correcting Capacitor System

. Imagine.a.plant.engineering.project.that.entails.installation.of.a.large,.500.
hp,.air.compressor ..The.500.hp.rating.of.the.air.compressor.is.premised.on.the.
size.of.the.motor ..In.other.words,.the.500.hp.rating,.in.most.cases.would.be.real.
power.(P) delivered.by.the.motor.to.the.compressor ..However,.as.we.discussed.

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186 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

earlier,.motors.add.inductive reactance.to.electrical.system ..So,.the.branch.cir-

cuit.the.motor.pertains.to,.in.this.facility,.would.have.a.non-unity,.or.less.than.
100%. power. factor,. say. 80% .. Sizeable. loads,. such. as. large. air. compressors,.
therefore,. degrade. the. aggregate. power. factor. of. the. entire. electrical. system ..
On. new. installations,. such. as. the. one. being. considered. here,. degradation. of.
power.factor.can.be.prevented.by.including.automatic.switching.power.factor.
correcting. capacitor. banks. such. as. the. one. shown. in. Figure. 5 .10 ..Automatic.
switching. power. factor. correcting. capacitor. banks. constitute. a. more. optimal.
and.effective.approach.for.automatic.introduction.and.removal.of.capacitance.
to.maintain.the.system.power.factor.at.an.optimal.level .
. The. controls. in. an. automated. power. factor. correcting. system. connect.
or. disconnect. capacitors. as. the. inductive. load. appears. and. disappears. from.
the. overall. electrical. circuit .. This. ensures. that. the. power. factor. correcting.
capacitors—and. the. associated. capacitive. reactance—drop. out. of. the. circuit.
when.the.compressor.motor.load.(and.associated.inductive.reactance).switches.
off ..Important point:.If.the.power.factor.capacitors.were.to.stay.connected.to.
the.compressor.motor.branch.circuit.when.the.motor.is.off,.the.circuit.would.
become.predominantly.capacitive,.as.XC.would.exceed.XL,.resulting.in.a.low.
leading.power.factor ..In.other.words,.if.the.capacitor.bank.is.not.disconnected.
when.the.compressor.based.inductive.reactance,.XL,.drops.out,.it.would.result.
in.a.capacitive reactance “overdose .”
. As.annotated.in.Figure.5 .10,.there.are.six.key.functional.components.in.
the.pictured.automatic.power.factor.correcting.system:

Figure 5 10: Automated.power.factor.correcting.capacitor.bank .

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Power Factor 187

1 .. Control.contactor.or.relay:.for.connecting.and.disconnecting.of.the.ca-
pacitors .
2 .. Terminal. Strip. or. Connection. Points:. for. interface. to. the. motor. circuit,.
sensors,.and.other.field.connections .
3 .. Slow.blow.fuses:.for.overload.protection .
4 .. Inrush.limiting.contactors:.for.limiting.the.motor.inrush.current .
5 .. Capacitors. (single-phase. or. three-phase. units,. delta-connection:. power.
factor.correcting.capacitors.(XC) .
6 .. Control.transformer:.for.obtaining.control.voltage,.i .e ..110.VAC,.from.
the.existing.power.source,.operating.at.power.circuit.voltage,.i .e ..480.
VAC .

General information on power factor and

the application of power factor correcting capacitors:
. What is a suitable power factor goal for industrial, commercial and
institutional facilities?. It. would. be. difficult. to. present. a. specific. and. perfect.
answer.to.this.question ..While.one.could.find.enough.data.to.support.the.claim.
that. the. overall. average. power. factor. in. the. United. States. is. approximately.
82%,.the.best.answer.varies.from.situation.to.situation,.and.industry.to.industry ..
For.example,.on.one.end.of.the.spectrum,.one.might.observe.power.factors.ap-
proaching.90%.to.97%.in.the.institutional.and.commercial.structures,.while.on.
the.low.end.of.the.power.factor.spectrum.it.is.not.uncommon.to.come.across.
power. factors. to. the. tune. of. 50%. or. lower. in. certain. foundry,. plastics. and.
chemical. industries,. where. the. melting. processes. employ. electrical. inductive.
heating .
. What is the financial return and payback associated with power factor
correction projects?.Some.utilities.base.demand.charges.on.kVA.demanded.by.
the.customer.facility ..In.such.cases,.an.approximate.10%.demand.(kVA).reduc-
tion.can.be.realized.if.a.power-factor-correction.capacitor.bank.is.installed.to.
improve.the.power.factor.from.82%.to.90% ..Such.and.investment.has.a.typi-
cal.payback.of,.approximately,.two.(2).years ..Note,.however,.that.the.payback.
periods,.on.power.factor.correction.based.energy.projects—or.for.that.matter,.
on. any. energy. project—will. be. shorter. for. consumers. located. in. higher. en-
ergy.cost.regions,.i .e ..the.North.Eastern.United.States,.the.Western.states.and.
Hawaii ..Conversely,.the.payback.periods.will.be.longer.in.lower.energy.cost.
regions,.i .e ..the.South.East,.the.Dakota’s,.etc ..See.Finance.and.Accounting.for.
Energy.Engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf .

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188 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Application, installation, operation and maintenance of power fac-

tor correcting capacitors: Application. of. power. factor. correcting. capacitors.
should. be. preceded. by. proper. analysis. and. design .. Improper. application. of.
power.factor.correcting.capacitors.can.damage.the.electrical.system ..Improper.
application.of.power.factor.correcting.capacitors.can.cause.fuses.to.blow.and.
can. amplify. system. harmonics ..After. installation,. capacitor. banks. must. be.
included.in.the.facility’s.Preventive.Maintenance.Program ..Loose.connections.
and.inherent.defects,.when.ignored,.can.lead.to.unanticipated.failures,.faults,.
downtimes.and.arc.flash.hazards* .
. Higher.power.factor.means.lower.apparent.power,.S.(in.kVA),.demanded.
and.lower.“unproductive”.current.in.the.electrical.system ..This.“unproductive”.
current.is.wasted,.as.heat,.as.it.flows.through.conductors,.protective.devices,.
power. monitoring. devices,. transformers. and. loads ..As. we. know,. in. general,.
operation. of. equipment. above. normal. temperatures. results. in. shortening. of.
the.life.of.equipment ..Case.in.point.and.analogy:.overheated.machines,.such.
as.automobile.engines,.tend.to.cease.and.fail.when.overloaded.or.operated.at.
abnormally.high.temperatures ..Therefore,.improving.the.power.factor.not.only.
results.in.improved.energy.efficiency.but.it.also.extends.service.life,.and.re-
duces.maintenance.cost.of.equipment .
. If. inductive. reactance. (XL,. in. ). and. reactive. power. (Q,. in. VARs). are.
encountered. through. a. distribution. transformer,. application. of. PF. capacitor. is.
recommended.at.the.distribution.bus.feeding.the.transformer ..When.the.inductive.
reactance.(XL,.in.Ω).and.reactive.power.(Q,.in.VARs).are.contributed.by.large.
motors,. the. greatest. PF. corrective. effect. and. energy. loss. reduction. is. realized.
when.the.capacitors.are.installed.at.each.motor.load.(on.line.side),.or.between.
the.motor.starters.and.the.motors ..However,.the.initial.cost.for.a.number.of.small.
banks.of.capacitors.would.tend.to.be.higher.than.the.initial.cost.of.a.single,.large,.
bank. of. capacitors,. catering. to. several. motor. loads .. In. such. cases,. the. higher.
initial.cost.must.be.weighed.against.gains.in.energy.cost.and.PF.correction.ben-
efits ..Systems.that.experience.large.load.swings,.throughout.the.day.or.month,.
are. good. candidates. for. automatic. switching. correction. systems ..As. explained.
earlier,.these.systems,.automatically,.correct.the.PF.as.load.variations.occur .

Addition of inductance or inductive reactance to

correct for leading power factor
. If.the.power.factor.is.less.than.“1”.due.to.the.predominance.of.capaci-
tance.or.capacitive.reactance,.XC,.inductance.or.inductive.reactance,.XL,.must.

*NFPA®.70E,.2012

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Power Factor 189

be.added.in.series.or.shunt.to.raise.the.power.factor.closer.to.100% .
. In.some.AC.electrical.systems,.such.as.the.power.transmission.lines,.the.
total.impedance.as.seen.from.the.utility.side.is.indeed.predominantly.capaci-
tive ..In.such.cases, inductance.must.be.added.to.improve.the.power.factor .
. Addition.of.power.factor.correcting.inductive.reactance,.and.analytical.
methods.to.correct.power.factor.in.predominantly.capacitive.electrical.systems,.
is.illustrated.in.self-.assessment.problems.2.and.3 .

Frequency manipulation approach for correction of power factor

. While.pursuit.of.a.perfect.unity.power.factor.in.low.power.factor.situ-
ations.is.not.always.feasible.or.practical,.for.simplicity,.we.will.limit.our.dis-
cussion.associated.with.frequency.based.power.factor.correction.to.scenarios.
where.power.factor.is,.indeed,.raised.to.1.or.100% ..As.stated.earlier,.frequency.
manipulation.method.pertains.to.AC.electrical.systems.where.the.both.induc-
tive.and.capacitive.reactances.are.present,.in.addition.to.resistance .
. Consider.the.AC.circuit.shown.in.Figure.5 .11.with.an.existing.power.fac-
tor.that.is.less.than.1 .

Figure 5 11: An.RLC.(Resister,.Inductor.and.Capacitor).circuit .

. In.order.for.this.circuit’s.power.factor.to.be.unity.or.100%,.and.the.circuit.
must.be.purely.resistive ..In.other.words,.ZEq = R and.ZC.must.cancel.or.offset.
ZL ..So,.when.inductive.reactance.XL.and.capacitive.reactance.XC.are.fixed,.the.
electrical.frequencies.“f”.and.“ω”.may.be.changed.such.that.the.magnitudes.of.
ZC.and.ZL.become.equal.and.cancel.each.other ..The.frequency.at.which.|ZC|.
and.|ZL|.equate.is.called.resonant frequency, f0 or ω0 ..An.electrical.circuit.op-
erating.at.resonance.frequency.is.called.a.resonant circuit ..The.derivation.and.
mathematical.proof.for.resonance.frequency.is.as.follows:
. In. order. for. ZL. and. ZC. to. cancel. each. other. when. added. together. in. a.
series.combination:.ZL.=.–.ZC .

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190 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Where,
. L. =. Inductance.in.Henry,.or.H
. C. =. Capacitance.in.Farads,.or.F
. ω. =. Angular.frequency,.in.general,.in.radians/sec .
. ω o. =. Resonance.angular.frequency,.in.radians/sec .
. f. =. Electrical.frequency,.in.general,.in.cycles/sec,.hertz,.or.Hz;.60Hz.in.
the.US .
. f o. =. Resonance.electrical.frequency,.in.hertz .
. Z C. =. Impedance.contribution.by.capacitance.in.an.AC.circuit,.in.Ω .
. ZL. =. Impedance.contribution.by.inductance.in.an.AC.circuit,.in.Ω .
. X C. =. Reactance.due.to.capacitance.in.an.AC.circuit,.in.Ω .
. XL. =. Reactance.due.to.inductance.in.an.AC.circuit,.in.Ω .

. As.obvious,.the.frequency.method.for.correcting.power.factor.is.feasible.
only.in.circumstances.where.the.electrical.frequency.can.be.varied.through.the.
use. of. electromechanical. systems. such. as. electrical. power. generators,. or. via.
electronic.variable.frequency.drives .

Example 5 7
. The.output.of.a.variable.frequency.drive,.as.shown.in.the.circuit.below,.is.
157Sinωt ..The.VFD.output.is.currently.set.at.60Hz ..This.drive.is.connected.to.
a.resistive.load,.capacitive.reactance,.and.an.inductive.reactance .
(a). What.should.be.the.new.frequency.setting.to.attain.a.power.factor.of.1,.or.
100%?

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Power Factor 191

(b). What.is.the.resonance.frequency.for.this.AC.system?
(c). Could. a. power. factor. other. than. unity. be. attained. through. variation. of.
frequency?

Solution
(a). As. explained. earlier. in. this. section,. the. power. factor. of. an.AC. circuit,.
consisting.of.inductive.and.capacitive.reactance,.peaks.to.the.maximum.
value.of.unity,.or.100%,.at.resonance.frequency,.f0 ..However,.in.this.case,.
because.the.inductance.and.capacitance.are.represented.as.inductive.and.
capacitive.reactances,.respectively,.we.cannot.apply.Eq ..5 .8,.directly,.to.
compute. f0 .. We. must. convert. reactances. XC. and. XB. to. corresponding.
capacitance,.C,.and.inductance,.L,.values .

(b). As.explained.earlier,.resonance.frequency.is.the.AC.frequency.at.which.
the.total.capacitive.reactance.in.an.AC.circuit.cancels.or.offsets.the.total.
inductive.reactance ..Therefore,.resonance.frequency,.f0,.for.the.given.AC.
circuit.is.the.frequency.calculated.in.part.(a) ..In.other.words,.f0 = 104Hz

(c). The.power.factor.does,.indeed.vary.with.frequency,.with.all.other.enti-
ties.held.constant ..For.instance,.with.all.parameter.held.constant,.if.the.
frequency.is.lowered.to.30Hz,.the.power.factor.drops.down.to,.approxi-
mately,.96% .

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192 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Ancillary:.Reader.is.encouraged.to.prove.this ..Also.see.self-assessment.
problem.4 .

Chapter 5
Self-assessment Problems & Questions
1 .. Determine.the.power.factor.of.the.circuit.shown.below,.as.seen.by.the.AC.
source .

2 .. Assume.that.the.circuit.depicted.below.represents.one.phase.of.a.special.
power.transmission.line ..Determine.the.power.factor.of.the.circuit.shown.
below,.as.seen.by.the.AC.source .

3 .. If.the.power.factor.in.problem.2.is.less.than.1 .0,.how.much.capacitance.
or.inductance.must.be.added.in.series.to.raise.the.power.factor.to.unity?

4 The.output.of.a.variable.frequency.drive,.as.shown.in.the.circuit.below,.is.
157Sinωt ..The.VFD.output.is.currently.set.at.50Hz ..This.drive.is.connect-
ed.to.a.resistive.load,.capacitive.reactance,.and.an.inductive.reactance .
(a). What.should.be.the.new.frequency.setting.to.attain.a.power.factor.of.
1,.or.100% .

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Power Factor 193

(b). What.is.the.existing.power.factor,.at.50.Hz?
(c). What. would. be. the. power. factor. if. all. circuit. elements. remain. un-
changed.and.the.VFD.frequency.is.lowered.to.30Hz .

5 .. The.HMI.(Human.Machine.Interface).monitor.of.an.Automated.HVAC.
system,. monitoring. an. air. washer. supply. fan. motor. is. indicating. a. re-
active. power,. Q1,. of. 60. kVARs .. This. system. is. located. in. the. United.
Kingdom,.where.the.AC.frequency.is.50.Hz ..Determine.the.amount.of.
capacitance.that.must.be.added.to.improve.the.power.factor.of.the.motor.
branch.circuit.such.that.the.reactive.power.is.reduced.to.Q2.of.20.kVARs ..
The.branch.circuit.is.operating.at.240.VRMS .

6 .. Power.Factor.Improvement.and.Cost.Savings:.In.conjunction.with.the.lo-
cal.utility.company.DSM.program,.a.manufacturing.plant.is.being.offered.
$2.per.kVA.for.improvement.in.power.factor.from.0 .75.to.0 .85 ..The.plant.
is.operating.at.its.contract.level.of.30.MW ..Determine.estimated.annual.
pre-tax.revenue.if.the.plant.accepts.the.offer .

7 .. The.output.of.a.variable.frequency.drive,.as.shown.in.the.circuit.below,.
is.157Sinωt ..The.VFD.output.is.currently.set.at.60Hz ..This.drive.is.con-
nected.to.a.resistive.load,.capacitive.reactance,.inductive.reactance.and.
a.“black.box”.load,.ZB,.of.10Ω∠45° ..What.should.be.the.new.frequency.
setting.to.attain.a.power.factor.of.1,.or.100%?

librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 6

Demand, Load Factor,

Service Factor and Electrical
Power Bill Computation

Introduction
. In.this.short.chapter.we.will.begin.with.the.discussion.on.fundamental.
concepts.of.electrical.demand.and.peak.demand ..Introduction.to.the.concepts.of.
demand.and.peak.demand.should.poise.us.well.for.investigation.of.the.concept.
of. load. factor,. its. role. in. power. quality. considerations. and. electrical. energy.
cost.reduction.through.peak.shaving ..Later.in.the.chapter,.we.will.explain.the.
concept.of.service.factor.as.it.applies.to.electrical.equipment ..This.chapter.con-
cludes.with.discussion.and.analysis.of.large.industrial.power.bill.computation ..
The.bill.calculation.examples.are.designed.to.help.the.reader.develop.skills.and.
acumen.to.analyze.and.understand.important.components.of.large.power.bills,.
in.their.efforts.to.identify.cost.reduction.opportunities ..As.with.other.electrical.
concepts.presented.in.this.text,.we.will.substantiate.our.discussion.with.analo-
gies,.mathematical.and.analytical.models,.as.applicable.

demand
In. the. electrical. power. distribution. and. energy. realms,. generally,. the.
term. “demand”. implies. electrical. power. demanded. by. electrical. loads .. The.
term.“power”.could.be.construed.as.apparent power,.S,.measured.in.VA,.kVA,.
MVA,. etc .,. or. it. could. be. interpreted. as. real. power,. P,. measured. in. W,. kW,.
MW,.etc ..Many.electrical.power.utilities.tend.to.apply.the.term.demand in.the.
context.of.real power,.P,.demanded.from.the.grid ..However,.some.electrical.
power.utilities.use.the.term.demand.to.signify.apparent power.demanded.from.
the.grid,.measured.in.kVA ..When.demand.is.known.to.represent.real.power.in.
kWs.or.MWs,.average.demand.is.computed.in.accordance.with.Eq ..6 .1 .
195

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196 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Average.Demand,.in.kW
. . nergy.(kWh.or.MWh).consumed.during.the.billing.Month
E
=. ————————————————————————. Eq 6 1
. . Total.number.of.hours.in.the.month

PeaK demand
. The.term.peak.demand.has.two.common.or.mainstream.interpretations ..
The.first.interpretation.is.associated,.mostly,.with.electrical.power.load.profil-
ing,.such.as.the.real.power,.P.(kW),.load.profile.or.graph.included.among.the.
various.power.monitoring.screens.available.through.EMS,.Energy.Monitoring.
Systems*,.or.BMS,.Building.Management.Systems ..The.graph.in.Figure.6 .1.is.
a.screen.capture.of.load.profile.screen.in.an.EMS.system ..The.graph.depicts.a.
plot.of.real.power.load.(in.kWs).plotted.as.a.function.of.time ..The.darker.line.
spanning.from.the.left.to.right.in.the.graph.represents.the.actual power demand
(in kW),.recorded,.by.the.hour,.over.a.24-hour.period ..The.lighter.line.in.the.
graph. represents. demand forecasted. on. the. basis. of. the. actual. load. profile.
measured.and.recorded.by.the.EMS.system,.over.the.long.term ..The.forecasted.
demand. plays. an. essential. role. in. energy. conservation. related. peak. shaving.
programs† ..As.obvious,.demand.forecast.premised.on.actual,.measured,.load.
profile—for. a. specific. facility—would. tend. to. be. more. reliable. than. general.
load.profiles.based.on.theoretical.models ..This.constitutes.an.important.justifi-
cation.for.EMS.systems .
. The. second. interpretation. of. the. term. peak. demand. is. associated. more.
directly.with.the.computation.of.electrical.power.bills.for.large.industrial.and.
commercial.consumers.of.electricity ..The.peak.demand,.in.the.billing.context,.
is.computed.by.most.power.companies.on.the.basis.of.demand.intervals .
. Some.utilities.(power.companies).base.their.peak.demand.computation.
on. the. basis. of. 30. minute. intervals. and. others. base. the. demand. computation.
on.the.basis.of.15.minute.intervals ..We.will.limit.our.consideration.of.the.peak.
demand.interval.to.30.minute.intervals .
. Under. one. of. the. more. common. large. power. consumer. contract. rate.
schedules,.referred.to.as.the.OPT,.Time.of.the.Day,.or.Time.of.Use.Rate.Sched-
ule,.the.power.company.captures.and.records.the.energy.consumed.by.the.con-
sumer,.in.kWh,.over.half.hour.intervals ..Each.energy.data.point.thus.captured.
is.converted.to.the.corresponding.demand.value,.in.kW,.as.stated.under.Eq ..6 .2 .
. . Energy.in.kWh. . Energy.in.kWh
Demand.=.Power.in.kW.=. ———————. =. ————————. Eq 6 2
. . Time.in.Hours. . 1/2.Hour

*†Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 197

Figure 6 1:.Actual.vs ..forecasted.power.demand.(kW)

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198 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. This.could.amount.to,.approximately,.1440.data.points.for.a.30.day.bill-
ing.month,.with.each.data.point.representing.the.demand.(kW).for.a.specific.30.
minute.interval.during.the.billing.month ..The.utility.provider.(power.company).
selects.the.highest.demand.data.point,.during.the.declared.“on-peak”.periods.
and.labels.it.Peak Demand.for.the.month ..See.additional.information.on.peak.
demand.under.the.bill.calculation.section .

load faCtor
. The.most.common.and.general.definition.of.load.factor.is.that.it.is.the.
ratio.of.average power.to.peak demand ..This.definition.of.load.factor.can.be.
translated.into.the.Eq ..6 .3 .

. . Average.Demand.for.the.Month,.in.kW.or.MW
Load.Factor.=. —————————————————————. Eq 6 3
. . Peak.Demand.for.the.Billing.Month,.in.kW.or.MW

Equation.6 .3.can.be.modified.to.define.load.factor.(LF).in.terms.of.Energy Us-

age (in kWh).and.Demand (in kW)

. . kWh.used.in.the.Billing.Period)/
. . (Hrs.in.Billing.Period)
Load.Factor.=. —————————————. Eq 6 4
. . Peak.Demand.in.kWh

. A.closer.look.at.Eq ..6 .3.and.Eq ..6 .4.highlights.the.following.facts:

1). High.peak.demands.(large.denominator).result.in.low.load.factors ..Low.

load.factors.result.in.higher.energy.cost.due.to.high.peak.demand.and,.
often,.due.to.low.load.factor.triggered.penalties .

2). Higher.load.factors.signify.better.power.management,.better.power.qual-
ity,.higher.energy.productivity.and.lower.energy.cost .

3). High.load.factor.implies.relatively.leveled.and.controlled.demand.(kWs),.
short. peaks. with. low. amplitude,. accomplished. in. some. cases. through.
“peak.shaving”.and.targeted.peak.avoidance .

. A.load.factor.of.unity.or.“1”.indicates.that.demand.peaks.are.negligible.
resulting.in.steady.and.relatively.leveled.power.(kW).demand ..Since.most.fa-
cilities.don’t.operate.24.hours.a.day,.and.since.the.demand.(kW).varies.during.a.
24.hour.period.and.the.billing.month,.load.factor—similar.to.power.factor—in.
most.practical.applications.is.usually.less.than.one.“1 .”

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 199

. Low.load.factor.is.a.good.indicator.of.the.cost.savings.potential.in.shift-
ing.some.electric.loads.to.off-peak.hours,.thus.reducing.on-peak.demand .
. In. a. utopian. situation,. theoretically,. if. the. load. factor. of. a. facility. is.
already.almost.unity,.further.demand.reduction.can.be.accomplished.through.
replacement.of.existing.low efficiency.equipment.with.higher efficiency.equip-
ment

Example 6 1
. The. EMS. System. at. an. automotive. plastic. component. manufacturing.
plant.that.operates.around.the.clock,.365.days.a.year,.is.displaying.following.
electrical.power.data:
. Billing.Days.in.the.Current.Month:.30
. On.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.4,320,000.kWh
. Off.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.17,280,000.kWh
. Highest.30.Minute.Energy.Recorded:.17,500.kWh
. Calculate. the. following. assuming. that. this. facility. is. on. OPT,. Time. of.
Use,.contract.with.30.minutes.demand.interval:
(a). Average.demand .
(b). Peak.demand .
(c). The.load.factor for.the.current.month .

Solution:
(a). Average.demand.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .1.as.follows:

Average.Demand,.in.kW
. =. Energy.(kWh.or.MWh).consumed.during.the.billing.month
. . ————————————————————————
. . Total.number.of.hours.in.the.billing.month

. . On-peak.Energy.+.Off-peak.Energy.Consumption
. =. ————————————————————
. . Total.number.of.hours.in.the.billing.month

. . 4,320,000.kWh.+.17,280,000.kWh
. =. ——————————————
. . (24.hrs/day). ..(30.days/month)

. =.30,000.kW.or.30.MW

(b). Peak.demand.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .2.to.the.30.minute.in-

terval.during.which.the.highest.energy.consumption.is.recorded:

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200 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. . Energy.in.kWh. . Energy.in.kWh
Demand.=.Power.in.kW.=. ——————. =. ——————
. . Time.in.hours. . 1/2.hour

. . . 17,500.kWh
. . =. —————. =.35,000.kW.or.35.MW
. . . 0 .5.h

(c). Load.factor.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .3.as.follows:

. . Average.Demand.for.the.Month,.in.kW.or.MW
Load.Factor.=. —————————————————————. Eq 6 4
. . Peak.Demand.for.the.Billing.Month,.in.kW.or.MW

Using.the.Average.Demand,.calculated.in.part.(a).as.30.MW.and.the
Peak.Demand.calculated.in.part.(b).as.35.MW:

. . 30.MW
. Load.Factor.=. ————. =.0 .8571.or.85 .71%
. . 35.MW

serViCe faCtor
. Service. factor. of. electrical. equipment. such. as. motors,. transformers,.
switchgear,.etc ..can.be.defined.as.the.ratio.of.load.the.equipment.can.sustain.
continuously. and. the. load. rating. of. that. equipment ..Another. way. to. view.
service.factor.is.that.it.is.a.ratio.of.“safe”.operating.load.to.standard.(name-
plate).load ..Service.factor.is.typically.expressed.in.decimal ..Occasionally,.the.
decimal.value.of.load.factor.is.presented.in.percentage.form ..The.formula.for.
service.fact.is.stated.as.Eq ..6 .5.below .

. . Safe.or.Continuous.Load,.in.kW,.kVA.or.hp
Service.Factor.=. ———————————————————— Eq 6 5
. . Nameplate.rating.of.equipment,.in.kW,.kVA.or.hp

Example 6 2
. A. 20-hp. motor. has. been. tested. by. a. motor. manufacturer. to. safely. and.
continuously.sustain.a.load.of.25.hp ..What.service.factor.should.the.manufac-
turer.include.on.the.nameplate.of.the.motor?

Solution:
. . Safe.or.Continuous.Load,.in.kW,.kVA.or.hp
Service.Factor.=. ————————————————————
. . Nameplate.rating.of.equipment,.in.kW,.kVA.or.hp

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 201

. . Safe.Operating.Load. . 25.HP
. . =. ————————————. =. ———. =.1 .25
. . Full.Load.Rating.of.the.Motor. . 20.hp

ComPutation of large industrial or

CommerCial eleCtriCal Power bills
. Electrical.bill.calculation.for.large.electrical.power.consumers.is.differ-
ent.and.more.complex.than.the.assessment.of.monthly.residential.bills ..As.sup-
ported.by.the.electric.bill.shown.in.Figure.6 .2,.residential.electrical.bill.of.an.
average.size.American.home.in.the.Southeast.can.be.calculated.using.Eq ..6 .6 .

Baseline.Charge.=.(Present.Reading.-.Prev ..Reading). ..(Rate.in.#kWh).Eq 6 6

Total.Bill.=.Baseline.Charge.+.Special.Riders.+.Taxes. Eq 6 7

Example 6 3
. If.the.“present.reading”.in.the.residential.bill.depicted.in.Figure.6 .2.were.
85552,.what.would.be.the.baseline.bill.for.the.month?.The.energy.cost.rate.for.
this. property. remains. unchanged,. at. ¢11 .9/kWh . .. (Hint:.The. baseline. charge.
does.not.include.riders.or.taxes .)

Solution:
According.to.Eq ..6 .6,
Baseline.Charge.=.(85552.-.84552). ..($0 .119/kWh)
. =.(1000). ..($0 .119/kW).=.$119

Case Study 6 1: EMS Based Electrical Power Bill—

Large Industrial Power Consumer*
. This.case.study.is.modeled.on.a.scenario.with.large.industrial.customer.
in.the.southeastern.region.of.the.United.States ..The.rates.in.$/kW.or.$/kWh.and.
the.fixed.charges.are.assumed.to.represent.that.time.frame,.during.non-summer.
months ..This.consumer.is.assumed.to.have.a.45.MW.(megawatt).contract.with.
the.power.company ..This.facility.is.a.24/7,.365-day.operation.and.a.significant.
portion.of.its.load.can.be.shifted.from.on-peak.periods.to.off-peak.periods,.dur-
ing.its.daily.operations ..This.overall.service.contract.of.45.MW.is.split.into.the.
following.two.components:

A.30.MW,.uninterruptible,.power.service,.on.OPT,.Time.of.Use.Schedule .

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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202 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 6 2: Residential.electrical.power.bill

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 203

A .. A.15.MW,.HP,.Hourly.Pricing.Schedule ..This.schedule.applies.to.incre-
mental,.interruptible,.load.and.was.offered.to.this.customer.as.a.part.of.
DSM.(demand-side.management).program .

. The.monthly.electrical.bill.computation.for.this.facility.is.performed.au-
tomatically.by.an.existing.EMS,.Energy.Monitoring.System ..A.screen.print.of.
one.such.bill.is.shown.in.Figure.6 .3 .
. The. calculation. methods. associated. with. the. various. line. items. in. this.
bill. are. explained. through. a. specific. bill. calculation. scenario. described. and.
analyzed.in.Case.Study.6 .2 .

Case Study 6 2—Electrical Power Baseline Parameters and

Bill Calculation—Large Industrial Power Consumer*
. In. an. effort. to. illustrate. the. interpretation. and. arithmetic. behind. the.
various.components.of.an.OPT.based.electrical.power.bill,.let.us.consider.data.
from.a.specific.billing.period,.recorded.and.processed.in.Spreadsheet.6 .1 ..This.
spreadsheet. shows. all. of. the. pertinent. measured. data,. derived. billing. param-
eters,. standard. charges,. tiered. demand. charge. rates,. energy. charge. rates,. and.
computed.line.item.charges.for.the.billing.month ..In.the.following.sections.we.
will.highlight.the.arithmetic.behind.the.derived.or.extended.line.item.charges .

. Baseline Billing Determinants: The.on.peak.billing.demand.and.the.bill-

ing.demand.are.typically.the.same ..This.segment.of.the.bill.represents.derived.
and.measured.data ..The.measured.portion.is.in.form.of.the.energy.consumption.
(kWh).measured.in.15-.or.30-minute.intervals;.which.are.then.divided.by.0 .25.
hour.or.0 .5.hour,.respectively ..This.yields.demand.(kW).for.each.of.the.inter-
vals.for.the.entire.billing.month ..The.utility.company.then.selects.the.highest.of.
these.demands—registered.during.the.On-Peak.periods—as.the.peak.demand.
or.billing.demand.for.the.month ..The.other.billing.determinants.consist.of.the.
total.energy.usage.during.on-peak.and.off.periods ..The.consumed.energy.data.
is.in.measured.and.recorded.for.the.billing.month,.in.kWh .

. Basic Facilities Charge: This. charge. could. be. considered. to. represent.
administrative.cost.associated.with.the.generation.and.processing.of.the.bill ..
This.charge.stays,.relatively,.constant.over.time .

. Extra Facilities Charge: This.charge.is.a.means.for.the.utility.to.recoup.

its.cost.embedded.in.providing.“extra.facilities”.to.the.customer ..In.this.case.

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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 204
Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers
Figure 6 3: Industrial.electrical.power.bill—EMS.system.based .

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 205

study,.the.extra.facilities.consisted.of.a.set.of.redundant.transmission.lines.in-
stalled.by.the.power.company.to.enhance.reliability.of.the.power.service.to.this.
customer ..In.some.cases,.this.type.of.charge.is.associated.with.the.upgrade.of.
main.switch.yard.step.down.transformers,.regulators,.separate.metering,.etc .

. On-peak Billing Demand Charge: The.overall.billing.demand.of.26,000.

kW.is.tiered.into.three.segments:.first.2,000.kW,.next.3,000.kW.and.the.remain-
ing.21,000.kW ..Each.of.these.demand.tiers.are.applied.respective.charges,.in.
$/kW,.as.shown.in.Spreadsheet.6 .1,.to.yield.tiered.line.item.demand.charges ..
These.tiered.line.item.demand.charges.are.later.added.to.other.billing.line.item.
charges .

Economy Demand Charge: This. charge. is. triggered. when. the. highest.
integrated.demand.during.off-peak.periods.exceeds.the.highest.integrated.de-
mand.recorded.during.the.on-peak.periods ..The.latter.also.serving.as.the.peak.
demand. for. the. billing. month .. When. economy. demand. charge. is. triggered.
on. the. premise. described. above,. the. difference. between. the. two. demands. is.
labeled. as. the. economy. demand .. The. economy. demand. figure. thus. derived.
is. multiplied. with. the. stated. $1 .03. rate. multiplier. to. compute. the. economy.
demand.charge.for.the.month ..Since,.in.this.case.study,.the.peak.demand.is.as-
sumed.to.be.greater.than.the.demands.set.during.the.off-peak.periods,.economy.
demand.is.not.triggered.and,.therefore,.the.economy.demand.charge.is.zero .

Energy Charge: This.charge.accounts.for.the.actual.(measured).energy.

consumed.during.the.billing.month ..This.charge.comprises.of.two.components.
as.shown.in.Spreadsheet.9 .3;.the.on-peak.energy.charge.and.the.off-peak.en-
ergy.charge ..As.apparent.from.examination.of.the.spreadsheet,.the.on-peak.rate.
($0 .042/kWh).is.almost.twice.the.magnitude.of.the.off-peak.rate.($0 .021/kWh) .

Total Baseline Charge: The.total.baseline.charge.is.simply.the.sum.of.all.

line.items.calculated.or.identified.to.that.point;.$650,787 .12,.in.this.case .

HP, Hourly Pricing, Billing Determinants: This.portion.of.the.bill.repre-

sents.the.demand.and.energy.charges.associated.with.the.load.that.fall.under.the.
Hourly.Pricing.contract ..The.hourly.pricing.demand.was.measured.and.billed.at.
14,000.kW,.in.this.case ..The.energy.consumed.under.the.hourly.pricing.contract.
was.8,805,800.kWh .

HP Charges: Special.HP.rates.are.applied.to.the.recorded.demand.and.
energy.under.HP.contract,.yielding.respective.line.item.charges.as.shown.on.
Spreadsheet.6 .1 .

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206 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Spreadsheet 6 1—Large.industrial.electric.bill.calculation

Total Bill for the Month: The. last. line. of. the. bill. represents. the. sum.
of. Total. Baseline. Charge. and. the. HP. Charge,. amounting. to. the. total. bill. of.
$845,266 42.for.the.month .

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Demand, Load Factor, Service Factor & Electrical Power Bill Computation 207

Spreadsheet 6 1—Large.industrial.electric.bill.calculation

Self-assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 6

1 .. The.BMS.System.at.a.truck.assembly.plant,.that.operates.365.days.a.year,.
is.displaying.following.electrical.power.and.energy.consumption.data:
—. Billing.Days.in.the.Current.Month:.30
—. On.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.2,880,000.kWh
—. Off.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.11,520,000.kWh
—. Three.highest.30.minute.energy.usages.for.the.billing.month.are.(i).
12,500.kWh,.(ii).12,300.kWh.and.(iii).12,290.kWh .

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208 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

—. Assuming.this.facility.is.on.OPT,.Time.of.Use,.contract.with.30.min-
utes.demand.interval,.determine.the.following:
(a). Average.demand .
(b). Peak.demand .
(c). The.load.factor for.the.current.month .
(d). Average.annual.demand

2 .. A.200.kVA.transformer.has.been.tested.by.the.manufacturer.to.safely.and.
continuously.sustain.a.load.of.230.kVA ..What.service.factor.should.the.
manufacturer.include.on.the.nameplate.of.this.transformer?

3 .. A.5.hp.single.phase.AC.motor,.rated.at.a.service.factor.of.1 .10,.is.being.
tested.at.maximum.safe.load,.powered.by.230.VAC.source ..Determine.the.
amount.of.current.drawn.by.this.motor,.from.the.power.source.if.the.mo-
tor.efficiency.is.90%.and.the.power.factor.is.0 .85 .

4 .. Consecutive. electrical. power. meter. readings. at. a. home. in. Hawaii. are.
listed. below .. Determine. the. total. electrical. power. bill. for. the. month. of.
this.residence.if.the.flat.$/kWh.cost.rate.is.¢21/kWh ..The.renewable.en-
ergy.rider.is.$15.and.the.energy.sales.tax.rate.is.4% .
. . Previous.reading:.45000
. . Current.or.present.reading:.46000

5 .. If.the.peak.demand.in.Case.Study.6 .2.is.reduced.by.10%.through.imple-
mentation.of.peak.shaving.measures,.what.would.be.the.baseline.cost.for.
the.demand.portion.of.the.bill?

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Chapter 7
Electric Motors and
Generators
Introduction
. Generators. and. motors. are,. primarily,. rotating. machines .. The. rotating.
machines. are. called. motors. when. they. consume. electrical. energy,. and. are.
referred.to.as.generators.when.they.produce.electrical.energy ..In.practical.ap-
plications,.while.DC.machines.are.almost.always.single.phase,.AC.machines.
can.be.single.phase.or.three.phase ..In.this.chapter.we.will.explore.fundamen-
tal.operating.principles.and.concepts.associated.with.DC.and.AC.motors.and.
generators ..The.electromagnetics.principles.behind.the.operation.of.generators.
and. motors. will. be. illustrated. through. simplified. electrical. diagrams .. Basic.
principles. and. equations,. governing. important. and. practical. functions. and.
operational.parameters.of.motors.and.generators,.will.be.introduced ..Common.
calculations.involving.electric.motors.will.be.illustrated ..Concept.of.induction.
motor.slip.is.explained.and.associated.calculations.are.covered ..Roles.that.slip.
and. frequency. play. in. determination. of. the. motor. shaft. speed. are. illustrated.
through.example.problems ..Significance.of.certain.common.classifications.of.
motors.is.explained ..Interpretation.of.a.common.motor.nameplate.is.discussed ..

dC generator
. A.direct.current.generator,.also.referred.to.as.a.dynamo,.is.an.electromag-
netic. device. designed. to. convert. mechanical. energy,. or. mechanical. power—
namely,.brake.horsepower—to.electrical.energy.or.electrical.power ..The.elec-
trical.energy.and.power.developed.in.DC.dynamos.consists.of.DC.current.and.
DC.voltage ..A.DC.generator.is,.fundamentally,.an.AC.generator ..The.feature.
that.differentiates.a.DC.generator’s.function.and.output.from.an.AC.generator.
is. a. “commutator .”. Common. commutator. consists. of. two. rings. as. shown. in.
Figure. 7 .1 ..As. depicted. in. Figure. 7 .1,. the. current,. I,. and. associated. voltage,.
are.generated.in.the.dynamo.by.virtue.of.the.motion,.movement.or.rotation.of.
the.coil.windings.within.a.magnetic.field.set.up.by.permanent.magnets.or,.in.
some.cases,.by.“field.windings .”.Of.course,.the.rotation.of.the.winding.coils.is.
caused.by.force,.torque,.work.producing.system.or.energy.source.such.as.steam.
turbines,.hydroelectric.turbines,.hydraulic.pumps,.etc ..The.end.result.is.conver-
sion.of.mechanical.energy.into.electrical.energy .
209
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210 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 7 1: A.DC.Generator.or.Dynamo .

. As. shown. in. Figure. 7 .1,. and. as. stipulated. by. Eq .. 7 .1,. Eq .. 7 .2,. and. Eq ..
7 .3,.key.variables,.the.interaction.of.which,.results.in.the.production.of.voltage.
across.the.windings.are:
—. Magnetic.flux.density.B,.
—. Number.of.turns,.N.the.coil.consists.of,.
—. The.area.of.cross-section.A,.
—. The.electrical.frequency,.ω,.at.which.the.armature.is.rotated.by.ex-
ternal.work.producing.force,.
—. Rotational.speed.of.the.armature,.Ω,.
—. The.number.of.poles,.p .

. V(t).=.VmSinωt.=.ωNABsinωt Eq 7 1

. Voltage.generated.by.the.dynamo,.or.DC.generator,.can.be.expressed.in.
terms.of.the.rotational.speed.of.the.armature,.Ω.(in.rads/sec),.by.applying.the.ω.
to.Ω.conversion.formula.expressed.as.Eq ..7 .2 .

. . P
. ω.=. —. Ω. Eq 7 2
. . 2

. . Eq 7 3

Since.Ω.(in.rads/sec).is.related.to.the.RPM.of.the.DC.generator.as.stated.in.Eq ..
7 .4,.Eq ..7 .3.can.be.expanded.in.form.of.Eq ..7 .5 .

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Electric Motors and Generators 211

. . 2pn
. Ω.=. ——.. Eq 7 4
. . 60

. . .Eq 7 5

. Since.V(t).represents.the.sinusoidal.form.of.the.voltage.generated.by.the.
dynamo,. to. derive. the. magnitude. of. DC,. work. producing,. effective. or. RMS.
portion.of.this.voltage.we.can.equate.the.coefficient.of.the.sinusoidal.term.in.
Eq ..7 .5.to.Vpeak,.Vmax.or,.simply,.Vp.or.Vm,.and.apply.Eq ..1 .3 ..This.yields.Eq ..
7 .6.for.computation.of.the.DC.voltage.produced.by.a.dynamo.or.DC.generator .

Eq 7 6
Where,

. . Eq 7 7

And,
n .=. Rotational.speed.of.the.dynamo,.in.rpm
p..=.. Number.of.poles.in.the.design.and.construction.of.the.armature ..For.
instance,.one.coil.or.set.of.winding.with.N.turns,.consist.of.two.(2).
poles ..
N..=.. number.of.turns.constituting.and.armature.coil .
A..=. .Cross-sectional.Area.portended.by.the.coil.in.m2 .
B..=.. Magnet.field.intensity,.in.Tesla,.or.T .

. . Graphical.depiction.of.the.DC.voltage.computed.through.Eq ..7 .7.is.

shown.in.Figure.7 .2 .

Figure 7 2: DC.voltage.output.of.a.DC.generator.or.dynamo

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212 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. The.relationship.between.the.rotational.speed.of.the.generator,.ns,.num-
ber.of.poles,.p,.the.electrical.frequency,.f,.and.the.angular.speed,.ω,.correspond-
ing.to.the.electrical.frequency,.is.given.by.Eq ..7 .8.and.Eq ..7 .9 ..

. . 120f
. ns.=.Synchronous.speed.=.Rotational.speed.=.——. Eq 7 8
. . p

. ω.=.2pf. .Eq 7 9

Example 7 1
. The.rotor.of.a.single.phase.alternator.is.rotating.at.an.actual.mechanical.
rotational. speed. of. 2400. rpm .. The. alternator. consists. of. four. pole. construc-
tion ..The.effective.diameter.of.the.coil.is.0 .13m.and.the.length.of.the.coil.loop.
is. 0 .22m .. The. coil. consists. of. 20. turns .. The. magnetic. flux. density. has. been.
measured.to.be.1 .15T ..Calculate.the.RMS,.effective,.or.VDC.produced.by.this.
generator .

Solution:
. The. RMS,. effective. or. DC. voltage. produced. through. an. alternator. or.
generator.can.be.computed.by.applying.Eq ..7 .6:

Given:
n .=..2400.rpm
p..=.. 4
N..=.. 20
B..=.. 1 .15T
A..=.. (Eff ..diameter.of.the.coil.conductor).x.(Eff ..length.of.the.coil)
. . .=. .(0 .22m).x.(0 .13m).=.0 .0286m2

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Electric Motors and Generators 213

Example 7 2
. A.two-pole.alternator/generator.is.producing.electrical.power.at.an.elec-
trical. frequency. of. 60. Hz .. (a). Determine. the. angular. speed. corresponding. to.
the.generated.electrical.frequency ..(b).Determine.the.rotational.(synchronous).
speed.of.the.armature/rotor ..(c).Determine.the.angular.velocity.of.the.armature/
rotor,.assuming.slip.=.0 ..

Solution:
(a).. Angular.speed,.ω,.corresponding.to.the.generated.electrical.frequency,.f,.
can.be.calculated.using.Eq ..7 .9:
. ω.=.2pf.=.(2) .(3 .14) .(60Hz).=.377.rad/s

(b).. The.rotational.or.synchronous.speed.of.the.armature/rotor.is.given.by.Eq ..
7 .8:

. . 120f. . (120)(60.Hz)
. ns.=. ——. =. ——————. =.3600.rpm
. . p. . 2

.(c).. Angular.velocity.of.the.armature/rotor.is.simply.the.rotational.speed,.in.
rpm,.converted.into.rad/s ..Since.there.are.2π.radians.per.revolution:

DC Motor
. A.DC.motor.can.be.perceived.as.a.DC.generator.or.dynamo.operating.in.
reverse ..As.in.the.case.of.a.dynamo,.a.magnet—serving.as.a.stator—provides.
the.magnetic.field.(B.and.H).that.interacts.with.the.DC.current.flowing.through.
the.rotor ..The.DC.current.flowing.through.the.rotor.windings.is.supplied.from.
an. external. DC. voltage. or. current. source,. via. the. commutator. rings. that. are.
stationary ..Basic.construction.of.a.DC.motor.is.illustrated.in.Figure.7 .3 .
. In.other.words,.a.DC.motor.is.a.mechanically.commutated.electric.motor.
powered.from.direct.current.(DC) ..The.current.in.the.rotor.is.switched.by.the.
commutator ..The.relative.angle.between.the.stator.and.rotor.magnetic.flux.is.
maintained.near.90.degrees,.which.generates.the.maximum.torque .
. In. DC. motors,. different. connections. of. the. field. and. armature. winding.
provide.different.inherent.speed/torque.regulation.characteristics ..In.so.far.as.
the.control.of.the.speed of a DC motor.is.concerned,.it.can.be.controlled.by.
changing. either. the. voltage applied. to. the. armature. or. by. changing. the. field

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214 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 7 3: DC.motor

current ..Since.voltage.is.related.to.current.by.Ohm’s.law,.V.=.I .R,.speed.con-

trol.can.be.accomplished.through.introduction.of.variable.resistance.in.the.ar-
mature.circuit.or.field.circuit ..However,.modern.DC.motors.are.often.controlled.
by.power.electronics.systems.called.DC.drives .
. Historically,.the.introduction.of.DC.motors.to.run.machinery.eliminated.
the. need. for. steam. or. internal. combustion. engines .. Case. in. point,. the. appli-
cation. of. DC. motors. as. the. motive. power. in. locomotives ..An. advantage. of.
DC.motors.is.that.they.can.be.operated.directly.from.DC.power.supply,.with.
variable. voltage,. without. the. need. for. an. inverter ..This. positions. DC. motors.
well.for.electric.vehicles.application ..Despite.the.dominance.of.AC.induction.
motors.in.myriad.applications,.DC.motors.continue.to.play.an.important.role.
in.providing.motive.power.in.small.toys.and.disk.drives ..Overall,.DC.motors.
continue.to.provide.an.alternative.to.inverter.driven.AC.motors.where.motor.
speed.variation.is.needed .

aC alternator
. The.basic.construction.and.premise.of.operation.is.similar.to.a.dynamo.
with.the.exception.of.the.fact.that.the.commutator.is.unnecessary.and.therefore.
absent ..Another.salient.difference.between.a.dynamo.and.an.AC.alternator.is.
that.the.roles.and.the.properties.of.the.stator.and.rotor.are.reversed ..In.an.AC.
alternator,. as. shown. in. Figure. 7 .4. (a),. the. magnetic. field. is. produced. by. the.
rotating rotor. and. the. stator serves as an armature ..The. key. reason. for. the.

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Electric Motors and Generators 215

armature—the.segment.of.the.generator.where.the.generated.current.and.EMF.
(voltage). are. harnessed—to. serve. as. a. stationary. “exoskeleton”. is. that. large.
induced.currents.require.robust.insulation.of.the.armature.windings ..In.addi-
tion,.with.large.currents,.larger.magnetic.forces.and.torques.are.in.play,.which.
makes.it.important.to.secure.or.anchor.the.windings.in.a.rugged.structure ..As.
with.a.DC.generator,.the.power.in.AC.alternators.is.fundamentally.produced.in.
sinusoidal form ..Since.the.output.of.an.AC.alternator.does.not.need.to.be.recti-
fied.to.DC.form,.commutator.function.is.not.needed ..Construction.of.a.basic.
AC.alternator.or.generator.is.shown.in.Figure.7 .4.(a) ..The.output.of.a.typical.
AC.alternator.is.depicted.Figure.7 .4.(b) .
. As. observable. in. Figure. 7 .4. (a),. the. magnetized. rotor. is. being. rotated.
counter-clockwise.by.external.means ..As.the.magnetized.rotor.rotates.the.mag-
netic.field.emanating.from.the.north.pole.and.terminating.into.the.south.pole.
cuts.through.the.three.phase.coils.in.the.armature ..Movement.of.the.magnetic.
field.through.the.coils.initiates.current.flow.and.potentials.in.the.three.coils ..As.

Figure 7 4: AC.alternator.construction.and.output.waveform .

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216 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

noted.in.Figure.7 .4.(a),.the.voltage.thus.developed.across.coil.A.is.VA,.voltage.
developed.across.coil.B.is.VB,.and.the.voltage.developed.across.coil.C.is.VC .
. The.overall.principle.of.operation.and.construction.of.a.single phase AC
alternator/generator is.similar.to.a.three phase AC alternator/generator,.with.
the.exception.of.the.fact.that.the.armature.windings.consist.of.one.set.of.wind-
ings.for.the.harnessing.of.single.phase.AC ..
. While. the. complete. representation. of. the.AC. sinusoidal. voltage. gener-
ated.by.single.phase.AC.generator.is.given.by.Eq ..7 .5.(angle.of.the.voltage.is.
assumed.to.be.“0”),.the.RMS.and.peak.voltages.would.be.stipulated.by.Eq ..7 .6.
and.Eq ..7 .7,.respectively ..For.the.sake.of.reader’s.convenience,.these.equations.
are.restated.below:

. . Eq 7 5

. .
. . Eq 7 6

. . Eq 7 7

Example 7 3
A. four. pole. single. phase.AC. generator. consists. of. windings. constituting. 90.
series. paths. and. is. driven. by. a. propane. prime. mover. (engine) ..The. effective.
or.mean.length.of.the.armature.is.20.cm.and.the.cross-sectional.radius.of.the.
armature.is.5.cm ..The.armature.is.rotating.at.2000.rpm ..Each.armature.pole.is.
exposed.to.a.magnetic.flux.of.1 .5.T ..The.efficiency.of.this.generator.is.92%.and.
it.is.rated.1 .5.kW ..Determine.the.following:
(a).The.maximum.voltage.generated ..(b).The.RMS.voltage.generated ..(c).The.
horsepower. rating. of. the. generator .. (d).The. horse. power. output. of. the. prime.
mover .

Solution:
The.maximum.voltage,.Vm,.generated.by.this.alternator.is.given.by.Eq ..7 .7 .

. . Eq 7 7

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Electric Motors and Generators 217

Given:
n..=.. 2000.rpm
p..=.. 4
N..=.. Number.of.series.paths.=.90
B..=.. 1 .5.T
A..=.. (Eff ..diameter.of.the.coil.conductor).x.(Eff ..length.of.the.coil)
. . =.. (2.x.5cm).x.(20cm).=.(0 .1m).x.(0 .2m).=.0 .02m2

(a).

(b). . The. RMS. voltage. could. be. calculated. by. using. Eq .. 7 .6,. or. simply. by.
dividing.Vm,.from.part.(a),.by.the.square.root.of.2.as.follows:

(c).. The.horsepower.rating.of.this.generator.is.the.power.output.rating.speci-
fied.in.hp,.premised.on.the.stated.output capacity.of.1 .5.kW ..Therefore,.
application.of.the.0 .746.kW/hp.conversion.factor.yields:

(d).. The. horsepower. rating. of. the. prime. mover—or. the. propane. fired. en-
gine—would.need.to.offset.the.inefficiency.of.the.AC.generator ..There-
fore,.based.on.the.given.92%.efficiency.rating.of.the.generator:.

aC induCtion motor
. An.induction.motor.is.also.referred.to.as.an.asynchronous.motor;.primar-
ily,.because.a.typical.AC.induction.motor.has.a.certain.amount.of.“slip”.(dis-
cussed.in.detail.in.the.next.section).and.the.shaft.speed.is.less.than.the.motor’s.
synchronous.speed ..An.AC.induction.motor.can.be.considered.as.a.special.case.
of.a.transformer.with.a.rotating.secondary.(rotor).and.a.stationary.primary.(sta-
tor) ..The. electromagnetic. field. in. the. primary. (stator). rotates. at. synchronous.
speed,.ns,.as.given.by.Eq ..7 .9 ..The.stator.magnetic.field,.rotating.at.the.synchro-
nous.speed,.cuts.through.the.rotor.windings ..This.rotating.or.moving.magnetic.

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218 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

field—in.accordance.with.the.Faradays.law—induces.EMF.and.current.through.
the.rotor.windings ..Due.to.the.fact.that.the.rotor.windings.are.inductive—and.
possess.inductive.reactance,.XL—the.current.induced.in.the.rotor.windings.lags.
behind.the.induced.voltage,.resulting.in.a.definite.amount.of.slip .

. . Eq 7 9

. In.essence.induction.motors.allow.the.transfer.of.electrical.energy.from.
the.primary.(stator).windings.to.the.secondary.(rotor).windings ..The.primary.or.
secondary.windings—or.the.stator.and.the.rotor—are.separated.by.an.air.gap ..
In.a.wound.rotor.the.wire.wound.construction.is.similar.to.the.rotor.construc-
tion.of.AC.alternators ..However,.with.AC.motors,.a.more.common.alternative.
to.a.wound.rotor.is.a.squirrel cage rotor,.which.consists.of.copper.or.aluminum.
bars—in.lieu.of.insulated.wire—embedded.in.slots.of.the.cylindrical.iron.core.
of.the.rotor ..See.Figure.7 .5 ..Construction.of.a.common,.TEFC,.totally.enclosed.
fan.cooled,.motor.is.illustrated.in.Figure.7 .5 ..Major.components.of.an.AC.in-
duction.motor,.i .e ..squirrel.cage.rotor,.motor.shaft,.armature.windings,.cooling.
fan.and.bearings,.are.labeled.and.highlighted.in.Figure.7 .5 .

Figure 7 5: AC.induction.motor.construction .

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Electric Motors and Generators 219

Motor Slip
. The. rotational. speed. of. rotor. (secondary). of. an. induction. motor—rota-
tional.speed.of.the.rotor.is.the.also.the.actual.speed.of.the.motor.shaft—lags.be-
hind.the.synchronous.speed,.ns ..This.difference.in.rotational.speeds.can.range.
between.2%.to.5%.and.is.called.slip ..Slip.can.also.be.defined.as.the.difference.
between. synchronous. speed. and. operating. speed,. at. the. same. frequency,. ex-
pressed.in.rpm.or.in.percent.or.ratio.of.synchronous.speed ..Slip.can.be.defined.
mathematically.as.represented.by.Eq ..7 .10.and.Eq ..7 .11 .

. . Eq 7 10

. Eq 7 11

Where,
ns. =. Synchronous.speed.of.the.AC.induction.motor,.in.rpm ..
. . =. .Rotational.speed.of.the.armature.AC.induction.EMF,.in.rpm .
n =..Actual.speed.of.the.AC.induction.motor.shaft,.in.rpm ..
. . =..Rotational.speed.of.the.EMF.in.the.rotor,.expressed.in.rpm .
Ωs =..Rotational.speed.of.the.armature.AC.induction.EMF,.in.rad/sec .
. . =..Synchronous.speed.of.the.AC.induction.motor,.rad/sec ..
Ω =. Rotational.speed.of.the.rotor.EMF,.in.rad/sec .
. . =..Actual.speed.of.the.rotor,.in.rad/sec ..

. Induction. motors. are. made. with. slip. ranging. from. less. than. 5%. up. to.
20% ..A.motor.with.a.slip.of.5%.or.less.is.known.as. a.normal-slip motor ..A.
normal-slip.motor.is.sometimes.referred.to.as.a.constant speed motor.because.
the.speed.changes.very.little.from.no-load.to.full-load.conditions ..Higher.slip.
characteristics.of.motors.are.not.always.“undesirable .”.Since.low.slip.is.often.
accompanied.by.instantaneous.imparting.of.a.large.amount.of.torque—which.
can.be.detrimental.to.the.material.and.mechanical.integrity.of.the.shaft—to.the.
motor.shaft,.motors.with.slip.over.5%.are.often.used.for.hard.to.start.applica-
tions ..
. Typically,.at.the.rated.full.load,.slip.ranges.from.more.than.5%.for.small.
or. special. purpose. motors. to. less. that. 1%. for. large. motors .. Speed. variations.
due.to.slip.can.cause.load-sharing.problems.when.differently.sized.motors.are.
mechanically.connected ..Slip.can.be.reduced.through.various.means ..Due.to.
the.progressive.decline.in.the.cost.and.continuous.technological.improvements.

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220 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

in.the.VFD,.variable.frequency.drive,.technology,.they.offer.the.most.optimal.
solution.for.mitigating.undesirable.effects.associated.with.slip ..
. A.common.four-pole.motor.with.a.synchronous.speed.of.1,800.rpm.may.
have. a. no-load. speed. of. 1,795. rpm. and. a. full-load. speed. of. 1,750. rpm ..The.
rate-of-change.of.slip.is.approximately.linear.from.10%.to.110%.load,.when.all.
other.factors.such.as.temperature.and.voltage.are.held.constant ..

motor torque and Power

. Torque.generated.or.produced.by.a.motor.is.equivalent.to.the.amount.of.
external work.performed.by.the.motor ..In.the.absence.of.transactions.involving.
other.forms.of.energy,.such.as.heat,.the.amount.of.work.performed,.or.torque.
applied.by.a.motor,.is.equal.to.the.energy.stored.in.the.external.system.in.form.
of.potential.energy.or.kinetic.energy ..Therefore,.torque,.work.and.energy.are.
equivalent.entities ..This.is.further.corroborated.by.the.fact.that.torque,.work.
and.energy.can.be.quantified.or.measured.in.terms.of.equivalent.units,.i .e ..ft-
lbf,.Btu,.calories,.therms,.N-m,.joules,.kWh,.etc ..
. On.the.other.hand,.power,.as.explained.earlier.in.this.text,.is.the.rate.of.
performance.of.work,.rate.of.delivery.of.energy.rate.of.application.of.torque,.
etc ..In.order.to.illustrate.the.difference.between.torque.and.power.let’s.consider.
the.example.of.a.crank.wheel.that.is.being.turned.at.a.certain.rate ..Suppose.the.
wheel.has.a.one-foot.long.crank.arm.takes.a.force.of.one.pound.(lbf).to.turn.
at.steady.rate ..The.torque.required.would.be.one.pound.times.one.foot.or.one.
foot-pound,.1.ft-lbf ..If.we.were.to.apply.this.torque.for.two.seconds,.the.power.
delivered.would.be.½.ft-lbf/sec ..Now.let’s.assume.that.the.we.continue.to.apply.
the.same.amount.of.torque,.i .e ..1.ft-lbf,.but.twice.as.fast,.or.for.1.second ..Then.
we.would.have.a.case.where.the.torque.remains.the.same,.or.1.ft-lbf,.but.the.
rate.of.delivery.of.torque.would.double.to.1.ft-lbf/sec ..
. Application.of.motors.in.mechanical.or.electromechanical.systems.often.
challenges.engineers.to.assess.the.amount.of.torque.involved ..However,.unlike.
power. output. or. input. of. a. motor. which. can. be. assessed. through. simple. and.
safe.measurement.of.voltage.and.current—with.the.help.of.help.of.held.instru-
ments,.such.as.the.handheld.voltmeter.or.clamp-on.ammeter.-measurement.of.
torques.produced.by.large.motors.requires.large,.stationary.and.rather.unwieldy.
systems.called.dynamometers ..See.Figure.7 .6 ..Therefore,.if.the.motor.power.
is.known.in,.hp.or.kW,.and.if.the.actual.shaft.speed,.n.(rpm),.is.available,.the.
torque.can.be.calculated.by.using.Eq ..7 ..12.and.Eq ..7 .13 .

. . 5250.x.P(horsepower)
. Torque(ft–lbf).=. ———————. Eq 7 12
. . n(rpm)

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Electric Motors and Generators 221

Figure 7 6: Motor.dynamometer

. . 9549.x.P(kW)
. Torque(N–m).=. ———————. Eq 7 13
. . n(rpm)

. The.torque.computation.equations.stated.above.are.derived.from.the.ba-
sic.torque,.angular.speed.and.power.equation.stated.as.Eq ..7 .14 .

. . P
. P.=.T. ..ω.or,.T.=. — Eq 7 14
. . ω

Where,
P =. Power.delivered.by.the.motor,.in.hp.or.watts .
T =.. Torque.delivered.by.the.motor,.in.ft-lbf.or.N-m.or.Joules .
ω =.. Actual.rotational.speed.of.the.motor.shaft,.in.rad/sec .

single Phase and three Phase motor line

Current ComPutation
. While. copious. tables,. charts,. handbooks. and. pocket. cards. include. full.
load.current.information.for.various.(standard).motor.sizes,.at.standard.volt-
ages,.when.accuracy.is.of.the.essence,.one.must.compute.correct.current.values.
pertaining.to.specific.voltage,.efficiency,.power.factor.and.actual.load ..Therein.
rests.the.value.of.line.current.calculation.equations.for.single.phase.and.three.
phase.motors ..Those.equations.and.their.derivation.are.summarized.below .

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222 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Single Phase AC Induction Motor Current:

. SL,1-φ.=.Full.load.apparent.power.on.the.line.side.of.single.phase.motor
. . . Full.Load.Raging.of.Motor.(in.Watts)
. . =. ——————————————— Eq 7 15
. . . (Pf) .(Eff .)

Or,

|SL,I–φ|.=.Magnitude.of.apparent.power.(drawn).on.the.line.side.of.a.single
. . P1-φ.(in.Watts)
. phase.motor.=. ———————. Eq 7 16
. . (Pf) .(Eff .)

Since.the.magnitude.of.single.phase.apparent.power,.|SL,I-φ|.=.|VL| .|IL|,
. . |SL,I-φ|
. then.|LL|.=. ———.. Eq 7 17
. . |VL|

Therefore,
.
Single.Phase.AC.Line.. |SL,I-φ|. . |PL,I-φ|.(in.Watts)
. Current.drawn,.|IL|.=..———. =. ———————.
. . |VL|. . |VL|(Pf) .(Eff .).. Eq 7 18

three Phase aC induCtion motor Current

SL,3–φ = Full.Load.Apparent.(3-φ).Power.on.the.Line.Side
. . Full.Load.(3-φ).Rating.of.Motor.(in.Watts)
. =. ——————————————————. Eq 7 19
. . (Pf) .(Eff .)

Or,

|SL,3-φ|. =.Magnitude.of.Full.Load.Apparent.Power.on.the.Line.Side.of
. . P3-φ.(in.Watts)
. a.3-phase.motor.=.——————. Eq 7 20
. . (Pf) .(Eff .)

Since.the.magnitude.of.a.(3-φ).(three.phase).apparent.power.is.given.as:

|SL,3-φ|.=.√3.(|VL|) .(|IL|),

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Electric Motors and Generators 223

. . |SL,3-φ|
by.rearranging.this.equation,.the.3-φ.phase.line.current,.—— Eq 7 21
√3.(|VL|)

Therefore,
. . |SL,3-φ|. . PL,3-φ.(in.Watts)
The.3-φ.phase.line.current,.|IL|.=. ———. =. ———————. Eq 7 22
. . √3.(|VL|). . √3.(|VL|)(Pf) .(Eff .)

Where,
|IL| 1-ɸ =. Single.phase.RMS.line.current,.measured.in.amps .
|IL| 3-ɸ =. Three.phase.RMS.line.current,.measured.in.amps .
|VL| =. RMS.line.to.line,.or.phase.to.phase,.voltage,.measured.in.volts .
|SL| 1-ɸ =. Apparent.power.drawn.by.a.single.phase.motor,.in.VA.or.kVA,.etc ..
|SL| 3-ɸ =. Apparent.power.drawn.by.three.phase.motor,.in.VA.or.kVA,.etc ..
. P.1-ɸ =. Real.power.demanded.by.a.single.phase.motor.load,.in.W,.or.kW,.etc ..
. P.3-ɸ =. Real.power.demanded.by.a.three.phase.motor.load,.in.W,.or.kW,.etc ..
. Pf. =. Power.factor.of.the.motor,.as.specified.on.motor.nameplate ..
. Eff .. =. Motor.efficiency,.as.specified.on.motor.nameplate ..

Example 7 4
. A.three.phase,.four.pole,.AC.induction.motor,.rated.150.hp,.is.operating.
at.full.load,.50.Hz,.480.Vrms,.efficiency.of.86%,.power.factor.of.95%,.and.a.slip.
of.2% ..Determine.the.(a).motor.shaft.speed,.in.rpm,.(b).torque.developed,.in.
ft-lbf ..(c).line.current.drawn.by.the.motor.and.(d).the.amount.of.reactive.power,.
Q,.sequestered.in.the.motor.under.the.described.operating.conditions ..

Solution
Given:
PL,3-ɸ. =.Real.power.or.rate.of.work.performed.by.the.motor.=.150.hp
=.(150.hp) .(746.W/hp).=.111,900.W
p.=. 4.poles
VL.=. 480.VRMS
Pf.=. 95%.or.0 .95
Eff =. 86%.or.0 .86
ns = Synchronous.speed,.in.rpm.=.?
Slip, s =. 2%
f =. Frequency.of.operation.=.50.Hz

(a). Shaft or motor speed:.Rearrange.and.apply.Eq ..7 .10:

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224 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. And,.by.rearrangement:.n.=.ns.(1.–.s)

Next,.we.must.determine.the.synchronous.speed.of.the.motor.by.applying.Eq ..
7 .9:
. . 120f. . (120) .(50)
. ns.=.Synchronous.speed.=.——. =. ————. =.1500.rpm
. . p. . 4

. ∴.n.=.(1500.rpm)(1–0 .02).=.1470.rpm

(b). Torque developed, in ft-lbf:.There.are.multiple.methods.at.our.disposal.

for. determining. the. torque. developed .. Formulas. associated. with. two.
common. methods. are. represented. by. Eq .. 7 .12,. Eq .. 7 .13. and. Eq .. 7 .14 ..
Since.the.power.is.available.in.hp.and.the.rotational.speed.in.rpm,.apply.
Eq ..7 .12:

. . 5250.x.P(horsepower). . 5250.x.150.hp
. Torque(ft–lbf).=. ———————. =. ——————. =.536.ft-lbf
. . n(rpm). . 1470.rpm

Note:.The.reader.is.encouraged.to.prove.this.result.through.application.of.Eq ..
7 .14 .

(c). Line current drawn by the motor:.Full.load.line.current.is.the.current.

the.motor.draws.from.the.power.source,.or.utility,.in.order.to.sustain.the.
full.load ..Therefore,.the.determination.of.line.current.at.full.load.requires.
that.the.full.load.output.of.150.hp.be.escalated.in.accordance.with.motor.
efficiency.and.power.factor.to.compute.the.line.current ..Application.of.
Eq ..7 .22.takes.this.into.account.in.the.computation.of.3-phase.motor.line.
current,.after.the.motor.hp.rating.(or.actual.load).is.converted.into.watts:

. . |SL,3-φ|. . PL,3-φ.(in.Watts)
The.3-φ.phase.line.current,.|IL|.=. ———. =. ———————. Eq 7 22
. . √3.(|VL|). . √3.(|VL|)(Pf) .(Eff .)

Three. phase. (total). real. power. was. converted. into. watts. under. “Given”. as.
PL,3-ɸ.=.111,900.W

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Electric Motors and Generators 225

Therefore,

. . 111,900.Watts
The.3-φ.phase.line.current,.|IL|.=.———————————. =.165A
. . √3.(480.VRMS)(0 .95) .(0 .86)

(d). Reactive power, Q:. There. are. multiple. approaches. available. to. us. for.
determination. of. reactive. power. Q. for. this. motor. application .. We. will.
utilize.the.power.triangle.or.apparent.power.component.vector.method:
. .
. . .

Real.power.“P”.was.computed.earlier.as.111,900.W,.and.apparent.power.S.can.
be.assessed.using.Eq ..7 .20

. . PL,3-φ.(in.Watts). . 111,900.W
. |SL,3-φ|.=. ——————. =. —————. =.136,965.VA
. . (Pf) .(Eff .). . (0 .95) .(0 .86)

Therefore,

Example 7 5
. A.four-pole.induction.motor.operates.on.a.three-phase,.240.Vrms.line-to-
line.supply ..The.slip.is.5% ..The.operating.(shaft).speed.is.1600.rpm ..What.is.
most.nearly.the.operating.frequency?

Solution:
Given
p. =. 4.poles
n. =. Shaft.or.motor.speed.=.1600.rpm
ns. =. Synchronous.speed,.in.rpm.=.?
Slip, s. =. 5%.or.0 .05
f. =. Frequency.of.operation.=.?

. Since.this.case.involves.synchronous.speed.and.slip,.it.requires.the.ap-
plication. of. Eq .. 7 .9. and. 7 .10 ..As. apparent. from. examination. of. Eq .. 7 .9,. the.

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226 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

operating.frequency.can.be.determined.by.rearranging.the.equation.if.the.syn-
chronous.speed.ns.were.known ..

Eq 7 10

.
.
. . Eq 7 9

synChronous motors
. Synchronous.motors.are.AC.induction.motors.that.have.no.slip ..In.other.
words,.in.synchronous.motors,.the.speed.of.rotor.or.motor.shaft.is.the.same.as.
the.rotational.speed.of.the.stator.winding.magnetic.field ..This.is.accomplished.
through.the.excitation.of.the.rotor.through.the.field.windings.such.that.the.ro-
tor.is.able.to.“catch up”.to.the.rotational.speed.of.the.stator ..This.characteristic.
permits.synchronous.motors.to.induce.leading currents.in.the.branch.circuit ..
Therefore,.synchronous.motors.can.serve.as.alternative.means.for.power.fac-
tor.correction;.albeit,.application.of.power.factor.correcting.capacitors.is.more.
economical.and.effective.in.most.lagging.power.factor.situations .

Example 7 6
. A.three.phase.induction.motor.delivers.550.kW.at.a.power.factor.of.82% ..
Determine.the.size.of.synchronous.motor—in.kVA—that.should.be.installed.to.
carry.a.load.of.250.hp.load.and,.at.the.same.time,.raise.the.(combined).power.
factor.to.95% ..

Solution:
Given
PI. =.Real.power.delivered.by.the.3-ɸ.induction.motor.=.550.kW.
PS. =.Real.power.contributed.by.the.synchronous.motors.=.250.hp.=.(250.hp).
x.(0 .746.kW/hp).=.186 .5.kW
Pfi. =.Initial.Power.Factor.=.82%.=.0 .82
Pff. =.Final.Power.Factor.=.95%.=.0 .95

. To. solve. this. problem,. as. in. many. others,. we. will. begin. with. the. final.
state.and.work.our.way.upstream ..With.the.final.combined.power.factor.of.95%.
in.mind,.we.will.work.our.way.back.to.the.required.synchronous.motor.speci-

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Electric Motors and Generators 227

fications ..The.apparent.power.rating,.S,.of.the.synchronous.motor.that.must.be.
installed.to.achieve.the.combined.“system”.power.factor.of.95%.(0 .95),.while.
contributing. 250. hp. toward. the. system’s. real. power,. PT,. requirement,. can. be.
determined.if.we.could.assess.the.QT.(kVAR).contributed.by.the.synchronous.
motor.in.an.effort.to.raise.the.combined.power.factor.of.the.two.motor.system.
to. 95%. (0 .95) .. This. can. be. accomplished. through. assessment. of. final. (com-
bined).ST.and.PT.values.and.application.of.the.power.triangle.equation:

The.combined.real.power.of.the.induction.motor.and.the.synchronous.motor:.

. PT.=.550.kW.+.186 .5.kW.=.736 .5.kW

. . PT
Since.STCosθ.=.PT,.ST.=.———,
. . Cosθ

And.since.θR,.the.final.power.factor.angle.=.Cos–1(0 .95).=.18 .19°,

. . PT. . 736 .5.kW

ST.=. .———. =. —————. =.775 .25.kV
. . CosθT. . Cos(18 .19°)

Therefore,

Now,.in.order.to.determine.QS,.the.reactive.power.contributed.by.the.synchro-
nous.motor,.we.must.subtract.the.original.reactive.power,.QO,.from.the.final,.
total,. reactive. power,. QT .. However,. QO. is. unknown. and. can. be. determined.
through.the.power.triangle.in.Figure.7 .7 .

. . QO
. Since.Tan.(θO).=. ——. ,.or,.QO.=.PO.Tan(θO).=.550.kWTan(θO)
. . PO

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228 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 7 7: Power.triangle

And,.θO.=.Cos–1(PfO).=.Cos–1(0 .82).=.34 .92°

Therefore,.

. QO.=.550.kWTan(34 .92°).=.550.kW(0 .698).=.384.kVAR

And,.reactive.power.contributed.by.the.synchronous.motor.would.be:

. QS.=.QO.–.QT.=.384.kVAR.–.244.kVAR.=.140.kVAR

Therefore,

motor starting methods for induCtion motors

. Often,.the.starting.method.for.an.induction.motor.depends.on.the.type.of.
motor ..The.five.basic.types.of.small.induction.motors.are.as.follows:.

1).. Single-phase.capacitor-start
2).. Capacitor-run.
3).. Split-phase.
4).. Shaded-pole.
5).. Small.polyphase.induction.motors
.
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Electric Motors and Generators 229

. Because.of.the.absence.of.a.rotating.EMF.field.in.the.armature,.a.single-
phase.induction.motor.requires.separate.starting.circuitry.to.provide.a.rotating.
field.to.the.motor ..A.starting.circuit.is.needed.to.determine.and.“set”.the.direc-
tion.of.rotation.due.to.the.fact.that.the.regular.armature.windings.of.a.single-
phase.motor.can.cause.the.rotor.to.turn.in.either.direction ..Therefore,.rotation.
direction. is. initiated. in. certain. smaller. single-phase. motors. by. means. of. a.
“shaded pole”.with.a.copper.wire.“turn”.around.a.section.of.the.pole ..Then,.the.
current.induced.in.the.shaded.pole.turn.lags.behind.the.supply.current,.creating.
a.delayed.magnetic.field.around.the.shaded.part.of.the.pole.face ..This.imparts.
sufficient.rotational.field.energy.to.start.the.motor.in.a.specific.direction ..The.
shaded.pole.starting.method.is.often.employed.in.motors.installed.in.applica-
tions.such.as.small.fans.and.pumps .
. A.common.approach.for.staring.larger.single.phase.motors.is.to.incorpo-
rate.a.second.stator.(armature).winding.that.is.fed.with.an.“out-of-phase”.cur-
rent ..The.out.of.phase.current.may.be.created.by.feeding.the.winding.through.
a.capacitor or.through.an.impedance.that.is.different.from.the.main.winding ..
Often,. the. second. “starting”. winding. is. disconnected. once. the. motor. has. ac-
celerated. up. to. normal. steady. state. speed .. This. is. accomplished,. commonly,.
through.either.by.a.centrifugal switch.or.a.thermistor—the.thermistor.heats.up.
and.increases.its.resistance,.thereby.reducing.the.current.through.the.starting.
winding.to.a.negligible.level ..Some.designs.maintain.the.starting.winding.in.the.
circuit.to.supplement.the.regular.motor.torque .
. Since.three.phase,.or.polyphase,.motors.possess.a.rotating.armature.emf,.
the.direction.of.rotation.is.determined.by.phase.sequence,.ABC.versus.ACB ..
Hence,.during.start-up.or.commission.of.three.phase.motors,.if.the.motor.rota-
tion.is.incorrect,.two.of.the.three.phase.conductors.are.“swapped”.to.reverse.the.
direction.of.rotation ..This.reversing.starter.design—in.FVR, Full Voltage Re-
versing starters—is.premised.on.the.“phase-swapping”.principle.to.reverse.the.
direction.of.rotation.of.motors,.such.as.in.conveyor.or.fan.applications.where.
direction.reversal.is.required ..Self-starting.polyphase.induction.motors.produce.
torque.even.when.stationary ..Common.starting.methods.for.larger.polyphase.
induction.motors.are.as.follows:
1).. Direct-on-line.starting,.
2).. Reduced-voltage.reactor.or.auto-transformer.starting,.
3).. Star-delta.starting.
4).. Application.of.solid-state.soft.starting.systems
5).. Use. of. VFDs,. Variable. Frequency. Drives,. for. electronically. controlled.
starting—and. normal. motor. operation—through. variation. of. frequency.
and.voltage .
.
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230 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. In.squirrel.cage.polyphase.motors,.the.rotor.bars.are.designed.and.shaped.
according. to. the. desired. speed-torque. characteristics .. The. current. distribu-
tion.within.the.rotor.bars.varies.as.a.function.of.the.frequency.of.the.induced.
current ..In.locked.rotor.scenarios—or.when.the.rotor.is.stationary—the.rotor.
current.has.the.same.frequency.as.the.stator.current,.and.the.current.tends.to.
travel.at.the.outermost.parts.of.the.cage.rotor.bars.due.to.the.“skin effect .”.The.
squirrel.cage.rotor.bars.are.designed.to.meet.the.required.speed-torque.charac-
teristics.and.to.limit.the.inrush.current ..

DC Motor Speed Control

. While.DC.motor.speed.control.through.armature.or.field.windings.was.
briefly.discussed.earlier.in.this.chapter,.specific.approaches.to.DC.motor.shaft.
speed.control.can.be.categorized.as.follows:.

1).. Armature Control:. The. armature. based. speed. control. technique. in-
volves. changing. the. voltage. across. the. armature. through. variation. of.
parallel.or.series.resistance,.while.holding.the.field.voltage.constant ..

2).. Field Control:.The.field.control.approach.involves.variation.of.the.field.

voltage.while.holding.the.armature.voltage.constant ..The.field.voltage.is.
varied.through.the.variation.of.series.or.shunt.resistance ..

3).. Electronic Control:.This. approach. involves. the. use. of. electronic. con-
trols. for. the. variation. of. armature. and/or. the. field. voltage. and. current ..
Due. to. the. fact. that. features. like. programmability,. closed. loop. control.
and.automation.are.inherently.available.with.electronic.controls,.this.ap-
proach.tends.to.provide.better.control.over.a.wide.range.of.speeds.and.
torques .

4).. Combination of basic approaches:.In.certain.applications,.combination.

of.the.three.approaches.described.above.is.more.suitable ..

AC Motor Speed Control

. A. common. and. efficient. means. for. controlling. speed. of.AC. motors. is.
through.the.application.of.AC.inverters,.VFD.(Variable.Frequency.Drives).or.
ASD.(Adjustable.Speed.Drives) ..The.premise.of.AC.motor.speed.control.is.the.
ability.to.vary.the.frequency.of.AC.power.being.supplied.to.the.motor.through.
a. variable. frequency. drive ..The. shaft. speed. in. such. cases. can. be. determined.
through.the.application.of.Eq ..7 .9.and.7 .23 .

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Electric Motors and Generators 231

.
.
. . Eq 7 9

.
. . Eq 7 23

Where,
ns = Synchronous.speed.of.the.AC.induction.motor,.in.rpm ..
. . =. Rotational.speed.of.the.armature.AC.induction.EMF,.in.rpm .
n = Actual.speed.of.the.AC.induction.motor.shaft,.in.rpm ..
. . =. Rotational.speed.of.the.EMF.in.the.rotor,.expressed.in.rpm .
s = Motor.slip .
f = Frequency.of.the.AC.power.source.feeding.the.motor,.in.Hz ..
p = Number.of.poles,.as.stated.on.the.motor.nameplate ..

motor ClassifiCations
. There. are. numerous. motor. classifications. and. these. classifications. tend.
to. change. and. evolve. over. time. as. new. applications. for.AC. and. DC. motors.
emerge ..Discussion.and.listing.of.all.possible.classifications.and.categories.of.
AC.and.DC.motors.is.beyond.the.scope.of.this.text ..However,.some.of.the.more.
common.categories.and.classifications.are.stated.below.for.reference .

a .. Self-commutated.motors
b .. AC.Asynchronous.motors.(i .e ..typical.induction.motor)
c .. AC.Synchronous.motor
d .. Constant.speed.motors
e .. Adjustable.speed.motor
f .. General.duty
g .. Special.purpose

Classification based on the winding insulation type:.Motor.insulation.class.

rating.is.determined.by.the.maximum allowable operating temperature.of.the.
motor;.which,.subsequently,.depends.on.the.type/grade.of.insulation.used.in.the.
motor .. Seven. mainstream. insulation. classifications. and. associated. maximum.
allowable.temperatures.are.listed.below:

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232 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. I .. Class.A:.105°.C
. II .. Class.B:.130°.C
. III .. Class.F:.155°.C
. IV .. Class.H:.180°.C
. V .. Class.N:.200°.C
. VI .. Class.R:.220°.C
. VII .. Class.S:.240°.C

. Aside. from. exercising. proper. care. in. specifying. the. correct. insulation.
type.for.a.motor.when.installing.new.motors—based.on.the.operating.environ-
ment.of.a.motor—one.must.ensure.that.if.a.motor.is.rewound.or.repaired,.the.
windings.are.replaced.with.original classification of insulation ..For.example,.
if.the.windings.of.a.100.hp.Class H.motor.are.replaced.with.Class B.insula-
tion.windings,.the.motor.will.lose.its.capacity.to.operate.in.higher.temperature.
environment ..

tyPiCal motor namePlate information for

large three Phase induCtion motor
. Electric.motors.are.typically.labeled.with.a.nameplate.that.displays.per-
tinent.specifications.of.that.motor ..While.there.are.myriad.possible.specifica-
tions,.ratings.and.characteristics.of.motors,.some.of.the.more.common.ones.are.
described.and.illustrated.through.a.motor.nameplate.example.in.Figure.7 .8 ..

Figure: 7 8: Motor.nameplate.example,

Interpretation.of.this.nameplate.information.would.be.as.follows:

Model No:.B200
Type:.Marine.Duty,.IEEE-45

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Electric Motors and Generators 233

Power Rating: 200.hp

Standard Operating Voltage:.460.VRMS .
Standard Frequency of operation:.60.Hz
NEMA based efficiency of the motor: 96 .2%
Motor frame size:. 447T .. This. NEMA. designated. frame. classification. often.
signifies.the.mechanical.construction,.mounting.or.installation.of.a.motor .
Power rating of the motor, in kW = 150.kW
AMP or Full Load Current rating of the motor: 233.Amp
Service factor of the motor:.1 .15.or.115%
ENCL or NEMA rating of the motor enclosure: TEFC;.or,.Totally.Enclosed.
Fan.Cooled
RPM: Full.load.shaft.or.rotor.speed:.1760.rpm .
PH Or number of phases: 3
PF, or Power Factor of the motor: 84 .5%
Duty,.or.duration.of.operation:.Continuous
TYPE: TKKH,.High.Efficiency.Motor
NEMA—B: Class.B.winding.insulation
IP56:.European.enclosure.rating,.comparable.to.NEMA.4 .
Maximum Allowable Ambient Temperature:.40°C
Weight of the motor: 1052.kG.or.2413.lb .

Self-assessment Problems & Questions—Chapter 7

1 ... A.gas.powered.prime.mover.is.rotating.the.rotor.of.a.single.phase.alterna-
tor.at.a.speed.of.1200.rpm ..The.alternator.consists.of.six.pole.construc-
tion ..The.effective.diameter.of.the.coil.is.0 .15m.and.the.length.of.the.coil.
loop.is.0 .24m ..The.coil.consists.of.20.turns ..The.magnetic.flux.density.
has.been.measured.to.be.1 .2T ..Calculate.the.power.delivered.by.this.gen-
erator.across.a.resistive.load.of.10Ω ..

2 .. A.four.pole.alternator/generator.is.producing.electrical.power.at.an.elec-
trical.frequency.of.50.Hz ..(a).Determine.the.angular.speed.corresponding.
to.the.generated.electrical.frequency ..(b).Determine.the.rotational.(syn-
chronous).speed.of.the.armature/rotor ..(c).Determine.the.angular.velocity.
of.the.armature/rotor.(rad/sec) ..

3 ... A.four.pole.single.phase.AC.generator.consists.of.windings.constituting.
80.series.paths.and.is.driven.by.a.diesel.engine ..The.effective.or.mean.

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234 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

length.of.the.armature.is.18.cm.and.the.cross-sectional.radius.of.the.ar-
mature.is.5.cm ..The.armature.is.rotating.at.1800.rpm ..Each.armature.pole.
is.exposed.to.a.magnetic.flux.of.1 .0.T ..The.efficiency.of.this.generator.is.
90%.and.it.is.rated.2.kW ..Determine.the.following:
(a).. The. maximum. voltage. generated .. (b).The. RMS. voltage. generated ..
(c).The.horsepower.rating.of.the.generator ..(d).The.horse.power.out-
put.of.the.prime.mover .

4 .. .A.three.phase,.four.pole,.AC.induction.motor.is.rated.170.hp,.is.operating.
at.full.load,.60.Hz,.460.Vrms,.efficiency.of.90%,.power.factor.of.80%,.and.
a.slip.of.4% ..Determine.the.(a).motor.shaft.speed,.in.rpm,.(b).torque.de-
veloped,.in.ft-lbf ..(c).line.current.drawn.by.the.motor.and.(d).the.amount.
of.reactive.power,.Q,.sequestered.in.the.motor.under.the.described.oper-
ating.conditions ..

5 ... A.three.phase,.four.pole,.AC.induction.motor.is.tested.to.deliver.200.hp,.
at.900.rpm ..Determine.the.frequency.at.which.this.motor.should.be.oper-
ated.for.the.stated.shaft.speed ..Assume.the.slip.to.be.negligible ..

6 ... A.three.phase.induction.motor.delivers.600.kW.at.a.power.factor.of.80% ..
In.lieu.of.installing.power.factor.correction.capacitors.a.synchronous.mo-
tor.is.being.considered.as.a.power.fact.correction.measure ..Determine.the.
apparent.power.size.of.the.synchronous.motor—in.kVA—that.should.be.
installed.to.carry.a.load.of.300.hp.and.raise.the.(combined).power.factor.
to.93% ..The.source.voltage.is.230.Vrms ..

librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 8

Power Distribution
Equipment, Instrumentation
and Electronic Safety Devices
Introduction
. In.this.chapter.will.take.an.exploratory.tour.of.power.distribution.equip-
ment.through.the.review.of.motor.control.center.(MCC),.disconnect.switches,.
motor.starters,.breakers,.power.switchgear,.variable.frequency.drives.(VFD),.
etc .. Pictures. and. diagrams. are. used. in. this. discussion. to. give. the. reader. a.
“hands-.on”.feel.of.common.electrical.and.electronic.equipment ..Of.course,.as.
with.the.rest.of.this.text,.the.reader.will.have.an.opportunity.to.test.their.knowl-
edge.through.self-assessment.problems.end.of.the.chapter .

Voltage Categories in Power distribution systems

Before.we.delve.into.the.specific.voltage.categories.of.electrical.systems,.
let’s. examine. the. flow. of. power. from. the. point. of. generation. to. the. point. of.
consumption.through.Figure.8 .1 .

Figure 8 1: Electric.power.distribution.and.voltage.levels ..US.DOE .

235

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236 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. As.shown.in.Figure.8 .1,.after.AC.power.is.generated.at.a.typical.power.
plant.in.the.US,.it.is.“stepped.up”.for.transmission,.to.voltages.ranging.from.
138.kV.to.765.kV ..As.explained.earlier.in.this.text,.the.higher.the.transmission.
voltage,.the.lower.the.current.required.to.deliver.a.certain.amount.of.power.to.
the.consumers ..As.shown.in.Figure.8 .1,.once.the.power.arrives.within.reason-
able.proximity.of.the.consumers,.it.is.stepped.down.to.lower.voltages.suitable.
for.use.by.the.consumers ..As.we.describe.the.major.categories.of.voltage.sys-
tems. in. the. sections. below,. the. reader. is. cautioned. against. interpreting. these.
categories.in.an.absolute.fashion ..As.explained.below,.the.boundaries.between.
the.various.categories.vary.to.some.degree.depending.on.the.entity.or.organiza-
tion.performing.the.interpretation .

Low Voltage Systems

. The.low.voltage.category.includes.systems.with.voltages.that.range 50
to 1000 VRMS AC or 120 to 1500 Volts DC ..This.category.has.the.following.
subcategories:

Extra low voltage: The. voltage. in. this. category. is. typically. below.
50VRMS.AC.or.below.120.Volts.DC ..The.extra.low.voltage.category.is.
associated. voltage,. which. typically. can’t. harm. humans,. due. to. the. low.
magnitude. of. potential. difference .. This. category. applies. to. equipment.
and. wiring. widely. used. in. bathrooms,. showers,. swimming. pools,. toys.
and.other.electric.devices,.which.might.be.in.open.contact.with.human .

Low voltage in power supplies for fluorescent lamps: This.low.voltage.

category. pertains. to. fluorescent. lamp. power. supplies. that. use. low. DC.
voltage.as.source .

Low-voltage connectors: This.low.voltage.category.is.associated.with.

low. voltage. connectors. and. low. voltage. plugs .. Common. examples. in-
clude. cigarette. lighter. 12V. plugs,. low. voltage. power. adapters. such. as.
those.used.for.charging.rechargeable.domestic.and.office.cordless.elec-
tronic,.DC,.equipment

Low-voltage overhead power lines: This.low.voltage.category.pertains.

to.power.lines.that.bring.low.voltage,.110-240VAC.power,.to.most.homes.
and.small.commercial.establishments .

LVDS voltage level: This. low. voltage. category. pertains. to. LVDS. sys-
tems ..The.term.LVDS.stands.for.low.voltage.differential.signaling . LVDS.

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 237

represents.electrical.digital.signaling.standard.that.pertains.to.high.speed.
digital.communications ..It.specifies.the.electrical-level.details.for.inter-
face.between.inputs.and.outputs.on.integrated.circuit.chips ..Some.com-
mon.applications.of.low.voltage.LVDS.standards.are.high-speed.video,.
graphics,. video. camera. data. transfers,. and. general. purpose. computer.
buses .

Microphone preamp voltage level: This. category. pertains. to. micro-

phone.preamplifiers.used.to.amplify.a.microphone’s.low.output.voltage.
to.a.higher,.more.usable.level .

Medium Voltage Systems

. Medium.voltage.is.typically.the.voltage.going.from.the.substations.to.the.
service.drops ..The.medium.voltage.category ranges from 1 kV up to 15 kV,
or, 35 kV,. by. some. standards . According. to.ANSI/IEEE. 1585-2002. medium.
voltage.ranges.from.1000V.to.35.kVRMS ..NEMA.600-2003,.on.the.other.hand,.
refers. to. medium. voltage. cables. as. “medium. voltage. cables. rated. from. 600.
volts.to.69,000.volts.AC .”

High Voltage Systems

. The.high.voltage.category,.by.most.standards,.ranges.from.15,000.V.(35.
kV,.by.some.standards).up.to.230.KV ..High.voltage.is.typically.the.voltage.go-
ing.from.substation.to.substation.or,.as.shown.in.Figure.8 .1,.the.voltage.level.at.
which.power.is.typically.transmitted.in.the.US.from.the.point.of.generation.to.
the.point.of.consumption ..Transmission-level.voltages.are.usually.considered.
to.be.110.kV.and.above ..Lower.voltages.such.as.66.kV.and.33.kV.are.usually.
considered.sub-transmission.voltages .

Extra High Voltage (EHV) Systems

. There.is.a.general.consensus.among.power.experts.that.voltage.ranging
between 230 kV to 600 kV. could. be. aptly. termed. as. extra. high. voltage,. or.
EHV .However,.some.standards.refer.to.voltages.ranging.from.230.kV.to.600.
kV.as.simply.“High.Voltage .”

Ultra-High Voltage Systems

. There.is.a.general.consensus.that.voltages exceeding 600 kV.could.be.
referred.to.as.ultra-high.voltage,.or.UHV ..Ultrahigh.voltage.(UHV).transmis-
sion.lines.are.rare,.however ..There.are.a.very.few.of.these.in.the.world ..A1 .20.
MV.(1,200,000.V).Ultra.High.Voltage.line,.spanning.from.eastern.to.western.

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238 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

part.of.India,.when.commissioned.into.operation.is.expected.to.be.the.highest.
voltage.commercial.power.transmission.line.in.the.world .

Power Equipment Measurement Categories

. The. measurement. category. system. pertains. to. the. classification. of. live.
electric. circuits. used. in. measurement. and. testing. of. installations. and. equip-
ment .
. There. are. four. measurement. categories. that. take. into. account. the. total.
continuous. energy. available. at. the. given. point. of. circuit,. and. the. occurrence.
of.impulse.voltages ..Of.course,.this.energy.can.be.limited.by.circuit.breakers.
or.fuses,.and.the.impulse.voltages.by.the.nominal.level.of.voltage ..Figure.8 .2.
shows.the.four.categories.in.relation.to.the.typical.power.distribution.compo-
nents .

Figure 8 2: Power.measurement.categories .

. There. are. four. categories,. which. are. always. stated. with. the. designated.
voltage,.for.instance.“CAT.III,.150.V”.or.“CAT.IV,.1000.V .”.This.has.important.
safety.implications.for.impulse.voltages.and.insulation.clearances .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 239

CAT I: This.category.is.applicable.to.instruments.and.equipment,.which.
are. not. intended. to. be. connected. to. the. main. supply .. Because. the. available.
energy.is.very.limited,.this.category.is.typically.not.labeled.on.the.equipment ..
Examples:.Low.voltage.electronic.circuits,.load.circuits.of.typical.test.bench.
power.supplies,.etc .

CAT II:.This.category.defines.circuits.which.are.intended.for.direct.con-
nection.into.mains.sockets ..The.energy.in.such.installations.is.typically.limited.
to.below.100.A.continuous ..In.CAT.II.systems,.maximum.available.continuous.
power.must.be.limited.to.22k.VA.or.less.through.fuses.or.circuit.breakers .

CAT III:.This.category.pertains.to.circuits.which.can.be.connected.to.the.
main.feeders ..The.energy.in.CAT.III.systems.is.limited.by.circuit.breakers.to.
less.than.110.kVA.with.the.current.not.exceeding.11.kA .

CAT IV:.CAT.IV.systems.include.circuits.which.are.connected.directly.
to.the.source.of.power,.or.utility,.for.a.given.building ..The.level.of.energy.in.
CAT.IV.systems.is.high,.limited.to.an.extent.by.the.power.transformer.imped-
ance ..CAT.IV.systems,.typically,.carry.higher.arc.flash.hazard.during.energized.
work .

mCCs or motor Control Centers

. The.term.motor.control.center.can.be.somewhat.misleading ..The.applica-
tion.of.MCCs.is.not.typically.limited.to.the.“control.of.motors .”.While.majority.
of.power.controls.housed.in.most.MCCs.are.motor.starters,.often.controls.for.
lighting.and.other.types.of.loads.are.included,.as.well ..While.our.examination.
of. MCCs. will. be. limited. to.Allen-Bradley/Rockwell. brand. of. MCCs. and. as-
sociated. components,. there. are. many. other. world. class. brands. available,. i .e ..
Square-D,.ABB.and.Siemens .
. As. you. tour. an. industrial. or. commercial. facility,. gray. or. blue. cabinets.
such.as.the.one.depicted.in.Figure.8 .3.can.hardly.escape.notice ..Those.who.are.
not.engineers.or.technicians.are.likely.to.walk.by.one.of.these.cabinets.unaware.
of. the. electromechanical. equipment. performing. critical. functions. behind. the.
doors.of.those.individual.cubicles ..Through.examination.of.a.series.of.MCC.
pictures.and.components,.thereof,.we.will.explore.vital.specifications.of.MCCs,.
the.devices.behind.those.MCC.cubicle.doors,.how.they.function.and.what.they.
consist.of .
. An.Allen-Bradley.CENTERLINE.Motor.Control.Center,.pictured.in.Fig-
ure.8 .3,.is.made.up.of.one.or.more.vertical.sections ..A.standard.section.is.90”.

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240 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 3: Physical.size.specifications.of.a.typical.MCC .

(2286mm).high,.20”.(508mm).wide,.and.either.15”.(381mm).or.20”.(508mm).
deep.for.front.mounted.configurations ..Greater.widths.are.sometimes.supplied.
when. larger. equipment. is. required .. Back-to-back. configured. MCCs. are. also.
available.in.30”.(762mm).and.40”.(1016mm).designs .

NEMA Enclosure Types

. Rockwell.Automation.offers.a.variety.of.NEMA.type.enclosures.to.meet.
specific.requirements ..The.standard.enclosure.is.NEMA.Type.1 ..This.compares.

Figure 8 4: MCC.enclosure.NEMA.specifications .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 241

to. the. IEC. enclosure. IP40 .. NEMA. Type. 1. with. gaskets,. which. is. unique. to.
MCCs,.provides.gasketing.for.unit.doors ..This.compares.to.the.IEC.enclosure.
IP41 ..NEMA.Type.12.provides.gasketing.for.unit.doors,.bottom.plates,.and.all.
cover.plates .
. MCCs.in.stainless.steel.NEMA.Type.12.enclosures.are.also.available.for.
corrosive.environment.applications ..This.is.comparable.to.the.IEC.enclosure.
IP54 ..For.outdoor.use,.manufacturers.offer.NEMA.Type.3R.enclosures ..This.
enclosure.is.essentially.a.metal.shell.around.a.NEMA.Type.1.inner.enclosure ..
This.is.comparable.to.the.IEC.enclosure.IP44 ..For.indoor.or.outdoor.use,.the.
manufacturers.offer.a.NEMA.Type.4.enclosure ..This.enclosure.is.essentially.a.
stainless.steel.shell.around.a.NEMA.Type.1.inner.enclosure ..This.is.comparable.
to.the.IEC.enclosure.IP65 ..All.metallic.parts.(except.stainless.steel).are.painted.
or.plated.before.assembly,.providing.protection.on.all.mating.surfaces .

MCC bus bars and bus connections

. The.motor.starters,.contactors,.VFDs.and.other.devices.housed.in.MCCs.
are. mounted. on. draw. out. rack. assemblies .. These. devices. or. systems. can. be.
“drawn. out”. and. removed. for. replacement. or. service,. after. their. disconnect.
switches.have.been.turned.off ..This.does.not.imply.that.the.main.power.discon-
nect. switch. for. power. fed. into. the. MCC. must. be. disconnected. or. turned. off.
while.removing.starters/cubicles.for.service .
. If.all.cubicle.assemblies.were.removed.the.view.would.be.similar.to.what.
is.depicted.in.Figure.8 .5 ..As.apparent.in.Figure.8 .5,.behind.the.Micarta.insulat-
ing.panel,.or.equivalent,.an.array.of.bus.bars.are.visible ..Three.visible.bus.bars.
are.shown.magnified.on.the.right.side.of.Figure.8 .5 ..The.three.bus.bars.repre-
sent.phases.A,.B.and.C.of.three.phase.AC ..These.bus.bars.are,.essentially,.sil-
ver plated copper conductors.forming.a.network.of.conductors.carrying.three.
phase.480.VAC.(or.other.specified/rated.voltage).to.all.MCC.cubicles ..Power.
bus. connections. are,. typically,. made. with. at. least. two. bolts ..The. vertical-to-
horizontal.bus.connection.is.made.with.two.bolts,.as.pictured.in.Figure.8 .5 ..The.
horizontal.bus.splice.connections.are.made.with.at.least.two.bolts.on.each.side.
of. the. splice. (depending. on. bus. size) .. The. two-bolt. connection. requires. less.
maintenance.and.the.extra.bolt.guards.against.the.occurrence.of.“hot.spots”.(a.
result.of.loose.connections),.and.arcing.faults.(a.result.of.an.open.connection) .

Horizontal Ground Bus

. A.1/4”.x.1”.(6 .4mm.x.25 .4mm).horizontal.ground.bus,.rated.500A,.is.sup-
plied,.as.standard,.with.each.vertical.section ..A.1/4”.x.2”.(6 .4mm.x.50 .8mm).
horizontal.ground.bus,.rated.900A,.is.optional ..The.bus.can.be.unplated.or.sup-

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242 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

plied.with.optional.tin.plating ..The.horizontal.ground.bus.can.be.mounted.in.the.
top.or.bottom.horizontal.wireway,.or.top.and.bottom.horizontal.wireways.of.the.
MCC ..See.Figure.8 .6 .

Vertical Ground Bus

. Proper.grounding.is.critical.for.safety.of.personnel.and.property ..A.sub-
stantial.part.of.the.NEC®,.National.Electrical.Code,.is.dedicated.safe.ground-
ing. design,. grounding. equipment,. and. grounding. methods .. Hence,. it. is. no.

Figure 8 5: MCC.bus.bar.network .

Figure 8 6: Vertical.and.horizontal.ground.bus.bars.in.a.typical.MCC .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 243

surprise. that. grounding. of. MCCs. and. the. connected. equipment. is. facilitated.
through.a.network.of.ground.buses.in.various.segments.of.MCCs ..Figure.8 .6.
and.8 .7,.for.instance,.show.vertical.and.horizontal.ground.bus.bars.located.in-
side.the.MCC.cabinet.in .
. Each.standard.vertical.section.is.supplied.with.a.steel.vertical.“plug-in.
ground.bus”.on.the.left.side.of.the.section ..The.vertical.ground.bus.is.bolted.to.
the.horizontal.ground.bus,.providing.positive.grounding.for.all.plug-in.units ..
The.load.ground.wires,.from.various.field.locations,.can.be.brought.directly.to.
the.MCC .

Incoming Lug Compartment

. Power.must.be.brought.into.the.MCC ..Therefore,.the.MCC.needs.to.have.
some.type.of.incoming.compartment ..There.are.3.ways.to.accommodate.the.in-
coming.power:.incoming.lug.compartment,.main.fusible.disconnect,.and.main.
circuit.breaker .
. Typically,.an.incoming.lug.compartment.is.used.when.the.main.discon-
necting.means.for.the.MCC.is.located.in.switchgear.near.the.MCC ..See.Figure.
8 .8 .. Incoming. lug. compartments. are. available. for. top. or. bottom. entry. of. the.
power. cables .. The. incoming. lug. compartment. is. designed. so. the. cables. are.
brought.straight.into.the.compartment ..There.is.no.power.bus.in.the.way.and.
therefore,.there.is.no.need.for.sharp.cable.bends ..This.configuration.is.available.
sizes.range.from.600A.to.3000A .

Main Fusible Disconnect Switch

. Another.way.to.accommodate.the.incoming.cables.is.with.a main.fusible.
disconnect.switch ..See.Figure.8 .9 ..Main.fusible.disconnect.switches.are.avail-

Figure 8 7: Horizontal.ground.bus.bars.in.an.MCC .

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244 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 8: Incoming.lug.compartment.on.a.typical.MCC .

Figure 8 9: Incoming.power.fusible.disconnect.switch.in.a.typical.MCC .

able. for. top. or. bottom. entry. of. power. cables ..They. are. frame-mounted. (non.
plug-in),. and. hard-wired. to. the. horizontal. bus .. For. 600A. to. 2000A. applica-
tions,.a.“Bolted.Pressure.Switch”.is.used ..The.bolted.pressure.switch.features.a.
contact.system.that.tightly.holds.the.blades.during.closure.to.provide.a.reliable.
current.path.and.high.withstand ..All.main.disconnect.switches.provide.visible.
blade.indication .

Main Circuit Breaker

. A. main. circuit. breaker. is. another. way. that. the. incoming. power. cables.
can. be. accommodated .. See. Figure. 8 .10 .. Main. circuit. breakers. are. available.
for.top.or.bottom.entry.of.power.cables.and,.are.frame-mounted.(non.plug-in).

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 245

Figure 8 10: Incoming.power.circuit.breaker.in.a.typical.MCC .

and.hard-wired.to.the.horizontal.bus ..They.are.available.in.sizes.up.to.2000A ..
Ground.fault.protection.is.available.for.600A.to.2000A.main.circuit.breakers .
. There.are.pros.and.cons.associate.with.fusible.disconnect.switches.and.
breakers .. When. fuses. clear. (or. “blow”),. they. must. be. replaced. with. exact.
equivalents .. Incidents. have. been. reported. where. improper. fuse. substitution.
has.resulted.in.catastrophic.failure.of.fuses,.resulting.in.arc.flash.incidents ..If.
breakers.are.applied.as.disconnecting.and.over.current.protection.means.in.a.
power.distribution.system,.they.simply.need.to.be.reset.when.they.trip.in.re-
sponse.to.over-current.conditions ..One.possible.disadvantage.associated.with.
breakers.is.that.they.don’t.offers.as.much.flexibility.in.terms.of.current.limiting.
and.fast.action.as.compared.with.some.of.the.current.limiting.and.fast.acting.
fuses,.i .e ..Ferraz.Shawmut.class.J.and.RK .

Stab Assembly
. The.stab.assembly.housing.isolates.each.phase.at.the.rear.of.the.unit ..See.
Figure.8 .11 ..Since.the.power.wires.are.isolated.within.the.stab.assembly,.a.fault.
barrier.is.effectively.formed.between.the.units.and.the.vertical.bus .
. The.tin-plated.stabs,.rated.240.amperes,.are.directly.crimped.to.the.power.
wires,. minimizing. any. chance. for. a. loose. connection .. The. steel. spring. that.
backs. the. stab. ensures. a. reliable. high-pressure. four-point. connection. on. the.
vertical. bus ..The. stabs. are. also. free-floating. and. self-aligning,. meaning. they.
will.position.themselves.for.easy.unit.insertion .

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246 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 11: Stab.assembly.behind.a.typical.MCC.cubicle .

Unit Grounding Provisions

. A. unit. ground. stab. is. provided. on. the. back. of. each. plug-in. unit .. See.
Figure.8 .12 ..The.ground.stab.engages.the.ground.bus.before.the.power.stabs.
contact. the. vertical. bus,. and. disengages. after. the. power. stabs. are. withdrawn.
from.the.vertical.bus ..The.standard.unit.ground.stab.is.made.of.a.copper.alloy ..
An.unplated.or.tin-plated.solid.copper.unit.ground.stab.is.also.available .

Figure 8 12:¶ Ground.system.bus.stabs.in.a.typical.MCC .

Unit Handle
. The.unit.handle.is.flange.mounted,.and.therefore.stays.in.control.of.the.
disconnecting.means.at.all.times—whether.the.door.is.opened.or.closed .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 247

. The.unit.handle.has.positive.status.indication:
—. Color-coded:.red for ON, green.for OFF .
—. Labeled:.ON.and.OFF.(international.symbols—I.is.used.for.ON.and.
O.for.OFF) .

Figure 8 13: LOTO.feature.in.the incoming.power.disconnect.switch.in.a.typi-

cal.MCC .

. The. handle. position. is. depicted. in. the. ON. and. OFF. positions. (and.
TRIPPED.position.for.circuit.breakers) ..See.Figure.8 .13 ..The.unit.door.is.inter-
locked.to.the.unit.handle ..The.door.cannot.be.opened.when.the.handle.is.in.the.
ON.position.unless.the.operator.“defeats”.the.mechanism.using.a.screwdriver ..
The.unit.handle.can.be.locked.in.the.OFF.position.with.up.to.3.padlocks.for.
LOTO,.Lock.Out.Tag.Out,.purposes .

Unit Interlock
. Plug-in.units.are.supplied.with.a.“unit.interlock”.that.prevents.the.unit.
from.being.inserted.into.or.withdrawn.from.the.section.while.the.handle.is.in.
the.ON.position ..See.Figure.8 .14 ..When.the.handle.is.in.ON.position,.the.inter-
lock.mechanism.moves.upward.engaging.the.unit.support.pan.above.the.unit ..
The.unit.interlock.can.also.be.used.to.secure.the.unit.in.a.service.position.to.
guard.against.accidental.unit.insertion ..This.is.shown.in.the.picture.on.the.left .
Lastly,. the. interlock. can. be. padlocked. during. servicing. to. prevent. unit.
insertion,.shown.in.the.photo.on.the.right,.even.with.the.handle.OFF .

motor starter—a-b bulletin 2100

. A.motor.starter.is.designed.to.control.the.flow.of.power.to.a.motor,.while,.

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248 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 14: Interlock.on.MCC.cubicle .

simultaneously,.protecting.the.motor.branch.circuit.against.over-current.condi-
tions .. Motor. starters. assemblies,. such. as. the.A-B. Bulletin. 500,. are. designed.
for.up.to.10.million.operations ..See.Figure.8 .15 ..Additional.information.on.the.
design,.specifications.and.operation.of.some.of.the.motor.starter.components.
will.be.discussed.in.greater.detail.in.Chapter.10 .
. We.will.use.the.picture.of.a.Bulletin.500.A-B.starter,.as.captured.in.Fig-
ure.8 .15,.to.examine.the.design.and.operation.of.a.typical.FVNR,.Full.Voltage.
Non-Reversing.motor.starter ..Beginning.at.about.3’o.clock,.in.the.motor.starter.
picture.below,.we.notice.the.handle.of.disconnect.switch ..The.handle.of.the.dis-

Figure 8 15: Motor.starter.details .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 249

connect.switch.is.mechanically.linked.to.the.mechanism.labeled.as.the.“Fusible.
Disconnect.or.Circuit.Breaker .”.The.three.knife.switches.visible.in.the.picture,.
at.about.12’o.clock,.allow.the.three.phase.AC.voltage.to.be.applied.to.the.fuse.
holder.segment.below ..The.three.over.current.protection.fuses.are.not.shown.
installed.in.the.starter.assembly ..The.three.terminals,.with.three.emerging.black.
wires,.provide.the.continuity.of.the.three.phase.voltage.to.the.top.of.the.contac-
tor;.labeled.Bulletin.500.NEMA

Contactor
. A. contactor,. similar. to. a. typical. electrical. relay,. is. simply. an. electro-
mechanically. controlled. device. that. closes. or. opens. contacts,. to. apply. or.
disengage.AC.voltage,.respectively,.from.the.load ..The.load,.in.this.case,.is.an.
electric.motor .
. The.two.wires.visible.directly.in.front.of.the.contactor.are.control wires.
that.energize.the.solenoid.of.the.contactor ..When.the.solenoid.coil.is.energized,.
the.core.rod.or.plunger.pushes.the.contact.of.the.contactor.shut.and.allows.the.
flow. of. current. and. power. downstream. toward. the. motor,. via. the. solid. state.
overload.protection.device.shown.at.about.8’o.clock ..The.solid.state.overload.
device.is.labeled.as.“Bulletin.592.Melting.Alloy.or.Solid.State.Overload.Pro-
tection”.in.Figure.8 .15 .
. Notice.the.white.terminal.strips.or.terminal.blocks.visible.along.the.bot-
tom.of.the.starter.unit.depicted.in.Figure.8 .15 ..These.terminal.strips.are.called.
the.“pull-apart.terminal.blocks .”.These.pull.apart.terminal.blocks.are,.typically,.
used. in. plug-in. units. and. they. represent. a. significant. improvement. in. wire.
termination.method ..Prior.to.the.advent.of.pull-apart.terminal.blocks,.replace-
ment,.removal.and.re-installation.of.electrical.required.meticulous.and.arduous.
effort.on.the.part.of.technicians.to.correctly.terminate.wires ..The.tedious.task.
of.disconnecting.and.connecting.wires.often.resulted.in.miss-wiring.and.work-
manship.defects ..The.pull-apart.terminal.blocks.have.a.front.half.and.a.rear.half.
that.detach.for.easy.unit.removal ..The.back.half.of.the.terminal.block.is.factory.
wired,.and.the.front.half.is.where.the.customer.terminates.field.wires .

Pilot Devices
. Pilot. devices. are. shown. mounted. on. the. left. side. of. the. starter. chassis.
as. depicted. in. Figure. 8 .15. and. shown. again. in. the. top. left. corner. of. Figure.
8 .16,.labeled.as.“Bulletin.800T .”.Typical.set.of.pilot.devices.include.indicating.
lamps.and.control.switches ..The.pilot.device.set.shown.in.Figure.8 .16.consists.
of. one. motor/load. status. indicating. light. at. the. top. (typically,. red. or. green) ..
The.two.push.buttons.located.below.the.indicating.light.are.momentary.(spring.

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250 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

loaded).push.button.type.switches ..The.middle.switch,.typically.green.in.color,.
is.the.“START”.switch.and.the.bottom.switch,.typically.red.in.color,.functions.
as. a. “STOP. switch .. The. control. sequence. and. algorithm. associated. with. the.
pilot.devices.is.explained.in.the.wiring.diagram.discussion,.in.chapter.10 .

Figure 8 16: Motor.starter.pilot.devices .

FVR, Full Voltage Reversing Starter and Variety of

Other Power Control Devices
. As.discussed.earlier,.when.“on.the.fly,”.instantaneous,.reversal.of.a.three.
phase.AC. motor. is. desired,. a. second. contactor. is. incorporated. into. the. motor.
starter.cubicle.to.reverse.the.three.phase.AC.sequence.from.ABC.to.ACB,.and.
vice.and.versa ..Of.course,.the.two.starters.in.such.cases.are.interlocked.to.ensure.
that.simultaneous.connection.of.the.two.opposite.phase.sequences.is.avoided .
. An.FVR.starter.is.pictured.on.the.top.right.side.of.Figure.8 .17 ..See.labels.
“Contactor.No ..1”.and.“Contactor.No ..2”.in.Figure.8 .17 ..An.FVNR.starter—
with. a. single. contactor—is. depicted. to. the. left. of. the. FVR. starter. in. Figure.
8 .17.for.contrast ..The.bottom.half.of.the.picture.in.Figure.8 .17.shows.two.other.
power.control.devices:.(1).A.soft.start.or.two-speed.starter.unit,.and.(2).A.full.
voltage.lighting.contactor.unit .

Variable frequenCy driVes—uP to 250hP

. In.addition.to.the.power.control.devices.discussed.above,.engineers.can.
design. or. specify. the. integration. of.VFDs,. or.variable. frequency. drives,. into.

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 251

Figure 8 17: Motor.starter.pilot.devices .

MCC.systems ..When.VFDs.are.housed.into.an.MCC.cabinet,.it.is.advisable.to.
maintain.electrical shielding.and.adequate.physical.separation.between.power.
control.components.and.more.sensitive.electronic.systems.like.the.VFDs.and.
PLCs,.Programmable.Logic.Controllers ..In.the.absence.of.such.caution,.elec-
tromagnetic interference,.or.EMI,.can.adversely.affect.the.operation.of.sensi-
tive.electronic.systems .
. Smaller.variable.frequency.drives.are.often,.specifically,.designed.to.fit.
into.plug-in.units,.or.“rack-out assemblies .”.The.VFD.pictured.on.the.left.side.
of.Figure.8 .18,.is.a.smaller,.Bulletin.1305.drive ..The.smaller.drives.range.from.
3.hp.at.240V.to.5.hp.at.480V ..The.VFD.pictured.on.the.right.side.of.Figure.8 .18,.
is.a.larger,.Bulletin.1336.PLUS,.drive ..Some.of.the.larger.VFDs,.such.as.the.
A-B.1336,.fall.in.the.following.size.categories:
• 1/2—30HP.at.480V,.plug-in.design
• 40—125HP.at.480V,.frame-mounted.design
• 150—250HP.at.480V,.roll-out.design

smart motor Controllers (smCs)—uP to 500a

. The.Allen-Bradley,.like.other.power.and.controls.manufacturers,.offers.
various.smart.motor.controllers.that.allow.motor.loads.to.be.operated.at.mul-
tiple,.discrete,.speeds.to.take.advantage.of.energy.savings.in.accordance.with.
the.fan laws.or.affinity laws ..This.essentially.means.that.if.the.motor.is.oper-

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252 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 18: VFD,.Variable.Frequency.Drives .

ated.at.50%.of.the.normal.full.load.speed.
(rpm),.the.power.or.energy.consumption.
of.the.motor.drops.to.12 .5% .
. The. smart. motor. controller. fea-
tured.in.Figure.8 .19.is.an.SMC-50.smart.
motor. controller. by. Rockwell.Automa-
tion .. It. is. a. solid-state. motor. controller.
that. is. premised. on. three-phase,. solid-
state,.silicon-controlled.rectifiers.(SCRs,.
or.thyristors) .

Motor Soft Starts

. Soft. starters. are. typically. em-
ployed.in.power.control.systems.to.limit.
excessive.initial.inrush.of.current.associ-
ated. with. motor. start. up. and. provide. a. Figure 8 19:. SMC. 50,. Rockwell-
gentler. ramp. up. to. full. speed .. Contrary. Automation.Smart.Motor.Controller .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 253

to.VFDs,.soft.starters.are.only.used.during.startup.
of.motors ..See.Allen-Bradley.soft.start.pictured.in.
Figure.8 .20 .
. In. pump. applications,. a. soft. start. can. be.
installed. to. avoid. pressure. surges .. Soft. starts. can.
facilitate. smoother. starting,. prevent. jerking. and.
stressing.of.mechanical.drive.components,.e .g ..in.
conveyor. belt. systems. that. are. loaded. with. bulk.
materials,.intermittently ..Using.soft.starts,.fans.or.
other.systems.with.belt.drives.can.be.started.slowly.
to.avoid.belt.slipping ..In.essence,.a.soft.start.limits
the inrush current,.improves stability.of.the.power.
supply. and. reduces transient voltage drops. that. Figure 8 20: Rockwell-
may.affect.other.loads.and.the.overall.power Automation.Soft.Start .
. Among. “non-electronic”. methods. for. “soft-
starting”.are.means.such.as.the.installation.of.a.series reactor.(coil.or.induc-
tance,.in.general) ..Presence.of.a.series.reactance.limits.motor.starting.current .

ComParison between smCs, Vfds and soft starts

. The.key.differences.between.the.application.of.VFDs.versus.SMCs.are.as.
follows:

1). VFDs. have. the. ability. to. vary. the. armature. frequency—and. the. motor.
speed—in.practically.continuous,.gradual.or.analog.fashion ..Smart.mo-
tor.controllers,.on.the.other.hand,.allow.variation.of.the.motor.at.multiple.
discrete,.preset,.levels.or.steps .

2). While. VFDs. tend. to. cost. more. than. the. SMCs,. the. continuous. adjust-
ability.of.the.VFDs.can.provide.“finer,”.higher.resolution,.control.of.AC.
motors ..This.could.provide.the.end.user.better.process.control,.in.addition.
to.the.energy.savings.opportunity .

3). SMCs. and. Soft. Start. systems. tend. to. be. smaller,. in. physical. size,. than.
VFDs .

4). VFDs.offer.the.greatest.energy.savings.for.fans.and.pumps .

5). Soft-starts. tend. to. present. the. smallest. footprint. as. compared. to. SMCs.
and.VFDs .

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254 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

PlC and i/o Chassis

. Even.though.the.focus.of.discussion—through.the.exploration.of.Allen-
Bradley.MCCs—has.been.attainment.of.a.better.understanding.of.power.or.mo-
tor.control.devices,.we.will.probe.the.hardware.aspects.of.PLCs,.Programmable.
Logic.Controllers,.in.this.section;.primarily,.because.the.SLC-500.and.Bulletin.
1771. PLCs. can. be. integrated. into. a. typical.Allen-Bradley. MCC .. See. Figure.
8 .21 ..Of.course,.smaller.PLCs,.i .e ..the.Micro-Logix.series.could.be.specified.to.
be.included.in.a.section.of.a.PLC,.just.as.well .

Figure 8 21: PLCs.incorporated.into.an.Allen-Bradley.MCC .

. However,.once.again,.care.should.be.exercised.to.protect.the.PLC,.and.
associated.I/O,.Inputs.and.Outputs,.from.potential.EMI.emitted.from.power.
components.in.close.proximity ..The.leftmost.picture.of.a.PLC.shown.in.Fig-
ure.8 .21.(a).depicts.a.SLC.500.PLC.and.associated.I/O.blocks ..In.Figure.8 .21.
(a),.adjacent.to.the.CPU,.Central.Processing.Unit—the.PLC.power.supply.is.
shown.mounted.to.the.“back plane”.of.the.PLC ..A.backplane,.often,.consists.
of. a. circuit. board. with. rigid. connectors. that. the. I/O. modules,. CPU. module.
and.the.power.supply.can.be.plugged.into ..A.PLC,.not.unlike.a.PC.(Personal.
Computer),.operates.off.of.low.DC.voltage,.5-10.V ..This.low.DC.voltage.is.
generated.by.the.PLC.power.supply ..The.power.supply,.in.turn,.is.powered.
by.low.AC.voltage ..The.PLC.control transformer,.shown.in.Figure.8 .21.(a),.
transforms.the.480.VAC—available.at.the.480.VAC.bus.stabs—into.a.lower.AC.

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 255

voltage.(≈14.VAC) ..This.lower.AC.voltage.is.converted.from.AC.to.DC.by.the.
rectifier.in.the.power.supply .
. Larger.Bulletin.1771.Allen-Bradley.PLCs.are.pictured.in.Figures.8 .21.(b).
and.(c) ..The.PLC.depicted.in.Figure.8 .21.(b).is.a.Bulletin.1771.PLC.with.com-
bined.power.supply,.CPU.and.I/O.on.one.panel ..The.PLC.depicted.in.Figure.
8 .21.(c).is.a.Full.Section.Bulletin.1771.PLC,.with.power.supply.and.the.CPU.
on.one.panel.and.the.I/O.rack.on.a.separate.panel ..The.split.panel.configuration.
of.the.Full.Section.1771.PLC.system.accommodates.a.larger.number.of.inputs.
and.outputs .

Figure 8 22: Complete.control.system.in.single.control.cabinet .

. Often,.PLCs.are.integrated.into.a.single.cabinet.with.peripheral.control.
equipment.such.as.variable.frequency.drives.for.automatic.speed.control.and.
the.control.of.higher.current.field.devices.through.relays.and.contactors ..Figure.
8 .22.depicts.one.such.scenario .

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256 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Metering Units

Figure 8 23: MCC.compatible.power.monitoring.equipment

. It.is.common.for.engineers.to.specify.and.incorporate.power.monitoring.
equipment.into.an.MCC ..Examples.of.typical.power.monitors.are.pictured.in.
Figure.8 .23 ..The.power.monitoring.unit.shown.on.the.left.reads.the.monitored.
power.parameters.in.the.traditional.analog.format,.while.the.unit.on.the.right.is.
a.more.contemporary.digital.power.monitor ..The.digital.power.monitors.tend.
to.be.more.versatile;.they.are.often.designed.to.capture.and.display.electrical.
parameters.like:.three.phase.voltage,.current,.kW.(or.real.power.P),.kVA.(or.
apparent.power.S),.kVAR.(or.reactive.power.Q),.power.factor,.frequency,.etc .
. The.rear.of.a.multifunctional,.digital,.power.monitor.is.displayed.in.Fig-
ure.8 .24.below ..The.wires.bringing.the.current.signal.from.line.current.measur-
ing.CTs.(current.transformers).would.be.terminated.at.terminals.I1, I2.and.I3 ..
The. voltage. signal. coming. from. the. voltage. or. potential. transformers. would.
be.terminated.at.points.labeled.V1, V2.and.V3 ..Also,.note.the.Ethernet.connec-
tion.port.in.the.top.right.corner.of.Figure.8 .24 ..This.Ethernet.port.allows.the.
power.monitor.to.transmit.all.data.to.a.central.power.monitoring.work.station.
through.an.Ethernet LAN,.Local.Area.Network ..Such.network.connectivity.al-
lows.multiple.monitors.to.feed.data.to.a.central.location.for.display.and.control.
purposes ..The.digital.communication.attribute.of.digital.power.monitors—and.
the.connectivity.to.LAN—also.permits.users.to.broadcast.the.data.for.off-site.
monitoring.through.routers.and.modems .

main switCh yard and medium Voltage switChgear

. During.the.course.of.our.discussion.of.power.distribution.equipment.in.
this.text.we.made.mention.of.“Main.Switch.Yard .”.For.illustration.purposes,.

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 257

Figure 8 24: Rear.termination.points.on.an.Allen-Bradley.Power.Monitor

a.picture.of.the.main.switch.yard.of.a.facility.is.shown.in.Figure.8 .25 ..Main.

switch.yards.are.compounds,.on.site.at.the.consumer’s.facility,.where.the.utility.
(power.company).“lands”.the.power.into.the.customer’s.facility.and.transforms.
it.from.high.voltage.to.medium.voltage,.i .e ..100.kV.to.13.kV .

medium Voltage switChgear—looP switCh

. Switching.within.facilities,.at.the.medium.voltage.level,.is.accomplished.
through.loop.switches.and.breakers ..A.typical,.three.phase,.13.kV.loop.switch.
is.pictured.in.Figure.8 .26 ..Some.of.the.key.functional.components.of.the.loop.
switch,.i .e ..the.operating.mechanism,.viewing.ports.and.switch.status.(Open.or.
Closed).are.annotated.on.Figure.8 .26 .

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258 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 8 25: Main.Switch.Yard;.100.kV .

Power Factor Correcting Capacitors and

Step Down Transformer, Main Switch Yard
. Power.factor.correcting.capacitors,.installed.on.the.power.company.sided.
of.the.main.switch.yard.are.pointed.out.in.Figure.8 .27 ..Also.annotated.are.the.
large.100.kV.to.13.kV.step.down.transformers,.on.the.power.company.side.of.
the.switch.yard .

CirCuit breaKers
. A.circuit.breaker.is.an.over.current.protection.device.that.is.an.automati-
cally.operated ..A.circuit.breaker,.basically,.is.an.electrical.switch.designed.to.
protect.an.electrical.circuit.from.damage.caused.by.overload.or.short.circuit ..

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 259

Figure 8 26: 13.kV.Loop.Switch .

Figure 8 27: Power. factor. correcting. capacitors. and. main. step-down. trans-
former.in.a.main.switch.yard .

Its.core.function.is.to.detect.a.fault.condition.and.interrupt.current.flow ..Unlike.
a.fuse,.which.operates.once.and.then.must.be.replaced,.a.circuit.breaker.can.be.
reset.(either.manually.or.automatically).to.resume.normal.operation ..The.most.
common.and.basic.type.of.circuit.breaker.is.the.type.that.is.often.applied.in.
residential.dwelling.breaker.panels ..Circuit.breakers.are.categorized.based.on.
the.following.features.or.functions:

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260 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

a). Voltage
b). Current
c). Principle.of.operation

. Circuit. breakers. for. large. currents. or. high. voltages. are. equipped. with.
sensing.and.transducing.devices.that.detect.fault.current.and.operate.the.trip.
or. circuit. opening. mechanism .. The. term. “trip,”. essentially. means. “opening”.
of. an. electrical. circuit. such. that. the. current. ceases. to. flow ..The. trip. function.
is.typically.executed.by.a.solenoid.that.releases.a.latch.that.keeps.the.breaker.
closed.(ON) ..In.order.to.maintain.the.fail.safe.properties—typically.required.
in.control.systems—the.tripping.solenoid.is.often.energized.by.a.separate.bat-
tery ..High-voltage.circuit.breakers.are.self-contained.with.current.transformers,.
protection.relays,.and.an.internal.control.power.source .
. Upon. detection. of. a. fault,. or. fault. current,. contacts. within. the. circuit.
breaker. open. to. interrupt. the. circuit .. Often,. mechanically. stored. energy—in.
springs.or.compressed.air—is.used.to.separate.and.force.open.the.contacts,.thus.
interrupting.the.flow.of.current .

Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

. As.the.name.implies,.low.voltage.breakers.are.applied.in.domestic,.com-
mercial.and.industrial.application,.operated.at.less.than.1000.VAC ..The.design.
of.low.voltage.breakers.is.premised.on.thermal.or.thermal-magnetic.operation ..
Low.voltage.power.circuit.breakers.can.be.mounted.in.multi-tiers.in.low-volt-
age.switchboards.or.switchgear.cabinets ..Low-voltage.circuit.breakers.are.also.
made.for.DC.applications,.i .e ..electrical.protection.of.subway.lines .
. A.sectional.diagram.of.a.common.10.ampere.DIN.rail-mounted.thermal-
magnetic.miniature.circuit.breaker.is.depicted.in.Figure.8 .28 .

Where,
1 .. Actuator.lever—used.to.manually.trip.and.reset.the.circuit.breaker ..The.
legend.on.the.breaker.typically.indicates.the.status.of.the.circuit.breaker.
(ON.or.OFF) .
2 .. Actuator.mechanism—forces.the.contacts.to.“close”.or.“open .”
3 .. Contacts—Allow.the.load.current.to.flow.when.closed.interrupt.the.flow.
when.open .
4 .. Terminals .
5 .. Bimetallic. strip. for. thermal. operation. or. tripping. of. the. breaker. under.
prolonged.overload.conditions .
6 .. Calibration.screw—allows.the.manufacturer.to.precisely.adjust.the.trip.

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 261

Figure 8 28:.Sectional.diagram.of.a.common.rail-mounted.thermal-magnetic.
miniature.circuit.breaker ..Dorman.Smith.circuit.breaker,.annotated.by:.Ali,.UK .

current.of.the.device.after.assembly .
7 .. Solenoid .
8 .. Arc.divider.or.extinguisher .

medium-Voltage CirCuit breaKers

. Medium-voltage.circuit.breakers.are.classified.based.on.the.medium.(or.
substance). used,. within,. to. extinguish. the. arc .. Some. of. the. medium-voltage.
circuit.breakers.types.are.discussed.below:

Vacuum circuit breakers:. The. vacuum. circuit. breakers—rated. up. to.

3000.A—interrupt.the.current.by.creating.and.extinguishing.the.arc.in.a.
near.vacuum.environment,.within.a.sealed.container ..The.vacuum.circuit.
breakers. are. generally. applied. for. voltages. up. to. about. 35,000.V;. they.
tend.to.have.longer.life.expectancies,.and.they.offer.longer.service.spans.
between.overhauls.than.do.air.circuit.breakers .

Air circuit breakers:.Air. circuit. breakers. are. rated,. in. current,. up. to.
10,000.A ..Their. trip. characteristics. are. often. fully. adjustable. including.

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262 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

configurable. trip. thresholds. and. delays .. They. are. often. electronically.

controlled .

SF6 circuit breakers:.The. SF6. medium. voltage. circuit. breakers. extin-

guish.the.arc.in.a.chamber.that.is.filled.with.sulfur hexafluoride gas .

high-Voltage CirCuit breaKers

. High-voltage.circuit.breakers.are.often.applied.in.electrical.power.trans-
mission.networks ..High-voltage.breakers.are.almost.always.solenoid-operated,.
with.current.sensing.protective.relays.operated.through.current.transformers ..
A.high.voltage.circuit.breaker,.rated.110.kV,.is.depicted.in.Figure.8 .29 ..This.
breaker. is. designed. for. 50. Hz. operation. and. is. equipped. with. dielectric. oil.
based.arc.quenching.system .
. High-voltage.breakers.are.broadly.classified.based.on.the.medium.used.
to. extinguish. the. arc .. Technically,. any. of. the. following. can. be. used. for. arc.
quenching:

—. Bulk.oil
—. Minimum.oil
—. Air.blast
—. Vacuum
—. SF6,. sulfur. hexafluoride.
gas

. However,.due.to.environmental.
and.cost.concerns.over.insulating.oil.
spills,.most.new.breakers.use.SF6.gas.
to.quench.the.arc .

Figure 8 29:. Oil. circuit. breaker.

MKP-110. (110. kV). on. traction. sub-
station. 110. kV. 50. Hz/3 .3. kV. DC. of.
railway,. Toliatti. City,. Russia .. By:.
Vivan .

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Power Distribution Equipment, Instrumentation and Electronic Safety Devices 263

Self-assessment Questions—Chapter 8

1 .. A.substation.in.a.manufacturing.facility.is.being.fed.from.a.13.kV.trans-
former.secondary ..This.switchgear.in.this.substation.would.be.categorized.
as:
A .. Medium.voltage
B .. Low.voltage
C .. High.voltage
D .. None.of.the.above

2 .. Power.transmission.lines.would.be.categorized.as:
A .. Medium.voltage
B .. Low.voltage
C .. High.voltage
D .. Medium.voltage
E .. None.of.the.above

3 .. The.breakers.installed.in.residential.breaker.panels.are:
A .. OCBs
B .. Thermal.magnetic.circuit.breakers
C .. Low.voltage.thermal.magnetic.circuit.breakers
D .. None.of.the.above
E .. Both.B.and.C

4 .. The. vacuum. circuit. breakers. tend. to. offer. longer. service. spans. between.
overhauls.than.do.air.circuit.breakers .
A .. True
B .. False

5 .. The.SF6.type.high.voltage.circuit.breakers.are.not.preferred.due.to.environ-
mental.concerns .
A .. True
B .. False

6 .. MCCs.are.not.designed.to.accommodate.PLCs.and.VFDs .
A .. True
B .. False

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264 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

7 .. The.bus.bars.in.MCCs.are.commonly.constructed.out.of:
A .. Aluminum
B .. Silver.plated.copper
C .. Silver
D .. Iron

8 .. Pilot.devices.on.MCCs:
A .. Control.circuit.breakers
B .. Indicate.the.status.of.MCC
C .. Indicate.the.status.of.motor/load
D .. Include.“Start”.and.“Stop”.controls
E .. Both.(C).and.(D) .

9 .. Power.control.cubicles.in.MCCs.are.fixed.and.cannot.be.removed.while.the.
main.fusible.disconnect.switch.of.the.MCC.is.ON .
A .. True
B .. False

10 .. A.control.transformer,.in.a.given.MCC.compartment:
A .. Steps.down.the.voltage.for.control.circuit.operation .
B .. Provides.power.for.MCC.cabinet.lighting .
C .. Is.seldom.needed .
D .. Serves.as.an.isolation.transformer .
E .. Both.(C).and.(D) .

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Chapter 9

National Electric Code,

NFPA® 70 E and
Electrical Standards
Introduction
. The. purpose. of. this. chapter. is. to. merely. introduce. the. reader. to. NEC.
®,.National.Electrical.Code ..The.coverage.of.the.NEC®.in.this.chapter.is.not.

intended.to.provide.the.reader.intermediate,.advanced.or.expert.level.knowl-
edge.that.is.required.and.expected.of.a.NEC®.trained.and.practicing.electrical.
Professional.Engineer,.specializing.in.power.system.design ..Notwithstanding.
the.foregoing.clarification.regarding.the.limited.depth.of.NEC®.knowledge.pro-
vided.in.this.chapter,.the.nonelectrical.engineer.or.the.non-practicing.electrical.
engineering. reader. will. find. that. this. chapter. on. NEC®. and. electrical. safety.
opens.the.door.and.allows.the.reader.to.appreciate.the.complexity.and.depth.
of.the.NEC® ..And,.most.of.all,.if.the.nonelectrical.reader.of.this.chapter.finds.
themselves.leading.a.group.of.electrical.engineers.and.electricians.in.a.“2:00.
AM.triage.situation,”.trying.to.troubleshoot.and.reinstate.an.important.piece.of.
equipment.back.into.operation,.the.knowledge.and.familiarity.they.will.gain.in.
this.chapter.should.prepare.them.better.to.comprehend.the.code.related.jargon.
used.by.EEs.and.electrical.technicians .
. The.NEC®.is.revised.every.three.years ..At.the.time.this.text.was.authored,.
the.2011.revision.was.in.effect ..The.reader.is.reminded.that.the.objective.of.this.
text.is.not.to.provide.precise.code.content.and.references.at.the.time.this.text.is.
read ..Instead,.the.this.text.aims.to.give.the.reader.general.references.of.NEC®.
articles.that.have,.traditionally,.addressed.the.minimum.requirements.associ-
ated. with. equipment. and. appurtenances,. i .e .. conductors,. conduits,. raceways,.
fuses,.breakers,.grounding.systems,.etc .
. Non-electrical.engineering.professionals.often.wonder.if.they.should.in-
vest.in.the.NEC®.book ..If.so,.what.format.and.version.would.be.most.suitable?.
While.the.most.appropriate.answer.to.this.question.lays.in.the.depth.and.extent.
of.study.intended,.most.non-electrical.engineers.might.find.the.NEC®. hand-
book.more.beneficial ..The.handbook.version.of.the.NEC®.is.replete.with.copi-
265

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266 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

ous. pictures,. diagrams. and. illustrative. example. problems. that. aptly. facilitate.
quicker.comprehension.of.code.and.associated.concepts .
. In.keeping.with.the.approach.utilized.in.the.rest.of.this.text,.as.we.get.
introduced. to. certain. commonly. applied. codes,. we. will. take. our. knowledge.
and.comprehension.to.the.next.level.through.example.problems,.end.of.chapter.
problems.and.the.solutions.at.the.back.of.the.text .

NEC ® Articles
. Listed.below.are.major.NEC®.articles.that.are.introduced.in.this.chapter,.
followed.by.a.few.details.that.explain.the.significance.of.the.articles ..Later,.in.
this.chapter,.we.will.illustrate.the.significance.of.some.of.these.NEC.®.articles.
through.examples .

•. Art ..90—Introduction.to.NEC.®.&.Outline .
•. Art ..100—Definitions,.Including.Enclosure.Ratings
•. Art ..110 .6 .—Conductor.Sizes,.AWG.and.Circular.Mils .
•. Article.110 .16—Arc.Flash.Regulations:
•. Art ..110 .26—Clearances.and.Working.Space.Requirements .
•. Art ..210—Load.Configurations.and.Voltages.in.Branch.Circuits .
•. Art ..210 .9—Autotransformers .
•. Art. 210 .20—Branch. Circuit. Ampacity. Determination. &. Over. current.
Protection .
•. Art ..240—Over.current.Protection
•. Art ..240 .50—240 .101—Circuit.Breaker.and.Fuse.Types
•. Art ..250—Grounding
•. Art ..310—Conductor.Insulation.Rating
•. Art ..310 .15—Conductor.Ampacity
•. Art ..358—392—Conduit.and.Cable.Trays
•. Art ..408 .13—408 .35—Panel.Boards

Art 90—Introduction to NEC® and Outline

. Article. 90. of. the. NEC®. is. a. basic. introduction. to. the. intention. of. the.
codes ..This.article.states.the.purpose.of.the.code.provision.of.uniform.and.prac-
tical.means.to.safeguard.people.and.equipment.from.electrical.hazards ..These.
safety. guidelines. are. not. meant. to. describe. the. most. convenient. or. efficient.
installations.and.don’t.guarantee.good.service.or.allow.for.future.expansion ..
The.NEC. ®.articles.of.code.are.designed.to.provide.a.standard.for.safety.that.
protects.against.electrical.shock.and.thermal.effects,.as.well.as.dangerous.over-
currents,. fault. currents,. overvoltage,. etc .. The. NEC®. comports,. for. the. most.

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 267

part,.with.the.principles.for.safety.covered.in.Section.131.of.the.International.
Electrotechnical.Commission.Standard.for.electrical.installations ..International.
Electrotechnical.Commission,.or.IEC,.is.the.world’s.leading.organization.that.
prepares. and. publishes. International Standards. for. all. electrical,. electronic.
and.related.technologies .

Art 100—Definitions
. Professionals.who.are.not.electrical.engineers.or.electricians.are.likely.to.
find.this.article.on.of.the.most.useful.articles ..In.that,.this.article.contains.defi-
nitions.of.terms.that.are.essential.in.the.understanding.and.interpretation.of.the.
code ..As.an.introduction,.a.few.of.the.terms.described.in.Article.100.are.listed.
and.explained.below .

Ampacity:.Ampacity.is.defined.as.“The.maximum.current,.in.amperes,.that.a.
conductor.can.carry.continuously.under.the.conditions.of.use.without.exceed-
ing.its.temperature.rating .”
. Note:. Ampacity. does. vary. depending. on. several. factors .. Appropriate.
NEC.®.Tables.and.derating.rules.must.be.applied.to.determine.the.correct.am-
pacity ..See.Article.310.for.additional.explanation .

Bonded (Bonding): Bonding. is. defined. as. equipment. or. objects. “Connected.
to. establish. electrical. continuity. and. conductivity .”. In. other. words,. bonding.
constitutes.permanent.joining.of.metallic.parts.to.form.an.electrically.conduc-
tive.path.that.ensures.electrical.continuity.and.the.capacity.to.conduct.electrical.
current.safely .
. Note:.This.is.not.the.same.as.grounding,.but.bonding.jumpers.are.essen-
tial.components.of.the.bonding.system,.which.is.an.essential.component.of.the.
grounding.system ..Furthermore,.note.that.the.NEC.does.not.authorize.the.use.
of.the.earth.as.a.bonding.jumper.because.the.resistance.of.the.earth.is.more.than.
100,000.times.greater.than.that.of.a.typical.bonding.jumper .

Branch Circuit:.Branch.circuit.is.defined.as.“The.circuit.conductors.between.
the.final.overcurrent.device.protecting.the.circuit.and.the.outlet(s) .”.As.we.will.
discuss.and.illustrate.later,.a.branch.circuit,.as.defined.by.the.NEC.®,.can.be.
the.entire.circuit.that.lays.between.the.overcurrent.fuses.and.a.motor.load,.in.a.
typical.motor.branch.circuit .

Continuous Load:.A. continuous. load. is. defined. by. the. NEC. ®. as. “A. load.
where.the.maximum.current.is.expected.to.continue.for.3.hours.or.more .”.Note:.

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268 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

The.maximum.running.current.referred.to.in.this.definition.is.exclusive.of.the.
starting current .

Feeder: A.feeder is.defined.by.the.NEC.®.as.“All.circuit.conductors.between.

the.service.equipment,.the.source.of.a.separately.derived.system,.or.other.pow-
er.supply.source.and.the.final.branch-circuit.overcurrent.device .”

Ground: A.ground.is.defined.by.the.NEC.®.as.simply.“The.earth .”.On.the.oth-

er.hand,.the.term.Grounded (Grounding).is.defined.as.“Connected.(Connect-
ing).to.ground.or.to.a.conductive.body.that.extends.the.ground.connection .”
. Note:. Simply. driving. an. electrode. into. the. earth. does. not. constitute.
grounding. a. circuit .. The. ground. must. be. made. with. the. source. or. supply. in.
mind,.as.the.flow.of.electrons—or.current—always.tries.to.return.to.the.source .

In Sight From (Within Sight From, Within Sight): The.NEC.®.defines.this.

as. “Where. this. Code. specifies. that. one. equipment. shall. be. ‘in. sight. from,’.
‘within. sight. from,’. or. within. sight. of,’. and. so. forth,. another. equipment,. the.
specified.equipment.is.to.be.visible.and.not.more.than.15.m.(50.ft).distant.from.
the.other .”.In.other.words,.lockable.disconnecting.means.must.be.provided.in.
sight.of.the.load,.unless.the.specific.installation.meets.the.criteria.stated.under.
article.430 .102.(B).(2).(a).or.(b) .

Labeled: The. NEC. ®. defines. this. as. “Labeled .. Equipment. or. materials. to.
which.has.been.attached.a.label…acceptable.to.the.authority.having.jurisdic-
tion.and.concerned.with.product.evaluation,… .”
. Note:.The.reader.is.advised.to.read.the.entire.original.definition.in.order.
to.attain.full.understanding.of.this.term .

Neutral Conductor: The.NEC.®.defines.this.as.“The.conductor.connected.to.

the.neutral.point.of.the.system.that.is.intended.to.carry.current.under.normal.
circumstances .

Overcurrent: The.NEC.®.defines.overcurrent.as.“Any.current.in.excess.of.the.
rated.current.of.equipment.or.the.ampacity.of.a.conductor ..It.may.result.from.
overload,.short.circuit.or.ground.fault .”

Overload: The. NEC. ®. defines. overload. as. “Operation. of. equipment. in. ex-
cess.of.normal,.full-load.rating,.or.of.a.conductor.in.excess.of.rated.ampacity.
that,. when. it. persists. for. a. sufficient. length. of. time,. would. cause. damage. or.

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 269

dangerous.overheating ..A.fault,.such.as.short.circuit.or.ground.fault,.is.not.an.
overload .”

Raceway: The.NEC.®.defines.raceway.as.“An.enclosed.channel.of.metal.or.
nonmetallic.materials.designed.expressly.for.holding.wires,.cables,.or.bus-bars .
. Note:.The.reader.is.advised.to.read.the.entire.original.definition.in.order.
to.attain.full.understanding.of.this.term .

Short-Circuit Current Rating: The.NEC.®.defines.this.term.as.“The.prospec-

tive. symmetrical. fault. current. at. a. nominal. voltage. to. which. an. apparatus. or.
system.is.able.to.be.connected.without.sustaining.damage.exceeding.defined.
acceptable.criteria .”

Voltage, Nominal: The.NEC.®.defines.nominal.voltage.as.“A.nominal.value.

assigned.to.a.circuit.or.system.for.the.purpose.of.conveniently.designating.its.
voltage.class.(e .g .,.120/240.volts,.480/277.volts,.600.volts) ..The.actual.volt-
age.at.which.a.circuit.operates.can.vary.from.the.nominal.within.a.range.that.
permits.satisfactory.operation.of.equipment .”

Art 110 6 —Conductor Sizes, AWG and Circular Mils

Overall.Article.110.lays.out.the.requirements.for.electrical.installations ..Article.
110 .6,.specifically,.addresses.conductor.sizes ..This.article.clarifies.the.fact.that.
the.conductor.sizes.are.expressed.in.AWG,.American.Wire.Gage.or.in.circular.
mils ..For.copper,.aluminum.or.copper.clad.aluminum.conductors.up.to.size.4/0.
AWG,.the.code.identifies.the.conductor.sizes.in.AWG ..Conductors.larger.than.
4/0.AWG. are. sized. in. circular. mils,. beginning. with. 250,000. mils;. formerly.
referred.to.as.250.MCM ..Where.first.“M”.stands.for.1000 ..The.unit.kcmil.was.
adopted. 1990 ..Therefore,. the. more. contemporary. identification. of. a. 250,000.
mil.conductor.would.be.250.kcmil..Note:.1.mil.is.equal.to.1/1000th.of.an.inch .

Article 110 16—Arc-Flash Hazard Warning

This.article.addresses.stipulation.associated.with.potential.hazard.of.arc-flash.
incidents.initiated.by.electrical.faults ..The.essence.of.the.Code,.in.this.article.is.
that.switchboards,.panel-boards,.industrial.control.panels,.meter.socket.enclo-
sures,.and.motor.control.centers.in.other.than.dwelling.units,.which.are.likely.
to.require.examination,.adjustment,.servicing,.or.maintenance.while.energized,.
shall.be.field.marked.to.warn.qualified.persons.of.potential.electric.arc.flash.
hazards .. The. marking. or. label. shall. be. located. so. as. to. be. clearly. visible. to.
qualified.persons.before.examination,.adjustment,.servicing,.or.maintenance.of.

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270 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

the.equipment ..An.example.of.a.label.generated.as.a.result.of.arc.flash.hazard.
analysis.is.shown.in.Figure.9 .1 ..Look.for.additional.discussion.on.the.topic.of.
arc.flash.later.in.this.chapter .

Figure 9 1:.Arc-flash.hazard.label,.produced.through.arc-flash.hazard.analysis .

Art 110 26—Clearances and Working Space Requirements

. This.article.of.the.Code.states:.“Access.and.working.space.shall.be.pro-
vided.and.maintained.about.all.electrical.equipment.to.permit.ready.and.safe.
operation.and.maintenance.of.such.equipment .”.The.essence.of.this.article.is.
that.one.cannot.install.electrical.equipment.in.just.any.available.physical.space ..
Equipment.must.be.installed.such.that.it.can.be.accessed,.safely,.at.all.times.by.
maintenance.personal .

Art 210—Branch Circuits

. This. article. applies. to. branch. circuits. that. supply. power. to. motor. and.
non-motor. loads ..Article. 430. must. be. consulted. for. situations. where. branch.
circuits.feed.motors.only ..The.NEC.®.handbook.contains.myriad.illustrations.
of.different.types.of.branch.circuits.and.associated.code.requirements .

Art 210 9—Circuits Derived from Autotransformers

. This.article.stipulates:.“Branch.circuits.shall.not.be.derived.from.auto-
transformers.unless.the.circuit.supplied.has.a.grounded.conductor.that.is.elec-
trically. connected. to. a. grounded. conductor. of. the. system. supplying. the. au-
totransformer .”. In. addition. to. explanation. of. this. code,. the. handbook. shows.
circuit.diagrams.of.autotransformers.connected.in.various.configurations .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 271

Art 210 20—Overcurrent Protection

. According.to.210 .20,.an.overcurrent.device.that.supplies.continuous.and.
non-continuous.loads.must.have.a.rating.that.is.not.less.than.the.sum.of.100.
percent. of. the. non-continuous. load. plus. 125. percent. of. the. continuous. load,.
calculated.in.accordance.with.Article.210 ..Because.grounded/neutral.conduc-
tors.are.generally.not.connected.to.the.terminals.of.an.overcurrent.protective.
device,.this.requirement.for.sizing.conductors.subject.to.continuous.loads.does.
not.apply .

Art 240—Overcurrent Protection Device

. This.article.of.the.Code.provides.the.requirements.for.selecting.and.in-
stalling.overcurrent.protection.devices.(OCPDs) ..On.one.hand.an.OCPD.pro-
tects.a.circuit.by.opening.the.circuit.when.current.reaches.a.value.that.would.
cause.an.excessive.temperature.rise.in.the.conductors ..If.one.were.to.apply.the.
rising.water.analogy,.current.rises.like.water.in.a.tank,.and.at.a.certain.level,.the.
OCPD.shuts.off.the.faucet ..On.the.other.hand,.an.OCPD.protects.equipment.by.
opening.the.circuit.when.it.detects.a.short.circuit.or.ground.fault ..All.electrical.
equipment.must.have.a.short-circuit.current.rating.that.permits.the.OCPDs.to.
clear.short.circuits.or.ground.faults.without.a.catastrophic.failure .

Art 240 50—240 101—Circuit Breaker and Fuse Types

. Articles,.ranging.from.Art ..240 .50-240 .101,.address.requirements.associ-
ated. with. selection,. specification. and. installation. of. various. overcurrent. pro-
tection.devices.such.as.circuit.breakers.and.fuses ..Once.again,.in.addition.to.
explanation.of.the.code,.the.handbook.shows.diagrams.and.pictures.of.various.
types.of.fuses.and.a.breaker.tripping.unit .

Art 250—Grounding and Bonding

. Overall,. this. article. addresses. general. requirements. for. grounding. and.
bonding.of.electrical.installations,.types.and.sizes.of.grounding.and.bonding.
equipment,. methods. of. grounding. and. bonding,. and. situations. when. guards,.
isolation,.or.insulation.may.be.substituted.for.grounding .

Art 310—Conductors and General Wiring

. This.NEC.®.article.addresses.general.requirements.for.conductors,.their.
types,.insulations,.markings,.mechanical.strengths.and.ampacity.ratings ..Table.
310 .15. lists. ampacities. of. various. conductors. and. is,. possibly,. the. most. fre-
quently.used.page.in.the.Code. See.additional.discussion.below.on.conductor.
ampacity .

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272 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Art 358—Electrical Metallic Tubing: Type EMT

. This.article.of.the.Code.addresses.the.application,.installation.and.con-
struction.specifications.for.electrical.metallic.tubing.(conduit).and.associated.
tubing .

Art 408—Switchboards and Panelboards

. This.article.of.the.Code.covers.switchboards.and.panelboards.associated.
with.equipment.operating.at.600.volts.or.less .

amPaCity of ConduCtors—table 310-15

. In.order.to.provide.a.measure.of.familiarity.with.the.most.frequently.used.
section.of.the.NFPA,.NEC,.National.Electric.Code,.an.older.version.of.NEC.
Table.310-15.has.been.included.under.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2 ..Closer.examination.
of.this.table.shows.that.the.ampacities.of.various.conductors.are.listed.under.
two. separate. sections .. The. left. section. represents. copper. conductors. and. the.
right. section. represents. the. aluminum. or. copper. clad. aluminum. conductors ..
These. two. sections. are. divided. further. into. three. columns. each .. These. three.
columns.list.the.ampacities.of.various.commercially.available.conductors.un-
der.three.temperature.categories:.60°C(140°F),.75°C(167°F).and.90°C(194°F) ..
Note. that. these. three. separate. temperature. columns. lump. different. types. of.
commercially. available. insulations .. The. temperature. and. insulation. columns.
are.selected.in.accordance.with.specific.application,.environment.and.ambient.
temperature ..The.bottom.section.of.Table.9 .2.represents.the.conductor.ampac-
ity correction factors.based.on.the.ambient.temperatures.above.or.below.30°C .
. The.methods.associated.with.the.application.of.NEC®.articles.are.illus-
trated. through. example. problems. listed. below .. However,. the. NEC®. articles.
cited.are.subject.to.change,.without.notice,.due.to.periodic.code.revisions.and.
were.meant.to.be.valid.at.the.time.of.development.of.these.problems ..There-
fore,.these.NEC®.article.references.may.not.be.current.and.should.not.be.used.
for.actual.practice.of.electrical.engineering.design ..Instead,.reader.should.refer.
to.the.most.current.NEC®.articles.in.their.practice.of.engineering .

Example 9 1
Over Current Protection:
. Applicable.Code/Codes:.Articles.210 .19.(A).(1),.210 .20.(A).and.310 .15 ..
Tables.310 .15(B)(2)(a).and.310 .15(B)(16) .
. The.branch.circuit.in.the.exhibit.below.consists.of.two.(2).8.amp.continu-
ous.loads ..Over.current.protection.in.the.branch.circuit.is.provided.through.a.
20.amp.circuit.breaker ..(a).Verify.the.size/specifications.of.the.circuit.breaker.

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 Table 9 1:.

National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards

NEC®.Ampac-
ity.table.super-
seded.by.cur-
rent.NEC.Table.
310 .15(B)
(16) ..Included.
for.general.
illustration.
purposes,.
only ..Courtesy,.
NEC,.NFPA .

273
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 274
Table 9 2:.
NEC®`Ampacity.
table.superseded.
by.current.NEC.
Table.310 .15(B)
(16) ..Included.
for.general.illus-
tration.purposes,.
only ..Courtesy,.
NEC,.NFPA .

Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 275

and.the.12.AWG.conductor,.assuming.conductor.temperature.at.60°C.(140°F).
or. less .. (b). If. the. ambient. temperature. were. to. rise. to. 50°C,. how. would. the.
conductor.size.be.impacted?
. Conductor.and.OCPD,.Over.Current.Protection.Device,.verification:

Solution:
. In.accordance.with.article.210 .20.(A),.which.stipulates:

. “Branch-circuit.conductors.and.equipment.shall.be.protected.by.overcur-
rent. protective. devices. that. have. a. rating. or. setting. that. complies. with.
210 .20(A).through.(D) .

. (A).Continuous.and.Non-continuous.Loads ..Where.a.branch.circuit.sup-
plies. continuous. loads. or. any. combination. of. continuous. and. non-con-
tinuous.loads,.the.rating.of.the.overcurrent.device.shall.not.be.less.than.
the.non-continuous.load.plus.125.percent.of.the.continuous.load .”.NEC฀.
2011 .

The.over.current.protection.should.be.rated.=.1 .25.x.Continuous.Load
. =.1 .25.x.(8.x.2A).=.20.amps .

∴.The.20.amp.circuit.breaker.as.an.over.current.protection.device.is.adequate.
for.the.given.branch.circuit .

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276 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. In. accordance. with. article. 210 .19. (A). (1):. “Branch. circuit. conductors.
shall.have.an.ampacity.not.less.than.maximum.load.to.be.served….(and).shall.
have.an.allowable.ampacity.not.less.than.the.non-continuous.load.plus.125%.of.
the.continuous.load .

∴.The.conductor.ampacity.for.the.given.branch.circuit
. =.1 .25.x.Continuous.Load.+.1 .00.x.Non-Continuous.Load
. =.1 .25.x.(16A).+.1 .00.x.(0).=.20.amps .

. According.to.Table.310 .15(B)(16),.for.60°C.operation,.with.Type.TW.or.
UF.insulation,.AWG.12.conductor.carries.an.allowable.ampacity.of.20.amps.
for.conductors.that.are.insulated,.rated.for.0-2000.volt.operation,.in.situations.
with.no.more.than.three.(3).current.carrying.conductors.in.raceway,.cable.earth.
(directly.buried);.under.ambient.temperature.(not.exceeding).30°C.(85°F);.with.
no.required/applicable.derating .

∴.Selection.of.AWG.12.would.be.adequate.for.this.scenario .

. (B).Ambient.Temperature.Rise.and.Conductor.size:.According.to.Article.
310 .15,.Tables.310 .15(B)(2)(A).and.310 .15(B)(16),.when.ambient.devi-
ates.from.30°C.to.50°C,.a.derating.multiplier.of.0 .58.must.be.applied.to.
adjust.the.ampacity.of.the.conductor .

∴.The.adjusted.or.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#12.conductor,.in.this.case,.would.
be:
. =.0 .58.x.20.amps.=.11 .6.amps

. Since.the.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#12,.for.this.application,.falls.below.
the.20.amp.capacity.mandated.by.210 .19.(A).(1),.AWG.#12.would.no.longer.be.
adequate ..Therefore,.AWG.#10,.which.is.the.next.size.above.AWG#12,.must.be.
considered ..According.to.Table.310 .15(B)(16),.for.60°C.operation,.with.Type.
TW.or.UF.insulation,.AWG#10.conductor.carries.an.allowable.ampacity.of.30.
amps ..Then,.if.the.50°C.adjustment.rating.of.0 .58.is.applied.to.30.amp.ampac-
ity.of.AWG.#10,.the.derated.ampacity.would.be:

. =.0 .58.x.30.amps.=.17 .4.amps

. Since.the.17 .4.amp.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#10.still.fall.short.of.the.20.
amp.requirement,.it.would.not.meet.the.code ..So.the.next.larger.size.conductor,.

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 277

AWG.#8,.with.an.ampacity.of.40.amps.should.be.considered .
. If.the.50°C.adjustment.rating.of.0 .58.is.applied.to.the.40.amp.ampacity.
of.an.AWG.#.8.conductor,.the.derated.ampacity.would.be:

. =.0 .58.x.40.amps.=.23 .2.amps

. The.23 .2.amp.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#10.exceeds.the.20.amp.require-
ment,.therefore,.it.would.meet.the.code .

Example 9 2
Over current Protection and Minimum Conductor Size
Applicable. Code/Codes:. 210 .20. (A),. 240 .6(A),. 210 .19. (A). (1),. 310 .15. and.
Table.310 .15.(B).(16) .

. Determine. the. size. of. over. current. protection. device. and. the. minimum.
conductor.size.for.the.following.scenario.assuming.that.no.derating.applies:
—. Four.(4).current.carrying.copper.conductors.in.a.raceway .
—. Operating.temperature.and.OCPD,.Over.current.Protective.Device,.
terminal.rating:.60°C
—. Insulation:.THWN
—. Load:.(calculated).26.amps,.continuous .

Solution
Size of the OCPD:
. In.accordance.with.article.210 .20.(A),.over.current.protection.should.be.
rated.=.1 .25.x.Continuous.Load.=.1 .25.x.(26A).=.32 .5.amps .
. According.to.article.240 .6(A),.standard.ampere.rating.above.30.amp.is.35.
amp .

∴. The. minimum. standard. size. or. rating. of. the. OCPD device should be 35
amps

Minimum Conductor Size

. In.accordance.with.article.210 .19.(A).(1),.the.branch.circuit.conductors.
shall.have.an.ampacity.not.less.than.maximum.load.to.be.served….(and).shall.
have.an.allowable.ampacity.not.less.than.the.non-continuous.load.plus.125%.of.
the.continuous.load .

∴. The. conductor. ampacity. for. the. given. branch. circuit. =. 1 .25. x. Continuous.

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278 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Load.+.1 .00.x.Non-Continuous.Load.=.1 .25.x.(26A).+.1 .00.x.(0).=.32 .5.amps ..

Select AWG 8 which has an ampacity of 40 amps

Example 9 3
Appliance Load—Dwelling Unit(s):
Applicable.Code/Codes:.220 .53
. Determine. the. feeder. capacity. needed. for. a. 120/240.VAC,. fastened-in-
place,.appliance.load.in.a.dwelling.unit.for.the.following.appliances:

—. Water.Heater,.Rated:.4000.W,.240.V;.Load:.4000.VA.(PF.=.1)

—. Kitchen. Disposal,. Rated:. 0 .5. hp,. 120. V;. Load:. 1176. VA. (PF. &. Eff ..
<<100%)

—. Dishwasher,.Rated:.1200.W,.120.V;.Load:.1200.VA.(PF.=.1)

—. Furnace.Motor,.Rated:.0 .25.hp,.120.V;.Load:.696.VA.(PF.&.Eff ..<<100%)

—. Attic. Fan. Motor,. Rated:. 0 .25. hp,. 120. V;. Load:. 696. VA. (PF. &. Eff ..
<<100%)

—. Water.Heater,.Rated:.0 .5.hp,.120.V;.Load:.1176.VA.(PF.=.1)

Solution
Total.Load.=.4000.VA.+.1176.VA.+.1200.VA.+.696.VA.+.696.VA.+.1176.VA
. =.8944.VA

. Since.the.total.load.consists.of.more.than.four.(4).appliances,.according.
to.article.220 .53,.a.demand.factor.of.75.%.is.permissible .

∴.The.size.of.the.service.and.feeder.conductors.may.be.based.on.net.load:
. =.0 .75.x.8,944.VA
. =.6,708 VA

Example 9 4
Outlets in Dwelling Unit(s):
. A.120.V.dwelling.branch.circuit.supplies.four.outlets,.one.of.which.has.
four.receptacles ..What.is.the.total.volt-ampere.load?

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 279

Solution
. According.to.article.220 .14(I),.a.single.outlet.is.counted.as.a.180.VA.load ..
So.the.three.outlets,.out.of.the.four.would.constitute.a.load.of:
. =.(3)(180.VA).=.540.VA

. Each.of.the.receptacles,.in.the.fourth.outlet—with.four.receptacles—ac-
cording.to.article.220 .14(I),.would.constitute.a.load.of.90.VA ..Therefore,.the.
total.load.contribution.from.the.four.receptacles.would.be:
. =.(numbers.of.receptacles).(90.VA/receptacle)
. =.(4)(90.VA).=.360.VA

∴.The.total.load.is.=.540.VA.+.360.VA.=.900 VA

Arc Flash
. While. some. background. information. on. the. subject. of. arc. flash. is. pre-
sented.under.Article.110 .16.of.the.NEC®,.the.National.Electric.Code,.NEC®,.
is. not. a. core. source. for. information. on. arc. flash. regulations .. The. subject. of.
arc.flash.is.comprehensively.addressed.by.NFPA 70 E The.latest.version.of.
NFPA.70.E.was.released.in.2012 ..In.the.recent.years,.NFPA.70.E,.similar.to.the.
NEC®,.has.been.revised.every.three.years ..Like.the.NEC®,.NFPA.70.E.is.avail-
able.in.print,.on-line.and.in.other.electronic.format,.i .e ..CD ..Arc.flash.is.being.
introduced.in.this.text.primarily.due.to.the.importance.and.gravity.of.arc.flash.
hazard.in.the.electrical.work.environment ..The.introduction.of.arc.flash.in.this.
text.is.at.the.basic.level.and.does not.enable.the.reader.to.adequately.practice.
arc.flash.safety .
. Basic.facts.related.to.arc.flash.are.listed.below:

•. Arc.flash.is.the.result.of.a.rapid.release.of.energy.due.to.an.arcing.fault.
between. a. phase bus bar and another phase bus bar, neutral or a
ground .

•. Arc.faults.are.typically.limited.to.systems.with.the.bus.voltage.is.in.ex-
cess of 120 volts .

•. An.arc.fault.is.similar.to.the.arc.obtained.during.electric welding .

•. The.massive.energy.discharged.during.and.arc.fault.phenomenon.has.the.
capacity to burn bus bars, vaporize the copper and cause an explosive
volumetric increase .

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280 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

•. An. arc. blast. is. estimated. to. cause. explosive. expansion. of. gas. or. air. to.
magnitudes.exceeding.40,000 to 1 .

•. The.essence.of.relative.magnitude.or.intensity.of.arc.flash.can.be.under-
stood.and.appreciated.through.Eq ..9 .1:

Arc Flash Energy, or Incident Energy = (V) (I) (t) Eq 9 1

. In.Eq ..9 .1,.the.arc.flash.energy,.or.incident.energy,.is.the.energy.released.

by.an.arc.flash.fault ..This.energy.can.be.measured.in.kWh,.Watt—sec,.Joules,.
calories,.Btus,.therms,.etc ..In.arc.flash.analysis,.arc.flash.classifications.and.arc.
flash.PPE.(Personal.Protective.Equipment).ratings,.arc.flash.energy.“intensity”.
term.“Calories/cm2”.is.commonly.used ..In.Eq ..9 .1,.“V”.is.the.rms.(root.mean.
square).voltage,.“i”.is.the.rms.(root.mean.square).fault.current.and.“t”.is.the.
duration.of.the.arc.fault,.in.seconds ..The.arc.fault.current.magnitude,.typically,.
ranges.in.1,000s.of.amps.and.the.fault.duration.is.typically.in.milliseconds ..As.
obvious,.this.equation.stipulates.that.arc.fault.energy.is.directly.proportional.to.
the.voltage,.current.and.fault.duration ..Note.that,.over.the.time.span.or.dura-
tion.of.the.fault,.the.voltage.change.is.negligible.in.comparison.with.the.order.
of.magnitude.rise.in.the.current.level ..Therefore,.mostly,.the.magnitude.of.the.
fault.current.is.responsible.for.the.enormity.of.the.arc.flash.energy .

•. Temperature.in.ARC.Plasma.is.approx ..5,000°F .

•. There. are. approximately. 5-10. arc. flash. incidents. (explosions). recorded.

per.day,.in.the.US .

•. Average.medical.cost.associated.with.remediation.is.estimated.to.exceed.
$1 .5.Million.per.incident ..Total.cost,.including.litigation,.is.estimated.to.
be.$8-10.million.per.incident .

•. OSHA,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration,.carries.the.Arc.
Flash.regulation.enforcement.responsibility .

Compliance with OSHA involves adherence to a six-point plan:

•. A. facility. must. provide,. and. be. able. to. demonstrate,. a. safety. program.
with.defined.responsibilities .

•. Calculations. for. the. degree. of. arc. flash. hazard,. at. electrical. equipment.
rated.or.operating.at.120V,.or.greater .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 281

•. Warning. labels. on. equipment .. Note. that. the. labels. are. provided. by. the.
equipment.owners,.not.the.manufacturers .

•. Provision.of.proper.personal.protective.equipment.(PPE).for.workers,.as.
prescribed.by.proper.arc.flash.hazard.analysis .

•. Initial.training,.and.subsequent.refresher.training,.for.workers.on:
—. The.hazards.of.arc.flash
—. The.proper.interpretation.of.arc.flash.hazard.labels
—. Proper.use.of.arc.flash.PPE.and.voltage.rated.tools.and.gloves .

Physical and Thermal Background of Arc Flash

. This.section.is.devoted.to.the.exploration.of.the.physical,.chemical.and.
thermal.aspects.of.arc.flash.phenomena ..This.discussion.is.intended.to.enhance.
technicians’.and.engineers’.appreciation.of.the.reasoning.behind.arc.flash.haz-
ard. analysis. requirements. and. the. need. for. arc. flash. PPE .. Pictures. from. two.
different.arc.flash.simulations.are.depicted.in.Figures.9 .2.and.9 .3 .
. The.picture.in.Figure.9 .2.depicts.a.simulated.arc-flash.incident,.conduct-
ed. at. 250V,. 13 .1. KA. (13,100. amps) .. The. energy. intensity. for. this. simulated.
13,100.amp.fault.is.estimated.to.be.1 .48.Cal/cm2 ..The.picture.in.Figure.9 .3.de-
picts.a.simulated.arc-flash.incident,.conducted.at.250V,.44.KA.(44,000.amps) ..
The.energy.intensity.for.this.simulated.44,000.amp.fault.is.estimated.to.be.8 .48.
Cal/cm2,.almost.six times the fault energy.released.by.the.lower.current.fault ..
Note.that.the.voltage.in.both.simulations.was.250.V ..This.observation.supports.
the. directly. proportional. relationship. between. fault. current. and. the. arc. flash.
fault.energy.as.stipulated.in.the.fault.energy.equation,.Eq ..9 .1 .

Figure 9 2:.Simulated.arc-flash.incident,.conducted.at.250V,.13 .1.KA.(13,100.

amps) ..Energy.intensity:.1 .48.Cal/cm2 .

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282 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Some.of.the.hazards.associated.with.an.arc.flash.incident.are.evident.from.
pictures.in.Figures.9 .2.and.9 .3 ..These.hazards.are.as.follows:

•. Extreme Heat—Energy. contained. in. explosive. arc. flash. events. raises.

the.temperature.thousands.of.degrees;.to.the.extent.that.it.not.only.melts.
copper.components.but.vaporizes.them ..Immense.heat.energy.contained.
in.vaporized.copper.can.burn.through.or.ignite.regular.work.clothes ..In.
addition,. human. skin. coming. in. contact. with. vapors. at. such. high. tem-
peratures.would.result.in.third.degree.burns ..Temperature.in.ARC.plasma.
is.approx ..5,000°F ..Proper.PPE,.including.hood,.balaclava,.arc.rated.cov-
eralls.and.jacket.can.provide.a.measure.of.protection.against.the.radiated.
heat.and.the.heat.contained.in.the.vapors ..See.the.PPE.section.below .

•. Brilliant Flash—Without. adequate. tinting. and. shielding,. the. intense.

light.that.accompanies.the.release.of.immense.explosive.energy.can.re-
sult.in.retina.damage.and.can.cause.blindness .

•. High UV Emission—The. ultra-violet. light. that. accompanies. arc. flash.

events.can.damage.human.epithelial.(skin).layer ..Once.again,.proper.arc.
rated.clothing.can.provide.a.measure.of.protection .

•. Shock Wave—Vaporization.of.copper.accompanies.67,000.times.1.ex-
pansion.of.air.and.gases ..The.intense.instantaneous.expansion.of.gases.
is.tantamount.to.explosion.of.ordinance.and.results.in.a.shock.wave ..The.
shock.wave.can.launch.workers.off.their.feet.resulting.in.broken.limbs.
and.bones ..The.explosive.energy.laden.shock.waves.have.the.capacity.to.
subject.anterior.of.a.human.body.to.immense.pressure,.potentially,.frac-
turing. ribs,. puncturing. and. collapsing. lungs .. Best. practices. associated.
with.safe.posture.can.provide.a.measure.of.protection.against.effect.of.a.
shock.wave .

•. Concussion (Noise)—Due. to. the. fact. that. expanding. vaporized. copper.

is.an.explosive.event,.it.generates.a.loud.report ..This.is.the.reason.why.
hearing.protection.is.required.by.NFPA.70.E .

•. Projectiles—As.visible.in.Figures.9 .2.and.9 .3,.energy.contained.in.arc.

flash.events.projects.components.outward.in.solid.or.molten.form ..Note.
the.bright.streaks.in.the.picture.of.the.simulated.arc.faults ..The.projectiles.
launched.in.arc.flash.events.can.result.in.shrapnel.injuries .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 283

•. Electrical Shock—The. explosion. associated. with. arc. flash. events. dis-

lodges.components,.insulation.and.conductors;.thus,.exposing.personnel,.
in.close.proximity,.to.live.energized.components ..This.exposure.can.re-
sult.in.electrical.shock.hazard .

Figure 9 3: Simulated. arc-flash. incident,. conducted. at. 250V,. 44. KA. (44,000.
amps) ..Energy.intensity:.8 .48.Cal/cm2 .

Arc Flash PPE

. Having.gained.some.appreciation.of.the.hazards,.and.causes.thereof,.as-
sociated.with.arc.flash.events,.let’s.consider.some.of.the.PPE.required.by.NFPA.
70E ..The.PPE.introduced.here.pertains.to.the.lowest.and.highest.arc.flash.haz-
ard.classifications ..These.classifications.are.Class.or.Category.0.and.Class.or.
Category.4 ..Other.classifications.are.not.discussed.in.this.text ..Arc.flash.hazard.
PPE.for.Class.0.and.Class.4,.in.accordance.with.NFPA.70E.are.as.follows:

Protective Clothing and PPE, Hazard/Risk Category or

Class 0, for 0 to 1 2 cal/cm2:
•. Protective. clothing,. non-melting. or. untreated. made. from. natural. fiber.
(i .e .,.untreated.cotton,.wool,.rayon,.or.silk,.or.blends.of.these.materials).
with.a.fabric.weight.of.at.least.4 .5.oz/yd2
•. Long.sleeve.shirt
•. Long.pants
•. Safety.glasses.or.safety.goggles
•. Hearing.protection.(i .e ..ear.plugs)
•. Heavy.duty.leather.gloves

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284 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Protective Clothing and PPE, Hazard/Risk Category or

Class 4, 25 to 40 cal/cm2:
•. Arc-rated. clothing. selected. so. that. the. system. arc. rating. meets. the. re-
quired.minimum.arc.rating.of.40.cal/cm2
•. Arc-rated.long-sleeve.shirt
•. Arc-rated.pants
•. Arc-rated.coverall
•. Arc-rated.arc.flash.suit.jacket
•. Arc-rated.arc.flash.suit.pants
•. Arc-rated.arc.flash.suit.hood
•. Arc-rated.gloves
•. Arc-rated.jacket,.parka,.rainwear,.or.hard.hat.liner
•. Hard.hat
•. Safety.glasses.or.safety.goggles
•. Hearing.protection.(i .e ..ear.plugs)
•. Leather.work.shoes

. An. example. of. a. PPE. system. that. conforms. to. the.NFPA. 70. E. Class. 4.
hazard.is.depicted.in.Figure.9 .4 .

Figure 9 4:.Example.of.NFPA.70.E.Class.4.PPE

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 285

. PPE.requirement.can.be.assessed.on.the.basis.of.NFPA.70.E.default.table.
or.through.arc.flash.hazard.analysis ..The.labels.depicted.in.Figures.9 .5.and.9 .6.
are.a.product.of.arc.flash.hazard.analysis ..The.label.shown.in.Figure.9 .5.repre-
sents.a.Class.0.equipment.scenario,.where.potential.arc.flash.hazard.energy.is.
determined.to.be.less.than.1 .2.cal/cm2 .

Figure 9 5: Example.of.a.Classification.“0”.label.generated.as.a.result.of.an.arc.
flash.hazard.analysis,.based.on.NFPA.70.E,.2009 .

. On. the. other. hand,. the. label. shown. in. Figure. 9 .6. pertains. to. electrical.
equipment.that.has.the.potential.for.drawing.enough.fault.current.to.exceed.the.
energy.intensity.level.of.40.cal/cm2 ..When.fault.energy.intensity.of.40.cal/cm2.
is.exceeded,.as.stipulated.on.the.label.in.Figure.9 .6,.work.on.energized.equip-
ment.is.not.permitted .

Figure 9 6: Example.of.a.label.pertaining.to.higher.than.40.cal/cm2.arc.flash.
hazard,.based.on.NFPA.70.E,.2009 .

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286 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

eleCtriCal safety CertifiCations

. Certifications.and.certification.labels.on.electrical.equipment.are.intend-
ed.to.provide.the.end.user,.installer.or.integrator.a.measure.of.assurance.that.
the.labeled.equipment.is.safe.when.applied.or.used.as.prescribed.by.the.manu-
facturer ..The. certification. labels. can. be. found. at. the. bottom,. rear. or. sides. of.
non-custom,.off-the-shelf,.standard.electrical.equipment ..See.Figure.9 .7 .

Figure 9 7: Examples.of.a.safety.certification.labels—ETL.and.UL.Listings .

. Various. certifications. exist. in. different. parts. of. the. world ..A. few,. more.
prominent. ones,. are. mentioned. in. this. text. as. matter. of. introduction .. These.
certifications.are.listed.below:

•. UL®,. Underwriters. Laboratories,. United. States .. UL®,. tests. equipment.

to. be. certified. for. safety,. either. at. laboratories. owned. and. operated. by.
UL.or.at.laboratories.owned.and.operated.by.its.sub-contractors,.such.as.
ETLCM .

•. ETLCM,.Intertek.Listing ..The.ETL.Listed.Mark.is.proof.of.product.com-
pliance. (electrical,. gas. and. other. safety. standards). to. North. American.
safety. standards .. Following. authorities. having. jurisdiction. in. 50. states.
and. Canada. accept. the. ETL. Listed. Mark. as. proof. of. product. safety:.
UL,.ANSI.(American.National.Standards.Institute),.CSA.(CSA.Group),.
ASTM. (formerly. known. as:.American. Society. for. Testing. and. Materi-
als),.NFPA.(National.Fire.Protection.Agency),.and.NOM.(Norma.Official.
Mexicana) .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 287

•. NOM Mark:.(Norma.Official.Mexicana).NOM.is.a.mark.of.product.safe-
ty.approval.for.virtually.any.type.of.product.exported.into.Mexico .

•. ULC,.Underwriters.Laboratories.of.Canada .

•. IEC,.International.Electrotechnical.Commission ..The.IEC.plays.an.im-
portant.role.in.developing.and.distributing.electrical.standards ..IEC.was.
instrumental. in. developing. and. distributing. standards. for. units. of. mea-
surement,. particularly. the. gauss,. hertz. and. weber .. IEC. first. proposed. a.
system.of.standards,.the.Giorgi.System,.which.ultimately.became.the.SI,.
or.Système.International.d’unités.(in.English,.the.International.System.of.
Units) .

•. IP Rating:. IP. rating. stands. for. International Protection. rating .. Some-

times.interpreted.as.Ingress Protection.rating,.the.IP.rating.consists.of.
the. letters. IP. followed. by. two. digits. and. an. optional. letter ..As. defined.
in.IEC.60529,.it.classifies.the.degrees.of.protection.provided.against.the.
intrusion.of.solid.objects.(including.body.parts.like.hands.and.fingers),.
dust,.accidental.contact,.and.water.in.electrical.enclosures ..See.Table 9 2.
for. correspondence. between. the. American. NEMA® ratings. and. their.
counterparts. in. the. IP. realm .. Also. see. Example. 9 .5. for. illustration. of.
enclosure.ratings.application .

•. CE Certification:. The. CE. Mark. stands. for. Conformité. Européenne,. a.

French.term.that.can.be.literally.translated.into.English.as.European.Con-
formity .

•. Safety Compliance Statement.from.the.manufacturer,.engineering.firm,.

general. contractor,. turn-key. installer. or. system. integrator. is. often. re-
quired. on. custom. engineered. systems. or. equipment .. This. requirement.
must.be.clarified.and.agreed.upon—at.the.quotation/bidding.phase.of.the.
project—between. the. project. manager,. end-user/customer,. plant. safety.
manager,.engineering.firm,.general.contractor,.turn-key.installer.and.the.
system.integrator.(if.applicable) ..Absence.of.such.documented.agreement.
on.Safety.Compliance.Statement.requirement,.at.the.very.outset.of.a.cus-
tom.engineered.project,.can.result.in.system.commissioning.and.start-up.
delays,.in.addition.to.penalties,.unforeseen.costs,.potential.breach.of.con-
tract,.future.business.prospects,.etc .

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288 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Additional information on NEMA and IP ratings

. The.digits.or.numeral.in.the.NEMA.or.IP.code.indicate.conformity.with.
the.conditions.summarized.in.the.Table.9 .3 ..The.first.digit.indicates.the.level.
of. protection. that. the. enclosure. provides. against. the. ingress. of. solid. foreign.
objects ..For.example,.an.electrical.socket.rated.IP22.is.protected.against.inser-
tion.of.fingers.and.will.not.be.damaged.or.become.unsafe.during.a.specified.
test.in.which.it.is.exposed.to.vertically.or.nearly.vertically.dripping.water ..IP22.
or.IP2X.are.common.minimum.requirements.for.the.design.of.electrical.acces-
sories.for.indoor.use .

nema Versus iP enClosure ratings

Example 9 5
. Electrical.specifications.for.a.factory.call.for.a.junction.box.that.must.be.
submersed.into.a.water.tank ..(a).Determine.the.NEMA.rating.of.junction.box.
for.the.US.installations ..(b).Determine.the.IP.rating.of.the.junction.box.for.the.
European.installations .

Solution:
(a). Examination. of. the. NEMA—IP. rating. table. in. this. chapter. shows. that.
NEMA.6.enclosure.is.rated.as:

“Submersible .. Design. depends. on. specified. conditions. of. pressure. and. time;.
submersible.in.water;.used.in.quarries,.mines,.and.manholes .”

Therefore,.a.NEMA 6 enclosure should be specified.for.the.US.installation .

(b).Since.the.European.installation.would.be.exposed.to.the.same.worst.case.
conditions,.US.NEMA.6’s.European.counterpart,.IP 67 should be specified .

Common Acronyms Associated with Electrical Standards Organizations

. A.few.organizational.acronyms,.commonly.used.in.the.field.of.electrical.
engineering,.are.listed.below.with.respective.background.information.and.web-
site.addresses.to.facilitate.further.exploration.of.the.roles.of.these.organizations.
by.the.reader:

NEMA:.National.Electrical.Manufacturers.Association;.www .nema .org

. NEMA,.created.in.the.fall.of.1926.by.the.merger.of.the.Electric.Power.
Club.and.the.Associated.Manufacturers.of.Electrical.Supplies,.provides.a.fo-

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 289

Table 9 3:.NEMA.and.IP.electrical.enclosure.ratings.descriptions,.comparison.
and.correspondence .

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290 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Table 9 3.(Continued)

rum.for.the.standardization.of.electrical.equipment,.enabling.consumers.to.se-
lect.from.a.range.of.safe,.effective,.and.compatible.electrical.products .

ANSI:.American.National.Standards.Institute;.www .ansi .org

. The.American.National.Standards.Institute.(ANSI).is.a.private,.non-profit.
organization.that.administers.and.coordinates.the.U .S ..voluntary.standardiza-
tion.and.conformity.assessment.system .

IEC:.International.Electrotechnical.Commission .
. IEC.is.the.authoritative.worldwide.body.responsible.for.developing.con-
sensus.global.standards.in.the.electrotechnical.field ..IEC.is.the.European.coun-
terpart.to.NEMA.and.ANSI .

IEEE:.Institute.of.Electrical.and.Electronic.Engineers:.www .ieee .org

. The.IEEE.is.a.non-profit,.technical.professional.association.for.Electrical.
and.Electronics.Engineers ..IEEE.makes.vital.contributions.in.the.electrical.en-

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 291

gineering.realm,.in.many.ways ..Some.of.IEEE’s.more.prominent.contributions.
are.as.follows:
•. Publishing. of. texts. and. reference. material. that. promote. education. and.
training.on.various.electrical.and.electronic.technologies.and.subjects .
•. Development. of.Arc. Flash. Hazard. Calculation. formulas. through. IEEE.
1584.committee .
•. Facilitation.of.the.development.of.protocols.that.promote.communication.
between.various.electronic.devices .

International Society of Automation (ISA): www isa org

. Founded.in.1945,.the.International.Society.of.Automation.is.a.leading,.
global,. nonprofit. organization. that. is. setting. the. standard. for. automation. by.
helping. members. and. other. professionals. solve. difficult. technical. problems ..
ISA. is. based. in. Research. Triangle. Park,. North. Carolina .. ISA. develops. stan-
dards,. certifies. industry. professionals,. provides. education. and. training,. pub-
lishes.books.and.technical.articles,.and.hosts.conferences.and.exhibitions.for.
automation.professionals .

RIA—Robotics.Industries.Association:.www .robotics .org .

. Robotic.Industries.Association.publishes.information.to.help.engineers,.
managers. and. executives. apply. and. justify. robotics. and. flexible. automation ..
The.RIA.website.includes.a.proprietary.search.engine.algorithm.that.makes.it.
easy.to.find.and.compare.leading.companies,.products.and.services ..Robotics.
Online.is.dedicated.to.news,.articles.and.information.specifically.for.the.robot-
ics.industry .

Common eleCtriCal/eleCtroniC safety deViCes

. This. section. introduces. the. reader. to. electrical. and. electronic. devices.
commonly. employed. in. automated. control. systems. and. process. controls,. in.
general,.for.safety.related.actions.and.events ..We.will.first.familiarize.the.read-
er.to.each.of.the.devices,.individually ..Then,.we.will.discuss.integration.of.the.
devices.in.an.automated.manufacturing.system.example .
. Similar.to.the.pictorial.tour.approach.utilized.with.the.MCC.and.power.
distribution.system.discussion,.we.will.explore.Rockwell.Automation®.safety.
control.devices.to.gain.familiarization.with.what.these.devices.look.like.and.
gain.a.better.understanding.about.their.functions .

Safety E-stop Devices

. E-stop.switches.are,.functionally,.passive.mechanical.devices,.similar.to.

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292 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

the.light.switches.in.offices.and.homes ..Rockwell/A-B®.offer.Series.800T/800E.
Push-Buttons.and.Self-Monitoring.Contact.Block.based.E-stop.switches ..The.
emergency. stopping. function. is. implemented. through. a. combination. of. two.
components:.(1).Push.pull.operator.and.(2).Contact.block .
The.description.and.specification.of.these.two.components.are.as.follows:

•. E-Stops.Operator
—. Available.in.30mm.&.22mm.sizes
—. Metal.and.plastic.construction
—. Meet.EN418.and.IEC.60947-5-5.standards
—. Push-pull,. push-pull/twist. release,. illuminated,. or. key-operated. de-
vices

•. Self-Monitoring.Contact.Blocks
—. For.use.with.800T.&.800E.E-Stops
—. If.contact.block.becomes.separated.from.E-stop,.monitoring.circuit.
automatically. opens. and. shuts. down. the. controlled. process .. This.
feature.essentially.eliminates.contact.separation.concerns.from.im-
proper.installation,.damage.or.high-vibration.applications .

Safety Light Curtain System

. Even. though. safety. light. curtains. often. perform. emergency. stopping.
function,. similar. to. the. emergency. stop. switches. introduced. above,. they. are.

Figure 9 8: Rockwell® Safety.E-stop.switch.operators.and.contact.blocks .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 293

powered,. active,. somewhat. automated,. and. substantially. more. sophisticated.

than.the.e-stop.switches ..See.Figures.9 .9.and.9 .10 .

Figure 9 9: Rockwell® Safety.Light.Curtain .

. Some.of.the.key.components.of.a.safety.light.curtain.system.are.listed.
in.Figure.9 .9 ..As.depicted.in.Figure.9 .9,.the.transmitting.“column”.transmits.
an.array.of.invisible.(infra-red).light.beams ..When.the.path.between.the.trans-
mitter. and. the. receiver. is. clear. and. unobstructed,. the. transmitted. beams. are.
received.by.the.receiver ..This,.in.most.applications.of.light.curtains,.constitutes.
the.norm ..If,.however,.the.light.beams.are.interrupted.by.equipment.or.person-
nel,.typically,.an.emergency.stop.command.is.generated,.thus,.shutting.down.
the.protected.system ..The.interface.cable.pictured.in.Figure.9 .9,.as.simple.and.
unsophisticated. as. it. appears,. it. constitutes. a. reliable. and. robust. approach. to.
electrical/control.connections ..Electrical.connections,.a.decade.or.so.ago,.had.
to.be.made.one.wire.and.one.terminal.at.a.time ..With.hundreds.of.connections.
required.in.mid.to.large.size.control.systems,.the.old.wire.to.connector.method.
often.resulted.in.miss-wiring,.loose.connections,.unreliability.and.delayed.sys-
tem.start-ups .
. Other.important.features.and.components.associated.with.the.light.cur-
tains.are.included.in.Figure.9 .10 ..Rockwell’s®.DNet.module.(hardware),.is.an.
interface.module.and.is.pictured.in.Figure.9 .10 ..The.software.or.protocol.that.
permits.the.safety.devices,.safety.PLCs.and.other.Rockwell®.control.devices.
to.communicate.with.each.other.is.referred.to.as.DeviceNet® .
. The.laptop.PC.shown.in.Figure.9 .10.allows.control.engineers.and.techni-
cians.to.configure.or.“program”.the.light.curtain.to.respond.to.safety.events.in.a.
desired.fashion,.In.addition,.the.Rockwell® application.software.loaded.on.the.

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294 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 9 10: SafeShield DeviceNet:. Rockwell® Safety. Light. Curtain. and.

Device-Net.interface .

laptop.allows.the.controls.engineer.to.configure “diagnostics”.such.that.safety.
incidents.and.other.associated.events.can.be.troubleshot.promptly .

AAC (Area Access Control)

. Area.access.control.system.depicted.in.Figure.9 .11.offers.a.simpler,.less.
costly,. less. complex. alternative. to. light. curtains .. Typical. area. access. control.
system.consists.of.a.small.single.beam.transmitter.that.transmits.an.infra-red.
beam. across. the. protected. opening,. to. a. pair. of. prism. shaped. reflectors ..The.
reflectors.return.the.beam.across.the.opening.to.a.receiver ..When.the.beam.is.
interrupted.by.personnel.or.equipment,.an.emergency.stop.is.triggered.by.the.
Area.Access.Control.System ..As.obvious.from.a.comparison.between.Figures.
9 .10.and.9 .11,.the.protected.opening.area.of.cross-section.covered.by.a.light.
curtain.is.greater.than.the.two.dimensional.area.covered.by.the.AAC .

Cable Pull Switches

. Cable.pull.safety.switches.are.designed.to.trip.an.emergency.stop.circuit.
when.the.cord,.cable.or.chain.connected.to.the.pull.switch.is.pulled ..Rockwell®.
cable.pull.switches.incorporate.a.reset.button.on.the.front.of.the.switch .
. Some.of.the.cable.pull.safety.switches.are.equipped.with.a.tension.view-

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 295

Figure 9 11: Rockwell® Area.Access.Control.System

ing. window. to. facilitate. set-up. of. the. cable. tension ..Among. other. important.
features.incorporated.in.the.Rockwell®.cable.pull.switches.is.a.function.that.
latches.out.the.contacts.electrically.and.mechanically.in.accordance.to.EN.418 ..
The.reason.is.that.if.a.person.were.to.pull.an.ordinary.cable.pull.switch.as.they.
were.being.dragged.into.a.machine,.the.system.would.stop,.but.it.would.not.
prevent.the.system.from.being.restarted.at.the.other.end.by.an.operator,.who.
did.not.see.the.switch.being.pulled ..Thus.the.operator.could.start.the.machine.
again,.dragging.the.other.subject.back.into.the.machine ..In.order.to.reset.the.
lifeline.4.switch,.an.operator.has.to.physically.go.up.to.the.switch.and.reset.the.
device. by. moving. the. designated. lever. into. the. run. position ..This. allows. for.
inspection.of.the.area,.before.the.machine.is.restarted ..The.switch.is.yellow.in.
accordance.to.EN.60204-1.which.stipulates.that.all.e-stops.have.a.red.button.
and.yellow.background .

Key Interlock Solenoid Switches

. The. next. family. of. safety. switches. offered. by. Rockwell®. are. solenoid.
locking. switches .. See. switches. depicted. in. Figure. 9 .12 .. These. switches. are.
used.to.prevent.access.to.a.hazardous.area.until.the.hazardous.motion.has.been.

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296 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

contained ..An. example. would. be. to. have. a. gate. locked. until. a. set. of. cutting.
shears.have.come.to.rest,.after.which.time.a.voltage.is.applied.to.the.coil.of.the.
solenoid,.releasing.the.key,.allowing.access.to.the.area .

Figure 9 12: Rockwell® Key.interlock.solenoid.safety.switch.system .

GuardMat™ Safety Mats

. Guardmaster.offers.a.full.range.of.standard.mats.and.controllers.for.all.
applications ..The.GuardMat™.system.is.a.tripping.device ..When.a.person.steps.
on.the.mat,.or.equipment.rolls.onto.it,.their.presence.is.detected.and.the.safety.
output.opens,.shutting.down.the.machine ..See.Figure.9 .13 .
. The.design.of.the.mat.includes.two.sheets.of.hardened.rolled.steel.which.
are. separated. by. small. insulators ..The. separated. sheets. of. metal. have. an. ap-
proximate.24.volt.potential.difference.across.them ..When.pressure.exceeding.
70. psi. is. applied. to. the. top. sheet,. the. sheets. make. contact,. creating. a. short.
circuit.condition,.changing.the.resistance,.which.is.detected.by.the.GaurdMat.
controller ..The.controller,.in.turn,.executes.emergency.shut.down.through.sys-
tem.interlocks.and.safety.control.circuits .

GuardEdge™ Safety Edges

. The.GuardEdge.system,.is.a.trip.device.which.lends.itself.to.several.ap-
plications,.as.depicted.in.Figure.9 .14 ..The.principle.behind.this.system,.is.that.
when.the.protruding.rubber.strip—referred.to.as.profile—is.depressed,.emer-
gency.stop.signal.is.issued.and.the.machine.shuts.down ..The.rubber.profile.is.
impregnated.with.a.conductive.carbon.powder,.which.creates.a.conductive.rub-

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 297

Figure 9 13: Rockwell® GaurdMat.Switch.System

ber ..The.system.reacts.to.change.in.resistance ..When.the.profile.is.pressed.the.

resistance.changes;.this.change.is.detected.by.the.controller ..The.controller,.in.
turn,.executes.emergency.shut.down.through.safety.control.circuits .
. As.apparent.in.Figure.9 .14,.a.variety.of.profiles.are.available.to.match.
specific.applications ..These.profiles.can.be.made.up.to.50.meter.in.length ..The.
profiles.can.also.be.bent.to.a.radius.of.200mm.to.accommodate.the.most.non-
linear.applications ..The.safety.edges.can.be.wrapped.around.corners,.incorpo-
rating.active.corner.connections ..The.profiles.can.be.wired.in.series.or.parallel,.
depending.on.system.configurations .

Safety PLCs
. Traditionally,.National.Fire.Protection.Association’s.“Electrical.Standard.
for.Industrial.Machinery”.(NFPA79).has.required.hard.wiring.and.the.use.of.
electro-mechanical.components.for.safety.circuits ..With.the.advent,.subsequent.
development,.and.enhanced.reliability.of.safety.PLCs,.electromechanical.safe-
ty.circuits.continue.to.be.replaced.by.safety.PLCs ..Some.of.the.more.significant.
advantages.offered.by.safety.PLCs.are.as.follows:

•. Safety.PLC.based.control.circuits.require.fewer.wires.and.terminations.as.
compared.to.electromechanical.relay.and.contactor.based.safety.control.
circuits .

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298 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 9 14: Rockwell® GaurdEdge.System

•. Safety. PLC. based. control. circuits. require. fewer. “moving. parts,”. fewer.
contactors,.timers.and.relays,.if.any,.as.compared.to.electromechanical.
relay.and.contactor.based.safety.control.circuits .

•. Safety. PLC. based. control. circuits. are. programmable .. Therefore,. their.

logic.and.functionality.can.be.modified.through.modification.of.applica-
tion.program.or.code ..While,.with.electromechanical.relay.and.contactor.
based.safety.control.circuits,.significant.hardware.and.wiring.modifica-
tions.are.necessary.for.accomplishment.of.functional.modification .

. Functionally.and.logically,.safety.PLCs.are.similar.to.regular.PLCs.(Pro-
grammable.Logic.Controllers) ..Notwithstanding.the.similarities,.there.are.some.
notable.differences.between.regular.PLCs.and.Safety.PLCs ..These.differences.
are.as.follows:

•. Safety.PLCs.are.color-coded.red.to.signify.the.fact.that.they.are.“control.
reliable”.and.safety.rated .

•. Safety. PLCs. employ. robust diagnostics and operational verification ..

Standard.PLC.inputs.provide.no.internal.means.for.testing.the.function-

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 299

ality. of. the. input. circuitry .. By. contrast,. Safety. PLCs. have. an. internal.
‘output’. circuit. associated. with. each. input. for. the. purpose. of. periodic.
testing.and.verification.of.the.input.circuitry ..Simulated.Highs.(1s).and.
Lows.(0s).are.presented,.automatically,.to.the.inputs,.to.verify.their.func-
tionality .

•. A.safety.PLC.has.redundant microprocessors,.Flash.and.RAM.memory;.
that.are.continuously.monitored.by.a.“watchdog” circuit.and.a.synchro-
nous. detection. circuit .. Regular. PLCs,. are. typically. equipped. with. one
microprocessor .

•. A.regular.PLC.has.one.output.switching.device,.whereas.a.safety.PLCs.
digital.output.logic.circuit.contains.a.test.point.after.each.of.two.safety.
switches. located. behind. the. output. driver. and. a. third. test. point. down-
stream.of.the.output.driver ..Each.of.the.two.safety.switches.is.controlled.
by.a.unique.microprocessor ..If.a.failure.is.detected.at.either.of.the.two.
safety.switches,.the.operating.system.of.a.safety.PLC.will.automatically
acknowledge the anomaly.and.will.default.to.a.known.state;.thus,.facili-
tating.an.orderly.equipment.shutdown .

. Typical.specifications.of.safety.PLCs.are.listed.in.Figure.9 .15 .

Figure 9 15:.Rockwell®.Safety.PLC.(Programmable.Logic.Control).System

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300 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Safety Relays
. A.regular.relay.consists.of.an.electromagnetic.coil.or.solenoid.and.as-
sociated. contacts .. The. solenoid. functions. in. the. same. manner. as. described.
earlier.in.this.text;.it.operates.or.controls.multiple.normally.open.or.normally.
closed.contacts ..When.a.relay.is.off,.its.coil.is.de-energized,.its.normally.open.
contacts.are.OPEN,.and.its.normally.closed.contacts.are.CLOSED ..Converse-
ly,.when.a.relay.is.turned.on,.the.coil.is.energized,.the.normally.open.contacts.
are.CLOSED.and.the.normally.closed.contacts.are.OPEN ..A.regular.relay.is.
shown.applied.in.an.alarm.circuit.in.Figure.9 .16 .
. In.the.schematic.diagram.of.the.regular.relay.shown.in.Figure.9 .16,.a.re-
lay.labeled.CR1.(Control.Relay.1).is.being.used.to.annunciate.the.status.of.an.
alarm switch,.to.the.left ..The.coil.of.CR1.is.connected.to.neutral.“N”.on.the.
right.side ..The.other.side.of.CR1.is.connected.to.110.V.only.when.the.alarm.
switch.is.operated ..As.shown.in.the.circuit.diagram,.the.control.relay.CR1.has.
two.normally.open.contacts,.depicted.as.two.parallel.lines.and.two.normally.
closed.contacts.shown.with.a.diagonal.bar.across.the.parallel.lines ..When.the.
alarm.switch.is.operated,.or.closed,.the.CR1.coil.is.energized ..This.closes.the.
normally.open.CR1.contacts.and.opens.the.normally.closed.contacts ..The.two.

Figure 9 16: Regular.relay.applied.in.an.alarm.circuit .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 301

normally.open.contacts.are.being.used.to.turn.on.the.alarm horn.and.the.red
alarm light ..One.of.the.normally.closed.contacts.is.being.used.to.maintain.
the.green light.on,.as.long.as.the.safety.switch.is.not.closed ..The.second.nor-
mally.closed.contact.is.left.unconnected,.as.a.spare.contact.for.possible.future.
use .
. Safety.relays.operate.somewhat.similar.to.regular.relays,.with.the.fol-
lowing.exceptions:

1). Safety.relays.are.equipped.with.redundant.coils.and.contacts .

2). Safety.relays.are.equipped.with.diagnostics.features .

. Manufacturers,.such.as.Rockwell®,.also.offer.solid-state.relays.for.ap-
plications.involving.high.cycle.rates ..Safety.relays.offered.by.Rockwell®.are.
shown.in.Figure.9 .17,.along.with.respective.features.and.functions .
. Now.that.we.have.gained.a.measure.of.familiarity.with.electrical.con-
trol.and.safety.devices,.let’s.explore.typical.application.of.some.of.these.de-
vices.through.a.tour.of.an.automated.manufacturing.cell.depicted.in.Figure.
9 .18 ..If.we.begin.at.approximately.11:00.o’clock.and.move.clock.wise,.we.

Figure 9 17: Rockwell® Safety.Relays.and.Contactors

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Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers
Figure 9 18: Rockwell® safety.equipment.applied.to.an.automated.manufacturing.cell .

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 303

notice. the. yellow. cabinet. housing. the. safety PLC. and. other. safety. devices.
such.as.safety.relays,.safety.contactors,.controllers.for.various.safety.devices,.
i .e .. safety. mat,. safety. edge,. safety. laser. scanners,. etc .. The. control. cabinet.
housing. the. safety. control. devices. is. painted. yellow. to. distinguish. it. from.
typical,.gray,.control.cabinets.for.regular,.non-safety,.control.systems .
. At.about.1:00.o’clock,.the.common.E-stop switch.is.shown.mounted.on.
the.right.side.of.the.processing.machine.opening ..In.the.diagram,.the.E-stop.
switch.is.labeled.as.“Safety.Button .”
. The.safety limit switch.pointed.out.in.the.middle.of.the.automated.cell.
diagram.limits.inadvertent.rotation.of.the.robot.about.its.major.axis,.beyond.a.
safe.point ..Such.application.of.a.safety.limit.switch,.typically,.serves.as.a.back-
up.to.a.software.based.rotational.limit .
Trapped key safety switch.is.shown.installed.on.one.of.the.man.doors.at.
about.3:00.o’clock ..A.safety cable pull switch.is.shown.spanning.the.length.of.
the. conveyor ..A. safety guard. is. shown. applied. just. outside. a. short. conveyor.
section,.at.about.6:00.o’clock,.for.the.purpose.of.preventing.authorized.person-
nel.in.the.area.from.coming.too.close.to.moving.parts,.i .e ..the.conveyor.rollers .
. A.safety.laser.scanner.is.shown.mounted.on.the.frame.that.sustains.the.
two.gantry.robots ..This.laser.scanner.is.not.clearly.visible.in.Figure.9 .18 ..There-
fore,.a.picture.of.a.Rockwell/Allen-Bradley,.multi-zone,.laser.scanner.is.shown.
in. Figure. 9 .19 .. Safety. laser. scanner. represents. a. sophisticated. and. relatively.
new.approach.to.three.dimensional.protection.that.is.not.available.through.two.
dimensional.safety.light.curtains,.and.other.less.sophisticated.safety.devices ..
However,.not.unlike.light.curtains,.safety.laser.scanners.must.be.programmed.
and.configured.for.desired.function .

Figure 9 19: Rockwell® safety.laser.scanner .

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304 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Self-assessment Problems and Questions—Chapter 9

1 .. A.given.circuit.is.meant.to.carry.a.continuous.lighting.load.of.16.A ..In.
addition,.four.loads.designed.for.permanent.display.stands.are.fastened.in.
place.and.require.2.A.each.when.operating ..What.is.the.rating.of.the.over.
current.protective.device.(OCPD).on.the.branch.circuit?

2 .. A.three-phase,.four-wire.feeder.with.a.full-sized.neutral.carries.14.A.continu-
ous.and.40.A.non-continuous.loads ..The.feeder.uses.an.over.current.device.
with.a.terminal.or.conductor.rating.of.60°C ..What.is.the.minimum.copper.
conductor.size?.Assume.no.derating.applies ..Use.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2 .

3 .. Electrical.specifications.for.a.brewery.company.call.for.a.fusible.discon-
nect.switch.enclosure.that.must.be.able.withstand.occasional.splashing.
of.water.during.periodic.wash.downs.required.by.the.local.health.codes ..
This. design. will. be. applied. in. breweries. in. the. US. as. well. as. Europe ..
The.water.flow.from.the.1-in.wash.down.nozzles.is.expected.to.less.than.
60.GPM.from.a.distance.of.11.ft.for.less.than.4.min ..(a).Determine.the.
NEMA.rating.of.enclosure.for.the.US.installations ..(b).Determine.the.IP.
rating.of.enclosure.for.the.European.installations .

4 .. Over.current.Protection.&.Conductor.Ampacity:
. Applicable.Code/Codes:.Articles.210 .19.(A).(1),.210 .20.(A).and.310 .15,.
and.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2.of.this.text.(Note:.This.is.not.a.current.table.and.is.
only.reproduced.for.exercise.and.illustration.purposes) .

. The.branch.circuit.in.the.exhibit.below.consists.of.three.continuous.loads ..
Over.current.protection.in.the.branch.circuit.is.provided.through.a.20.amp.
circuit.breaker ..(a).Determine.the.size.of.copper.conductor.based.on.the.

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National Electric Code, NFPA® 70 E and Electrical Standards 305

ampacities.given.in.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2.assuming.conductor.temperature.

is.at.75°C.or.less ..Assume.75°C.operation.and.selection.is.allowed ..(b).
Verify.the.size/specifications.of.the.circuit.breaker ..Assume.no.derating.
applies ..(c).If.the.ambient.temperature.were.to.rise.to.50°C,.how.would.
the.conductor.size.be.impacted?

5 A. US. appliance. manufacturer. is. planning. to. market. a. new. appliance.

in. Mexico .. The. most. appropriate. safety. certification. for. this. appliance.
would.be:
A .. UL
B .. ULC
C .. ETL
D .. NOM

6 Assume. that. the. alarm. switch. in. the. control. circuit. depicted. below. is.
opened.after.being.closed.for.a.prolonged.period.of.time ..Which.of.the.
following.conditions.would.best.describe.the.status.of.the.annunciating.
lights.and.the.horn.when.the.switch.is.opened?

A .. Alarm.horn.will.turn.off
B .. Red.light.will.turn.off
C .. Green.light.will.turn.on
D .. All.of.the.above

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter.10

Electrical and
Controls Drawings
Introduction
. The.purpose.of.this.chapter.is.to.merely.introduce.the.reader.to.established.
electrical. and. controls. drawings. and. drawing. best. practices .. In. this. chapter,.
the. coverage. of. electrical. design. drawings,. and. the. application. of. NEC®. in.
the. associated. design. work,. is. not intended. to. provide. the. reader. expert. level.
knowledge. that. is. required. and. expected. of. an. NEC®. trained. and. practicing.
electrical.Professional.Engineer.or.electrical.power.system.designer ..
. However,. it. is. our. hope. that. the. nonelectrical. engineering. professional.
or. non-engineer. reader. will. find. this. chapter. helpful. in. equipping. them. with.
enough.knowledge.to.be.able.to.stay.abreast.of.discussion.at.hand.when.those.
electrical.and.controls.drawings.are.spread.across.the.table.in.the.process.of.
troubleshooting.and.reinstating.an.important.piece.of.equipment.back.into.op-
eration ..In.addition,.through.a.brief.introduction.to.PLC.relay.ladder.logic,.we.
will.introduce.the.reader.to.the.programming.technique.utilized.by.most.control.
engineers.to.control.electrical.and.mechanical.systems.with.PLC.based.control.
systems .. Of. course,. as. before,. we. will. illustrate. the. concepts. and. practices.
discussed,.through.examples,.end.of.chapter.problems,.and.the.solutions.at.the.
back.of.the.text .

eleCtriCal drawings
. Three.common.types.of.electrical.drawings.are.discussed ..These.include.
a.one-line.power.distribution.schematic,.a.wiring.diagram.and.electrical.control.
drawings ..The.objective.of.this.chapter.is.to.inculcate.basic.understanding.of.
electrical.symbols,.electrical.drawing.conventions.and.electrical.design ..In.ad-
dition,.the.reader.will.be.shown.how.NEC.and.other.methods.for.application.of.
the.code.are.employed.in.the.electrical.power.distribution.system.design .

one-line sChematiC diagram

. The.one-line.schematic.diagram.is.also,.simply,.referred.to.as.a.“one-line.
drawing .”.This.drawing.is.called.a.“one-line”.drawing.because.it.depicts.elec-
307

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308 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

trical.circuits.and.design.through.representation.of.just.one.of.the.three.phases ..
This.is.predicated.on.a.reasonable.assumption.that.all.three.phases.on.the.three.
phase.loads.and.sources.are.substantially.identical.in.current,.voltage,.imped-
ance.and.other.important.considerations ..As.obvious,.one.important.benefit.de-
rived.from.one-line.representation.of.electrical.circuits.is.that.a.greater.number.
of.circuits.can.be.captured.on.one.drawing ..In.other.words,.one.can.examine.
a.large.portion.of.the.overall.electrical.system.at.one.glance ..This.facilitates.a.
quicker.and.more.effective.comprehension.of.a.large.segment.of.the.electrical.
system. being. examined. without. flipping. from. one. drawing. to. another .. This.
is.of.considerable.value.in.a.triage.situation.when.trouble.shooting.a.system.
that. is. down ..A. simplified. one-line. schematic. is. shown. in. Figure. 10 .1 .. This.
drawing.pertains.to.an.MCC.(Motor.Control.Center).based.power.distribution.
system ..Due.to.the.extensity.of.information.captured.in.this.diagram,.certain.
segments.and.annotation.are.somewhat.illegible ..Therefore,.those.segments.of.
the.schematic.that.are.examined.in.greater.detail.in.this.chapter.are.excerpted.
and.duplicated.in.Figure.10 .2 .
. As.we.examine.the.one-line.schematic,.and.other.drawings,.we.will.note.
the.more.conventional.symbols.and.nomenclature,.as.well.as,.certain.practices.
adopted.by.the.electrical.engineer/designer.of.these.drawings.that.deviate.from.
the.more.universally.accepted.methods ..As.we.examine.the.top.portion.of.the.
one-line.schematic.in.Figure.10 .1,.the.first.piece.of.information.we.notice.is.the.
rating.of.the.MCC.power.distribution.system:

480 V Bus, 3 ϕ, 4W, 600A, 60 Hz

. This.notation.represents.the.rating.of.the.MCC.and.the.specification.for.
the.MCC.bus.bars ..This.notation.encircles.one.of.the.three.phase.bus.bars—rep-
resented.by.the.long.solid.line—and.it.stipulates.the.following:

—. This.MCC.is.rated.480.V
—. It.is.a.three.phase.system
—. The.MCC.is.designed.to.accommodate.four.wire.loads.
—. It.is.rated.for.a.maximum.of.600A,.for.60.Hz.application .

. The.long.dashed.line.represents.the.outer.chassis.or.MCC.cabinet ..The.
solid.horizontal.line,.representing.one.of.the.three.energized.480.V.phases,.has.
multiple.vertical.lines.“hanging”.below.nodes ..These.vertical.“drops.represent.
the.branch.circuits.pertaining.to.specific.loads,.catered.to.by.this.MCC ..The.dot.
at.the.junction.of.the.vertical.branch.circuit.and.the.horizontal.bus.represents.a.

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 Electrical and Control Drawings
309
Figure 10 1: One.line.schematic.for.a.power.distribution.system
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310 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

“node .”.The.first.branch.circuit.is.identified.by.a.unique.identifier.“D2,”.at.the.
bus.bar,.on.the.line.side ..The.other.branch.circuits.are.identified.as.D4,.D5,.and.
so.on ..Note.the.chevron.symbols.directly.below.each.branch.circuit.drop ..These.
symbols.represent.the.MCC.cubicle.bus.stabs,.pointed.out.earlier.in.the.MCC.
pictures ..Focusing.on.branch.circuit.D2,.and.following.this.circuit.down.to.the.
load,.the.next.component.we.notice.is.the.fusible.disconnect.switch ..Refer.to.
Figure.10 .2.for.a.detailed.excerpt.of.branch.circuit.D2 ..The.three.phase,.or.three.
pole,.“switch”.component.of.the.fusible.disconnect.switch.is.followed.by.the.
associated.overcurrent.protection.fuse ..The.branch.circuit.bifurcates.after.the.
overcurrent.protection.fuse.into.the.motor.pilot.device.control.circuit.and.the.
remaining.branch.circuit.leading.to.the.3-hp.motor.in.the.field ..The.function.
and.operational.logic.of.the.motor.pilot.device.control.circuit.will.be.described.
in.the.wiring.diagram.section ..As.we.follow.the.remaining.branch.circuit,.lead-
ing.to.the.motor.in.the.field,.the.next.entity.we.see.is.the.solid.state.overload.
device ..The.branch.circuit.exits.the.MCC.chassis.on.the.load.side.of.the.over-
load.device,.via.the.terminal.strip.in.the.cubicle ..
. As.labeled.in.Figure.10 .2,.the.power.in.branch.circuit.D2,.flows.from.the.
MCC.to.the.3-hp.motor,.through.a.bundle.of.three.energized.conductors,.ac-
companied.by.one.ground.conductor ..This.bundle.of.conductors.and.the.conduit.
are.specified.on.the.one-line.schematic,.and.interpreted,.as.follows:.

•. ¾” Conduit:. The. electrical. designer. of. this. power. distribution. system.

selected.a.¾”.(ID).conduit,.or.pipe,.to.house.the.four.conductors.specified.
for.this.branch.circuit .

•. 3—1/C #12:. The. electrical. designer. has. selected. or. specified. a. three,.
single.(1/C),.AWG.#12.conductors.to.supply.three.phase.AC.power.to.the.
3-hp.motor .

•. 1/C #12 Gnd ..The.electrical.designer.has.specified.one.(1/C),.AWG.#12.

conductor.to.serve.as.ground.for.the.grounded.three.phase.AC.service.to.
the.3-hp.motor .

. The.description.of.branch.circuit.symbols.and.notations.provided.above.
should. be. sufficient. for. understanding. the. symbols,. nomenclature. and. nota-
tions.used.for.other.branch.circuits.in.the.one-line.schematic.depicted.in.Figure.
10 .1.with.the.exception.of.branch.circuit.D4 ..Branch.circuit.D4.differs.from.all.
other.branch.circuits.in.that.it.represents.a.lighting load ..Note.the.square.block.
labeled.“LC-5”.used.to.represent.the.lighting.load,.instead.of.the.circles.used.
for.the.motor.branch.circuits ..

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Electrical and Control Drawings 311

Figure 10 2: Branch.circuit.D2.excerpt,.from.one.line.schematic.for.MCC .

Examination of Branch Circuit D2

. Having. introduced. the. symbols,. nomenclature. and. labels. employed. in.
the.representation.of.power.distribution.branch.circuits,.we.are.better.poised.
to. explore. and. examine. the. design. criteria. and. specifications. incorporated. in.
this.one-line.schematic ..We.will.verify.the.following.design.specifications—
pertaining.to.branch circuit D2 (Figure 10 .1.and.10 .2)—in.order.to.give.the.
reader. an. appreciation. of. the. design. process. an. electrical. engineer. might. go.
through.in.designing.electrical.power.distribution.systems:

1). Current.carrying.conductor.size
2). Ground.conductor.size

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312 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

3). Conduit.size
4). Overload.setting
5). Starter.size
6). Overcurrent.protection.fuse.size
7). Fusible.disconnect.switch.size

Current Carrying ConduCtor size

. As. discussed. in. the. coverage. of. NEC®,. in. chapter. 9. of. this. text,. a.
conductor.expected.to.support.a.certain.continuous.load.must.me.rated.125%.
of.the.full.load.amps ..So,.the.next.step.would.be.to.determine.the.full.load.
amps.(FLA).expected.to.be.drawn.by.the.3-hp.motor ..As.discussed.in.chapter.
9,.the.code.requires.that.the.full.load.amp.information.must.be.based.on.the.
“nameplate”. of. the. motor .. Since,. actual. motor. data. is. not. available. in. this.
text,.for.illustration.purposes.we.will.base.our.discussion.and.analysis.on.the.
information. available. in. the. Buss®. table,. shown. in. Figure. 10 .3;. with. some.
verification.through.NEC® .
. As. we. focus. on. the. circled/highlighted,. section. of. the. Buss®. table. in.
Figure.10 .3,.we.can.spot.most.of.the.code.compliant.design.parameters.asso-
ciated.with.the.3-hp.load.in.branch.circuit.D2 ..According.to.this.table,.a.fully.
loaded.3-phase.motor,.operating.at.480V,.will.demand.4 .8.amps ..In.addition,.
according. to. this. table,. in. order. to. comply. with. the. code,. the. three. current.
carrying.conductors.must.be.a.minimum.of.AWG.#14 ..If.we.follow.the.NEC®.
requirement.that.the.conductor.ampacity.must.be.a.minimum.of.125%.(1 .25).
times. the. motor. FLA. (Full. Load.Amps),. each. of. the. three. current. carrying.
conductors.must.be.capable.of.carrying.a.minimum.of:

(1 25) x (4 8 A) = 6A

. Examining. Table. 10 .1. (Superseded. by. NEC. Tables. 310 .15(B)(2)(a)),.

we. see. that. an.AWG. #14. has. an. ampacity. of. 20.A,. for.THHW. and.THWN.
insulation. (and. other. types. of. insulation). at. 60°F. terminal. or. conductor.
temperature .. Note,. however,. that. the. 20.A. ampacity. is. predicated. on. other.
conditions. and. stipulations,. i .e .. overcurrent. protection. restrictions .. Further.
discussion. on. additional. stipulations,. exceptions. and. code. implications. is.
outside.the.scope.and.context.of.this.text ..For.simplicity,.acknowledging.the.
fact.that.AWG.#14.has.the.ampacity.to.carry.20.A.(amps),.we.establish.that.
AWG.#14—as.stated.in.the.BUS®.table.(Figure.10 .3)—is.adequate.for.this.
motor.branch.circuit ..

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Electrical and Control Drawings 313

Figure 10 3: Bus®.Table,.used.for.electrical.design.verification .

. Nevertheless,. as. we. refer. back. to. the. schematics. in. Figures. 10 .1. and.
10 .2,. we. notice. the. electrical. engineer/designer. in. this. case,. selected. size.
AWG. #12. copper. conductors. for. this. circuit;. which. is. rated. 25.A,. and. it.
clearly.exceeds.the.minimum.requirement ..This.decision.by.electrical.engi-
neer/designer.is.an.example.of.how.some.engineer/designers.and.engineering.
firms.subscribe.to.a.“hard deck”.on.the.low.end.of.conductor.sizes ..In.this.
case.the.engineer.and.the.firm.appear,.as.result.of.“in-house best practice,”.

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314 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

don’t. design. power. circuits. with. conductors. smaller. than.AWG. #12 .. The.
same. engineering. firm,. on. the. other. hand,. might. design. “control”. circuits.
based.on.AWG.#18 ..Overall,.from.electrical.design.safety.point.of.view,.se-
lection.of.AWG.#12.for.D2.current.carrying.circuit.exceeds.the.requirements,.
and.is.safe ..

Ground Conductor Size

. Next,. let’s. examine. the. ground. conductor. selected. for. branch. circuit.
D2 ..As.apparent.from.examination.of.Bus.table.in.Figure.10 .3,.this.table.does.
not.specify.the.ground.conductor.size.for.various.branch.circuits ..One.could.
specify. the. ground conductor. size. to. be. the. same. as. the. current carrying
conductors,.as.done.by.the.designer.of.branch.circuit.D2,.in.schematics.on.
Figures. 10 .1. and. 10 .2;. where. the. designer. specified.AWG. #12. conductors.
for.the.three,.3-hp.motor,.current.carrying.conductors,.as.well.as.the.ground.
conductor ..The.purpose.of.the.ground.conductor.is.to.carry.fault.current.and.
to. serve. as. a. “mechanism”. for. safely. de-energizing. circuits. with. electrical.
faults ..For.example,.if.the.insulation.of.one.of.the.energized.phases.in.branch.
circuit. D2. were. to. atrophy,. or. break. down. due. to. other. reasons,. the. 460.V.
potential.could.come.in.contact.with.the.motor.chassis.and.raise.its.potential.
to.460.V ..With.the.motor.grounded.properly,.such.an.electrically.unsafe.con-
dition.would.be.rectified.through.a.phase to ground.fault.clearing.the.fuse.
protecting.that.particular.“leg”.of.the.branch.circuit ..The.fault.events.such.as.
the.one.cited.in.this.example.are.short.lived,.and.therefore,.the.ground.con-
ductor.size.and.ampacity,.do.not.have.to.be.the.same.as.the.size.and.ampacity.
of.the.current.carrying.conductors ..Often,.the.ground.conductor.size.is.less.
than.the.current.carrying.conductors.for.the.same.branch.circuit .
. Ground.conductors.are.sized.in.accordance.with.NEC®.Article.250 .122.
(D).(1).&.(2).and.Table.250 .122 ..In.this.case,.according.to.NEC®,.the.mini-
mum.ground.conductor.size.is.AWG.#14 ..So,.the.AWG.#12.ground.conductor.
specified.in.branch.circuit.D2.is.“oversized,”.but.safe .

Conduit and Conduit size

. As.stated.on.schematics.in.Figures.10 .1.and.10 .2,.the.conduit.specified.
by.the.engineer.is.¾”.ID ..Before.we.determine.if.the.¾”.conduit.is.adequate.
for. this. branch. circuit,. we. need. to. recount. the. purpose. and. general. charac-
teristics.of.an.electrical.conduit ..Electrical.conduits.can.be.rigid.or.flexible ..
Electrical.conduits.are.similar.to.pipes.used.to.convey.fluids ..Conduits.can.
be. constructed. out. of. metal. or. PVC. (polyvinyl. chloride) ..The. key. function.
of. an. electrical. conduit. is. to. protect. the. electrical. conductors. against. me-

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Table 10 1: NEC®.Ampacity.table.superseded.by.current.NEC.Table.310 .15(B)(16) ..Included.for.general.illustration.purposes,.only ..Courtesy,.NEC,.NFPA .

Electrical and Control Drawings

315
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316 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

chanical. damage,. exposure. to. adverse. environmental. ambient. factors,. i .e ..

moisture,. corrosive. liquids,. solids. or. gases .. Unlike. pipes. applied. in. fluid.
system,. conduits. used. in. electrical. systems. cannot. be. filled. to. completely ..
As.apparent.from.Chapter.9.in.this.text,.and.pertinent.tables.therein,.electri-
cal.conduits.are.permitted.to.be.filled.only.partially ..Two.ostensible.reasons.
for. this. constraint. are:. (1). It. is,. physically,. difficult. to. pull. too. many. wires.
through.a.conduit.and.associated.elbows.and.fittings.(2).a.certain.minimum,.
cross-sectional,.open.space.is.necessary.in.an.electrical.conduit.to.facilitate.
ventilation.of.any.heat.dissipated.in.the.conductors.due.to.I2R.losses .
. The.¾”.conduit.specified.for.branch.circuit.D2,.on.schematics.in.Figures.
10 .1.and.10 .2,.is.oversized.based.on.the.Bus®.table.in.Figure.10 .3 ..As.noted.
earlier,.the.Bus®.table.identifies.a.½.“conduit.for.the.3-hp.branch.circuit.D2,.
in.combination.with.the.AWG.#14.conductors ..The.¾”.conduit.specified.on.the.
drawings.is.sized.based.on.fact.that.four.AWG.#12.conductors.were.selected.
by. the. electrical. designer .. In. order. to. understand. the. process. of. selection. of.
conduits,.using.the.NEC®,.we.will.compare.both.alternatives:.a.½”.conduit.and.
the.¾”.conduit .
. According.to.NEC®,.Chapter.9,.Table.4,.a.½” Rigid Metallic Conduit
(RMC),.with.greater.than.two.conductors,.can.only.be.filled.up.to.40%.of.its.
internal.area.of.cross-section ..The.available,.internal.area.of.cross-section,.ac-
cording.to.NEC®,.Chapter.9,.Table.4.is.81.mm2 .
. According.to.NEC®.Chap ..9,.Table.5,.the.total.area.of.cross-section.three.
AWG.#14.current.carrying.conductors.would.occupy,.would.be:

= 3 x 8 968 = 26 9 mm2

Based.on.NEC®,.Chapter.9,.Table.4,.40%.fill.would.require.that.the.minimum.
internal.area.of.the.cross-section.of.the.selected.conduit.must.be:

. . 26/9
. Minimum.Area.of.Cross-section.=. ——. =.67 .26.mm2
. . 0 .4

. Since.this.computed.minimum.area.of.cross-section.of.67 .26.mm2.is.well.
within.the.available.internal.area.of.cross-section.of.81.mm2.offered.by.a.½”.
RMC,. a ½” conduit for D2 branch circuit would have been adequate, had
AWG #14 conductors been used.
. However,.since.the.designer.chose.AWG.#12.for.branch.circuit.D2,.ac-
cording.to.NEC.Chap ..9,.Table.5,.the.total.area.of.cross-section.that.the.three.
AWG.#12.current.carrying.conductors.would.occupy,.would.be:

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Electrical and Control Drawings 317

Figure 10 4: Excerpt,.one.line.schematic.for.a.power.distribution.system

.. =.3.x.11 .68.=.35.mm2

. Based.on.NEC®,.Chapter.9,.Table.4,.40%.fill.would.require.that.the.mini-
mum.internal.area.of.the.cross-section.of.the.selected.conduit.must.be:
. . 35
. Minimum.Area.of.Cross-section.=. ——. =.87 .6.mm2
. . 0 .4

. Since.this.computed.minimum.area.of.cross-section.of.87 .6.mm2.is.well.
within.the.available.internal.area.of.cross-section.of.141.mm2.offered.by.a.¾”.
RMC.conduit,.a.¾”.conduit.for.D2.branch.circuit.would.be.adequate.with.the.
AWG.#12.conductors.specified ..

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318 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

oVerload ProteCtion setting

. Overload.protection.devices.are.included.in.motor.and.branch.circuits.
to.protect.motors,.motor.control.apparatus,.and.motor.branch.circuit.conduc-
tors.against.overheating.due.to.overloads ..A.solid.state.motor.overload.device.
offers.flexibility.in.setting.of.overload.set-points ..And.motor.overload.device.
setting.can.determined.using.the.Bus®.Table.or.NEC®.Article.430 .32 ..In.the.
case.of.branch.circuit.D2,.according.to.NEC.430 .32.(1)(For.separate.overload.
device,.for.motors.other.than.those.with.Service.Factor.of.1 .15.and.marked.
operating.temperature.of.40°C),.the.over.load.device.should.be.set.at:

= 1 15 x Full Load Amps

= 1 15 x 4 8 = 5 52 A, or simply 5 amps

. According.to.the.Bus®.Table,.overload.current.setting,.for.this.specific.
case,. should. be. 5.A .. So,. once. again. we. see. the. Bus. . Table. and. the. NEC®.
yielding,.practically,.the.same.results.for.design.specification .

starter size
. The. motor. branch. circuit. starter. size. is,. generally,. based. on. NEMA.
standards ..According.to.the.Bus®.Table,.in.Figure.10 .4,.the.starter.should.be.
“Size 0 .”.However,.once.again,.we.see.that.the.designer.of.the.branch.circuit.
selected. a. size. that. is. greater. than. the. minimum. requirement ..The. designer.
of.the.3-hp.motor.branch.circuit.incorporated.a.NEMA.“Size.1”.starter.in.the.
schematics.shown.on.Figures.10 .1.and.10 .2 ..

oVerCurrent ProteCtion fuse size

. As. with. the. motor. overload. protection. device,. the. selection. of. motor.
overcurrent.device.can.be.accomplished.by.using.the.Bus®.Table.or.NEC® ..
In.the.case.of.branch.circuit.D2,.according.to.NEC.430 .52.and.Table.430 .52.
(For.a.polyphase.motor.protected.by.a.time-delay.fuse).the.short.circuit.fuse.
must.be.rated.as:

. =.1 .75.x.Full.Load.Amps.
. =.1 .75.x.4 .8.=.8 .4.A

. According. to. NEC®.Article. 240 .6. (A),. when. overcurrent. calculation.

yields.an.ampere.specification.that.is.non-standard,.the.next.higher.size.may.
be. used ..Therefore,. a. standard. 10A. fuse. could. have. been. selected .. Instead,.
the. designer. decided. to. exceed. the. requirements. once. again,. and. chose. the.

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Electrical and Control Drawings 319

standard.8A.fuse ..As.long.as.the.8.amp.fuse.does.not.cause.nuisance.trips.or.
fuse.clearing,.it.should.be.acceptable ..

fusible disConneCt switCh size

. The.fusible.disconnect.switch.specification.can.be.determined.through.
the.Bus..Table.in.Figure.10 .3 ..According.to.the.Bus®.Table,.at.the.point.of.in-
tersection.of.the.row.representing.3-hp.motor.and.the.column.titled:.“Switch.
or.Fuse.Holder.Size,”.we.see.that.a.30.A.disconnect.switch.is.needed.to.meet.
the.code ..As.shown.on.the.one-line.diagram.in.Figures.10 .1.and.10 .2,.in.com-
pliance.with.the.code,.a.30.A.disconnect.switch.is.specified.by.the.designer ..
This. is. also. in. compliance. with. NEC ®. Article. 430 .101. and. NEC ®Table.
430 .251.(B) .
. So,.all.in.all,.it.appears.that.design.of.branch.circuit.D2.is.in.compli-
ance.with.the.code,.and.in.some.aspects,.it.exceeds.the.code ..However,.if.one.
compares.the.design.of.branch.circuit.D2.with.the.rest.of.the.branch.circuits,.
it.becomes.apparent.that,.unlike.the.other.branch.circuits,.D2.lacks.a.safety.
disconnect.switch.at.the.motor ..And,.as.obvious.from.the.label.on.the.motor.
load,. this. motor. pertains. to. a. roof. exhaust. fan. and. is,. possibly,. located. on.
the.roof;.out.of.line.of.sight.from.the.MCC.disconnect.switch ..According.to.
NEC®.Article.430 .102.(B).(2),.the.disconnecting.means.should.be.located.in.
sight.of.the.motor,.baring.qualification.for.exceptions.stated.under.this.article ..
It.is.unknown.if.this.particular.installation.qualified.for.the.exceptions ..Nev-
ertheless,.it.is.always.a.desirable,.in.the.interest.of.safety,.to.have.a.lockable.
disconnect.switch.at.each.motor.load .

Example 10 1
. Answer.the.following.questions.pertaining.to.the.branch.circuit.shown.
in.the.schematic.diagram.below:

(a). What. is. the. maximum. current. the. power. distribution. system. for. this.
branch.circuit.rated.for?
(b).. What.is.the.turns.ratio.of.the.control.transformer.shown.in.the.motor.
branch.circuit?
(c).. What.is.the.full.load.current.in.this.circuit?
(d).. What.should.the.solid.state.overload.device.be.set.for.at.commissioning.
of.this.system?.

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320 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution:
(a).. The. maximum. current. the. power. distribution. system. for. this. branch.
circuit.rated.for.is.stated.in.the.specification.stated.at.the.very.top.of.the.
schematic.diagram,.as.600.Amps,.within.the.caption:

“480 V Bus, 3 ϕ, 4W, 600 A, 60 Hz ”

Therefore,.the.answer.is:.600 Amps

(b).. The. turns. ratio. of. the. control. transformer. shown. in. the. motor. branch.
circuit.would.be.based.on.the.voltage.transformation.stated.on.the.con-
trol. transformer ..As. obvious. from. the. schematic. diagram,. the. control.
transformer.has.a.480V.primary.and.a.120.V.secondary ..Apply.Eq ..10 .1,.
introduced.earlier.in.this.text:

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Electrical and Control Drawings 321

. . Eq 10 1

(c).. What.is.the.full.load.current.in.this.circuit?.This.question.can.be.answered.
through.multiple.approaches,.including.the.calculation.method.based.on.
the.equation.10 .2,.provided.the.motor.efficiency.(hmotor efficiency).and.the.
power.factor.are.known ..

. . Eq 10 2

. Since. the. efficiency. and. the. power. factor. are. not. given,. as. introduced.
earlier.in.this.text,.we.will.the.Buss®.table.introduced.earlier.in.this.chapter ..
As.stated.in.schematic.diagram—in.the.circled.motor.symbol—the.motor’s.full.
load.rating.is.5 hp ..As.specified.at.the.top.of.schematic.diagram,.the.motor.is.
being.powered.by.a.480 V, 3-phase.source.(480 V Bus,.3 ϕ,.4W,.600.A,.60.Hz) ..
Therefore,.according.to.the.Buss®.table,.and.as.highlighted.(circled)—under.
the.“460.V(480V),.3-ph,.section—the motor full load current would be 7 6
A

(d). Using.the.Buss®.in.Figure.10 .5a,.for.3—phase, 5 hp motor,.operating.at.

a.480 V, the.overload.device.should.be.set.at.8 0 A ..
Note:.If.NEC.tables.were.used.here,.the.115%.multiplier.by.NEC®.would.result.
in.an.overload.setting.of.8 .7.A ..

Examination of Branch Circuit D5

. While.we.will.not.examine.branch.circuit.D5.to.the.degree.we.examined.
D2,.it.is.important.to.point.out.one.apparent.oversight.on.the.part.of.the.de-
signer ..This.oversight.pertains.to.the.overcurrent.protection.fuse.specification.

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322 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Figure 10 5a

of.125.A,.as.it.appears.on.the.one-line.drawing.in.Figures.10 .1.and.10 .2 ..
. See.the.circled.data,.in.Figure.10 .5b.Bus®.table,.for.full.load.amps.as-
sociated.with.a.40-hp.motor ..In.the.case.of.branch.circuit.D5,.which.supports.a.
40-hp.(52.FLA,.Full.Load.Amps,.as.stated.under.the.column.adjacent.to.the.HP.
column).motor,.according.to.NEC.430 .52.and.Table.430 .52.(For.a.polyphase.
motor.protected.by.a.time-delay.fuse).the.short.circuit.fuse.must.be.rated.as:

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Electrical and Control Drawings 323

Figure 10 5b: Excerpt,.one.line.schematic.for.a.power.distribution.system

= 1 75 x Full Load Amps

= 1 75 x 52 = 91 A

. According. to. NEC®.Article. 240 .6. (A),. when. overcurrent. calculation.

yields.an.ampere.specification.that.is.non-standard,.the.next.higher.size.may.be.
used ..Therefore,.standard.100.A.fuses.should.have.been.selected ..Instead,.the.

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324 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

designer.chose.a.125.A.overcurrent.protection.fuse ..In.the.absence.of.possible.
qualifying.exceptions,.this.branch.circuit.should.be.equipped.with.a.combina-
tion.of.a.100.A.fusible.disconnect.switch.(see.4th.column.from.the.right).and.
100.A.short.circuit.protection.fuses ..

Examination of Branch Circuit D4

. As.apparent.from.the.load.identifying.symbol,.LC-5,.this.branch.circuit.
supplies.power.to.lighting.load.of.5-hp ..The.60.A.disconnect.switches.and.the.
60.A.fuses.are.based.on.NEC®.Article.430 ..Note.that.the.Bus®.chart.cannot.be.
used.in.the.case.of.lighting.loads ..

wiring diagram
. Unlike. a. one-line. schematic,. a. wiring. diagram. displays. comprehensive.
information.on.all.three.phases.of.a.three.phase.AC.system,.along.with.the.as-
sociated.grounds ..See.Figure.10 .6 ..The.wiring.diagram.in.Figure.10 .6.pertains.
to.three.motor.loads:.40-hp.supply.air.fan.motor,.75-hp.return.air.fan.motor,.and.
a.15-hp.pump.motor ..We.will.limit.our.focus.the.75-hp.return.air.motor.circuit,.
on.the.left ..Notice.the.vertical.lines,.spanning.from.top.to.bottom,.on.the.left.
side.of.the.wiring.diagram ..These.lines,.as.annotated.on.the.drawing,.represent.
the.voltage.bearing.phase.busses.A,.B.and.C;.as.well.as.the.ground.bus.(G) ..
. As.we.work.our.way.from.the.left.side.of.this.75-hp.motor.circuit.to.the.
right,. we. notice. the. three. energized. phase. busses. are. “tapped”. by. the. 75-hp.
branch. circuit. via. the. bus. stabs,. represented. by. the. “chevron”. symbols .. The.
MCC.ground.is.shown.routed.from.the.MCC.to.the.three.phase.AC.75-hp.return.
air.motor ..All.three.phases.are.shown.bridged.from.the.MCC.bus.stabs.to.the.
200.A.disconnect.switch,.labeled.as.“3.Pole,.200A .”.Each.of.the.three.phases.
is.then.routed.to.respective.motor.starter.contactor.contacts.via.the.short.circuit.
protection.fuses ..Note.the.strict.adherence.of.unique.labeling.assigned.to.each.
continuous. conductor,. between. consecutive. current. interrupting. points .. For.
instance,.the.wire.label.“1L1”.is.reserved.for.the.conductor.between.the.load.
side.of.phase.A.150.A.fuse.and.the.motor.starter.contact,.labeled.“Size.4.M;”.
where.“M”.represents.the.motor.contactor.for.this.circuit ..Unique.numbering.
of.conductors.is.crucial.for.the.following.few.reasons:

a). Troubleshooting.and.tracing.of.circuits,.using.a.drawing .
b). Ensuring. that. wires. are. not. “cross-wired .”. Crossed. wires. can. result. in.
phase.to.phase.and.phase.to.ground.faults,.and.control.circuit.malfunc-
tions .
c). Unique.wiring.facilitate.accurate.wiring.or.assembly.of.power.distribu-
tion.and.control.circuits .

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Electrical and Control Drawings 325

. Application.of.wiring.numbers.is.not.feasible.when.wire.type.conductor.
are.not.used.to.connect.one.current.interrupting.point.to.another,.such.as.the.
connection.between.a.motor.starter.contact.and.an.overload.contact,.as.evident.
on.Figure.10 .6.wiring.diagram ..
. Wires.T1,.T2.and.T3.connect.phases.A,.B.and.C.to.respective.line.side.
terminals.of.the.safety.disconnect.switch.poles.at.the.motor,.in.the.field ..Note.
that.the.identification.of.wires,.completing.the.final.connection.of.phases.A,.B.
and.C.to.the.motor.terminals,.changes.to.1T1,.1T2.and.1T3,.respectively ..
. The.pilot.device.and.control.power.for.this.75-hp.motor.is.shown.“tapped”.
or.branched.off.phases.A.and.B ..This.phase.to.phase.power,.as.expected,.would.
be.480.V ..However,.the.control.circuit.must.be.120.V.or.less ..Therefore,.the.
tapped. 480.V. power,. as. shown. on. the. wiring. diagram,. is. “stepped. down”. to.
120V.through.the.480/120.V.control.transformer ..Note.that.the.secondary.of.
this.control.transformer.is.grounded.on.one.leg ..This.leg,.serves.as.a.neutral,.
ground. or. low. potential. point ..The. other. terminal,. then,. serves. as. the. higher.
potential,.120.V,.point,.labeled.as.X1 ..This.120.V.and.neutral.pair.sustains.and.
operates.all.of.the.pilot.devices,.switches,.interlock.contacts.and.motor.contac-
tor.coil .
. The.120.V.control.power.is.protected.through.a.fuse.and.arrives.at.the.
“STOP”.switch’s.normally.open.contacts.via.conductor.numbered.as.“1 .”.The.
spring. loaded,. momentary,. STOP. push. button. contact. is. normally. closed,. as.
shown.in.the.wiring.diagram ..So,.the.120.V.potential.crosses.over.to.point.1A.
and.three.safety.interlock.contacts ..These.contacts.are.normally.open ..Such.in-
terlock.contacts.are.often.associated.with.system.components.such.as.doors—
which.must.be.closed.before.the.motor.is.allowed.to.be.energized ..Let’s.assume.
that.all.safety.conditions.are.met.in.this.case ..This.would.allow.us.to.assume.
that.all.three.of.these.interlock.contacts.are.closed ..Then.120.control.voltage.
would. bridge. over. to. point. 26. on. wiring. diagram .. Point. 26. and. the. terminal.
labeled.“2”.are.at.the.same.potential;.there.is.an.electrical.short.between.these.
two.points ..Therefore,.terminal.2.retains.120.V.potential.as.long.as.the.STOP.
button.is.not.depressed ..Then,.if.the.START.switch.is.depressed,.its.normally.
open.contacts.close.allowing.the.120.control.voltage.to.be.applied.to.the.coil.
of.the.motor.starter.contactor.“M .”.Since.neutral.or.ground.side.of.the.coil.is.
always.grounded.through.the.normally.closed.solid.state.overload.contacts.(un-
less.the.overload.protection.device.has.tripped.under.an.overload.condition),.
the.motor.starter.coil.energizes.when.the.START.switch.is.depressed ..The.three.
motor.starter.contacts,.shown.in.the.motor.branch.circuit,.close;.thus,.releas-
ing.three.phase.voltage.and.power.to.the.75-hp.motor ..Since.the.pilot light.for.
the.motor.is.connected.in.parallel.with.the.motor.starter.coil,.the.motor.“ON”.

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 326
Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers
Figure 10 6: Wiring.diagram.for.power.distribution.system
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Electrical and Control Drawings 327

light. turns. on,. as. well .. One. of. the. motor. starter. contacts,. referred. to. as. the.
“latching.contact.“M”.is.connected.in.parallel.with.the.START.switch.contacts ..
This.contact.seals.the.coil.in.energized.mode,.such.that.when.the.START.but-
ton.is.released,.the.motor.starter.coil.stays.latched.and.the.motor.continues.to.
operate ..The.motor.continues.to.operate.as.long.as.all.of.the.safety.interlocks.
stay.closed,.the.overload.protection.device.does.not.sense.an.overload,.and.the.
STOP.switch.is.not.depressed ..
. When.the.motor.STOP.switch.is.depressed,.its.normally.closed.contacts.
open.and.the.continuity.of.the.120.V.circuit.is.broken ..This.results.in.de-ener-
gization.of.the.motor.starter.coil,.thus.unlatching.the.sealing.contacts.of.the.
motor.starter.coil ..The.motor.ceases.to.operate .
. The.control.sequence.and.logic.described.above.represents.the.essence.
of. approaches. applied. in. most. motor. starter. circuits,. with. some. application.
specific.variations ..

Control Diagram/Drawing
. Our.discussion.in.this.section.will.be.based.on.the.control.diagrams.de-
picted.in.Figures.10 .7.and.10 .8 ..Both.of.these.drawings.are.based.on.a.control.
system.premised.on.a.PLC,.Programmable.Logic.Controller ..In.other.words,.
the. control. algorithm. is. being. implemented. through. a. control. architecture.
where.the.PLC.CPU,.Central.Processing.Unit,.makes.all.control.decisions.in.
accordance.with.the.PLC.control.program ..Of.course,.the.CPU.makes.the.con-
trol.decisions.in.response.to.the.current.state.or.change.of.state.of.all.pertinent.
inputs ..
. The.control.drawing,.or.control.schematic,.in.Figure.10 .7.shows.some.of.
the.inputs.interfaced.to,.or.monitored.by,.the.PLC ..The.inputs.are,.essentially,.
signals. coming. from. sensors. and. switches. in. the. field .. These. signals. can. be.
“discrete”. or. “digital;”. meaning,. they. are. in. form. of. “ONs,”. “OFFs,”. “1s,”.
“0s,”.switch.closed.or.open,.etc ..The.column.to.the.right.of.the.drawing,.labeled.
with. input. numbers,. i .e .. Input. 1,. Input. 2,. and. so. on,. represents. a. PLC. input.
module ..Note.that.this.module.is.labeled.as.115.VAC.Input,.Modicon,.Cat ..No:.
B805-016 ..The.role.of.this.input.module.is.to.receive.115.VAC.signals.from.
various.sensors.and.switches.in.the.field.and.convert.them.into.low.voltage.DC.
signals ..A.115.or.120.VAC.signal.is.transduced.by.the.input.module.circuitry.
into. a. 5VDC. or. 10.VDC. signal ..An. absence. of.AC. voltage. at. a. given. input. is.
converted.into.0.VDC.and.interpreted.as.a.“0 .”.When.a.115.V.signal.is.received.
at.an.input.point,.it.is.interpreted.by.the.PLC.as.a.“1 .”.In.other.words,.the.PLC.
expects.discrete.1s.and.0s.from.its.input.modules ..
. The.output.module.shown.in.Figure.10 .8.serves.as.an.interface.between.

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328 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

the.PLC.and.the.control.devices/equipment.in.the.field.in.a.manner.similar.to.
the.input.module ..However,.there.are.a.few.distinct.differences ..A.discrete.115.
VAC.output.module,.receives.discrete.signals,.1s.and.0s,.from.the.PLC.CPU.
and.converts them.into.115.VAC.or.0.VAC.outputs.or.commands—that.are.con-
veyed.to.the.control.devices.in.the.field,.such.as,.motor.starter.coils,.solenoids,.
lamps,.horns,.etc .—as.shown.on.the.right.side.of.the.control.drawing.in.Figure.
10 .8 .. Notice. that. contiguous. electrical. connections. or. wires. are. identified. by.
unique. numbers. or. alphanumeric. identifications. on. the. input. and. the. output.
control.drawings ..

inPut Control diagram

. In.order.to.get.a.better.understanding.of.how.the.inputs.from.various.field.
sensors.and.switches.interface.with.the.PLC,.let’s.focus.on.the.input.control.
drawing.in.Figure.10 .7.and.follow.a.hypothetical,.yet.plausible,.scenario ..We.
will.then.extend.the.possible.outcome.of.this.hypothetical.scenario.to.the.out-
put.control.diagram.on.Figure.10 .8 .
. Let’s. assume. that. pressure. switch,. PSxxx56,. shown. in. Figure. 10 .7,. is.
monitoring. the. pressure. in. a. vessel. that. must. be. maintained. above. a. certain.
critical,.level ..This.pressure.switch.is.normally open,.but.closed.when.the.ves-
sel.is.pressurized,.as.shown.in.the.control.drawing ..In.this.safe.state,.with.the.
pressure.switch.closed,.120.V.control.voltage.is.passed.on.to.Input.#1.on.the.
PLC.input.module ..As.described.earlier,.the.120.V.potential.at.Input.#1.gets.
transduced.into.a.logic.level.“1”.for.interpretation.by.the.CPU.(microproces-
sor) ..As.long.as.the.pressure.switch.remains.closed,.Input.#1.maintains.a.logic.
value.of.“1 .”.If.the.pressure.switch.opens,.120.V.at.Input.#1.would.disappear.
and.logic.level.“1”.would.be.replaced.by.a.logic.level.“0 .”.Often.switches—
such. as. the. pressure. switch. in. this. circuit—are. applied. such. that. they. open.
under.“unsafe”.conditions ..When.electrical.control.devices.are.applied.in.this.
manner,.they.are.said.to.be.in.“fail safe”.mode ..If.the.vessel.in.this.scenario.
were.to.lose.pressure.to.a.level.below.a.preset.critical.level,.the.pressure.switch.
will.open ..The.set.point,.in.such.a.case.could.be.set.at.the.pressure.switch ..The.
temperature.of.a.downstream.process.in.this.scenario,.is.being.monitored.by.
a. temperature. switch. TSxxx60 .. See. Figure. 10 .7 .. The. process,. downstream,.
relies. on. pressure. in. the. vessel. being. maintained. at. an. adequate. level .. This.
temperature.switch.is.open.under.normal.circumstances.and.would.close.only.
if.safe.operating.temperature.is.exceeded ..Note.that.this.temperature.switch.is.
not.applied.in.fail safe.mode ..Under.normal.operation,.the.temperature.switch.
is.open,.and.the.120.V.control.voltage.stops.at.the.left.side.of.the.temperature.
switch ..This.results.in.0.V.at.Input.#3 ..No.voltage.at.terminal.#3.of.the.PLC.

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Electrical and Control Drawings 329

Figure 10 7: Input.Control.Drawing

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330 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

input. module. translates. into. logic. level. “0”. at. Input. #3 .. The. PLC. CPU,. or.
microprocessor,.completes.execution.of.one.cycle.of.the.control.program,.on.
average,.in.approximately,.30.milliseconds ..So,.as.the.CPU.examines.Input.#3,.
every.30.milliseconds,.it.sees.a.“0”.and.interprets.that.as.a.normal.situation,.
requiring.no.specific.action.by.the.PLC.system ..
. Now,. let’s. assume. that. pressurized. vessel. develops. a. leak. and. loses.
pressure,.to.the.extent.that.the.pressure.switch.opens ..As.the.pressure.switch.
opens,.the.120.V.control.voltage.at.Input.#1.disappears,.resulting.in.the.change.
of.input.#1.logic.state.from.a.“1”.to.a.“0 .”.At.the.same.time,.as.the.pressure.
in.the.vessel.drops.below.critical.level,.the.temperature.of.the.process.rises.to.
critical.level,.and.the.temperature.switch.closes ..The.120.V.control.voltage.is.
bridged.across.to.PLC.input.module.input.#3,.changing.its.logic.state.from.a.
“0”.to.a.“1 .”.At.the.very.next.scan,.the.PLC.senses.the.change.of.state.at.inputs.
#1.and.#3 ..The.PLC.logic.and.algorithm.recognizes.these.two.changes.of.state.
as.an.anomaly.and.develops.a.logical.solution.that.it.must.execute.through.its.
outputs ..This.juncture.serves.as.an.appropriate.segue.into.the.output.section.of.
the.control.system ..

outPut Control diagram

. As. described. earlier,. the. 115. VAC. Modicon. output. module,. shown. in.
Figure.10 .8,.serves.as.an.interface.between.the.PLC.and.the.control.devices.in.
the.field ..Let’s.continue.our.analysis.of.the.hypothetical.scenario.surrounding.
the.loss.of.pressure.in.a.vessel;.with.the.focus,.this.time,.on.specific.outputs.
associated.with.the.proper.response.to.the.anomaly.described.above ..Assume.
that. the. PLC’s. response,. to. the. anomaly. described. above,. involves. some. ac-
tions.that.yield.instantaneous.results.and.some.that.will.require.a.finite.amount.
of.time.to.implement ..Actions.that.the.PLC.based.control.system.must.initiate.
and.execute,.immediately,.are.as.follows:

1). Energize.the.reserve.tank.solenoid.valve.to.boost.the.vessel.pressure.to.a.
certain.level .
2). Turn.ON.the.alarm.horn .
3). Turn.ON.the.“Critical/Low.Pressure.Alarm.light .
4). Turn.ON.the.pump.motor.starter .

. In.order.to.energize.the.reserve.tank.solenoid.valve.to.boost.the.vessel.
pressure,.the.PLC.CPU.must.change.the.logic.level.at.Output.#5.from.a.“0”.to.
a.“1 .”.The.output.module.transduces.the.“l”.to.a.120.V.output.at.the.terminal.
for.output.#1 ..This.120.V.control.voltage.propagates.to.the.solenoid.through.

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 Electrical and Control Drawings
331
Figure 10 8: PLC.output.module.based.control.drawing .
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332 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

the.1 .5A.short.circuit.protection.fuse.FUxxx14.and.turns.on.the.solenoid ..The.

solenoid.opens.the.reserve.tank.valve.and.begins.to.pressurize.the.vessel ..
. In.order.to.implement.full.restoration.of.pressure.in.the.vessel,.the.PLC.
CPU.must.change.the.logic.level.at.Output.#1.from.a.“0”.to.a.“1 .”.As.a.result,.
the.120.V.control.voltage.propagates.to.the.Pump.Motor.Starter.coil.through.
the. 1 .5A. short. circuit. protection. fuse. FUxxx06. and. a. normally. open. safety.
interlock.contact ..The.safety.interlock.is.assumed.to.be.met,.so,.this.safety.in-
terlock.contact.should.be.closed ..The.120.VAC,.therefore,.arrives.at.the.pump.
motor. starter,. “M,”. energizes. it,. and. starts. the. 3-hp. motor,. shown. on. Figure.
10 .8 ..
. At.the.same.instant,.the.CPU.changes.the.state.of.Output.#7.from.“0”.to.a.
“1,”.thus.sending.120.V.to.the.alarm.horn.through.another.1 .5A.fuse ..The.horn.
continues.to.annunciate.the.critical.alarm.condition,.audibly,.until.the.CPU.has.
received.verification.of.re-pressurization.of.the.vessel.via.Input.#1.or.the.alarm.
is.acknowledged.and.silenced.through.a.horn.silence.circuit.on.the.input.side.
of.the.control.system ..Note.that.the.horn-acknowledge.and.silence.button.is.not.
shown.on.input.control.drawing.in.Figure.10 .7 .
. In.addition.to.turning.ON.Output.#7,.the.CPU.changes.the.logic.state.of.
Output.#6.from.a.“0”.to.a.“1,”.thus.sending.120.V.to.an.alarm.light.via.1 .5A.
fuse.FUxxx16 ..The.alarm.light.turns.on.and.stays.on.until.the.CPU.has.received.
verification.of.re-pressurization.of.the.vessel.via.Input.#1 .

relay ladder logiC

. An.introduction.to.control.circuits.and.control.systems.would.be.incom-
plete.without.some.explanation.an.illustration.of.PLC.programming.method ..
Even.though.the.brain.of.a.PLC,.like.a.PC.(Personal.Computers),.consists.of.
single.or.multiple.microprocessors,.unlike.a.PC.it.does.not.operate.off.a.“Win-
dows®”.or.Microsoft.Office.based.software.systems ..PLC.operation.is.based.on.
proprietary.software,.provided.by.the.PLC.manufacturer ..On.the.other.hand,.the.
PLC.programming.software,.nowadays,.is.“Windows®”.based ..The.program-
ming.software.allows.control.engineers.and.technicians.to.program.the.opera-
tion.of.PLCs.in.form.of.a.diagrammatic.programming.language.called.Relay
Ladder Logic ..This.programming.language.emulates.the.“pre-PLC”.era,.elec-
tromechanical.relay,.counter.and.timer.based.control.logic,.in.symbolic.form ..
Of. course,. the. symbols. and. associated. functions. are. represented. as. “virtual”.
symbols.and.logical.functions.that.are.used.to.implement.functional.specifica-
tions.of.the.overall.control.system ..In.the.pre-PLC.era,.these.electromechanical.
relay,.timer.and.counter.based.functions.had.limited.reliability,.lacked.speed,.
resolution,.accuracy,.flexibility,.versatility.and.occupied.a.great.deal.of.control.

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Electrical and Control Drawings 333

cabinet.or.control.room.space ..PLC.manufacturers,.such.as.Rockwell®.provide.
training. classes. for. control. engineers. and. technicians,. on. PLC. programming.
and.installation,.at.local.or.regional.offices .
. A.basic,.relay.ladder.logic.based,.program.example.is.shown.in.Figure.
10 .9 ..Brief.excerpts.of.a.comprehensive.relay.ladder.logic.program.for.a.con-
trol.system.are.shown.in.Figures.10 .9.and.10 .10 ..These.excerpts.are,.actually,.
screen. captures. or. “print. screens”. of. the. PLC. program. as. viewed. by. a. PLC.
programmer. for. program. creation,. program. modification. or. troubleshooting.
purposes ..These.excerpts.represent.a.specific.example.of.an.RSLogix5000.pro-
gram.for.an.Allen.Bradley.Control.Logix.Programmable.Controller ..

Fan Start and Stop Program Segment

Note.that,.at.first.glance,.this.page.of.the.overall.program.for.the.control.
system. resembles. a. typical. Windows®. based. application. program .. However,.
a. closer. inspection. reveals. that—unlike. computer. programming. languages.
like.COBOL,.Basic,.C,.C+,.etc .—this.is.a.diagrammatic.logic.code,.wherein,.
program.or.algorithm.is.premised.on.symbols.that.appear.as.coils.and.contacts.
of.relays,.timers,.counters,.etc ..As.visible.on.the.left.side.of.the.relay.ladder.
program,. there. are. seven. tiers,. lines. or. “rungs”. depicted. on. this. page. of. the.
program,.ranging.from.rung.#7.to.rung.#14 ..The.logic.symbols.in.each.rung.
represent. inputs. and. outputs .. See. chapter. 8. for. descriptions. and. illustration.
of.typical.PLC.inputs.and.outputs ..These.inputs.and.outputs,.in.a.typical.PLC.
program,.can.be.“internal”.or.“external”.inputs ..External.inputs.(discrete).are.
inputs.that.represent.“tangible”.or.physical.switches.and.contacts.in.the.field ..
In.other.words,.these.inputs.emanate.from.devices.and.equipment.that.are.“pe-
ripheral”.to.the.PLC ..On.program.segment.depicted.in.Figure.10 .9,.the.logic.
elements,.input.and.output.symbols.can.be.categorized.as.follows:

Batch MCR
Batch.control.system.master.control.relay.contact ..This.contact.is.“nor-
mally.open,”.but.shown.closed—at.the.time.the.program.was.viewed—through.
high.lighting.(darker.shading).of.the.contact ..

Start Fan 3
This. symbol. or. element. represents. the. normally. open. contact. of. the.
START.switch.for.Fan.#3 ..Even.though.this.is.a.“normally.open”.contact.“--|
|--,” it. is. shown. closed—at. the. time. the. program. was. viewed—through. high.
lighting.(darker.shading).of.the.contact .

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 334
Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers
Figure 10 9: PLC.Relay.Ladder.Logic.Programming.Example—Cooling.Fan.Control.Logic .
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Electrical and Control Drawings 335

Stop Fan 3
This.symbol.or.element.represents.the.normally.closed.contact.belonging.
to.the.STOP.switch.for.Fan.#3 ..This.is.a.“normally.closed”.contact.“--|/|--“(look.
for.the.“/”.within.the.parallel.lines).and.it.is.shown.closed.(True)—at.the.time.
the.program.was.viewed—through.high.lighting.(darker.shading).of.the.con-
tact ..In.other.words,.the.STOP.switch.is.not.depressed.at.this.time .

Cooling Fan # 3 Dr Start

.The. coil. symbol. “—( )—,”. typically,. represents. an. output ..When. this.
output. is. energized. or. “True,”. it. actually. turns. ON. an. output,. such. as. those.
outputs.we.considered.in.the.review.of.PLC.Output.Controls.Drawing.in.Figure.
10 .8 ..In.this.case,.this.output.is.connected.to.a.VFD,.variable.frequency.drive ..

. Note. that. all. elements. in. Rung. #9. are. highlighted,. meaning,. they. were.
conducting.current,.ON,.or.True,.at.the.time.the.snap.shot.of.the.program.was.
taken .. Note. that. when. elements. are. closed or. passing. current,. there. status. is.
said.to.be.“True .”.When.elements.are.not.energized,.not.activated,.their.status.
is.said.to.be.“False .”.The.current.status.of.Rung.#9.can.be.interpreted.as.fol-
lows:
. At.the.time.this.snapshot.of.the.logic.was.taken,.BATCH_OFF_MCR.
input.was.True, closed.or.High,.the.START_FAN_3.bit.(logical.representation.
of.input.emanating.from.Fan #3 start.switch).is.True,.and.the.STOP_FAN_3.
bit. (logical. representation. of. input. emanating. from. Fan. #3. stop. switch). is.
false.then.the.COOLING_FAN_3:O DriveLogicRslt Start.output.(same.as.
Cooling.Fan.#.3.Dr.Start.output).will.go.high.or.True ..This.output.is.directly.
connected.via.the.software.to.the.Allen.Bradley®.(PowerFlex.70).Variable.Fre-
quency.Drive.(VFD) ..This.is.accomplished.through.an.Ethernet.connection.and.
will.cause.the.motor.connected.to.the.VFD.to.start ..In.this.case.there.are.seven.
fans.that.are.used.to.cool.freshly.made.rubber.so.that.it.can.be.used.in.the.next.
process ..

Example 10 2
. Consider.the.PLC.relay.ladder.logic.program.in.Figure.10 .9.and.answer.
the.following.questions:
a).. What.would.happen.to.the.“run”.signal.going.to.the.VFD.is.MCR,.Master.
Control.Relay,.drops.out.or.de-energizes?
b). . How. does. Rung. #10. respond. to. the. energization. (becoming. True). of.
COOLING_FAN_3:O DriveLogicRslt Start.output?.

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336 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(a) Answer:.If.the.MCR,.master.control.relay,.for.the.system.drops.out.or.de-
energizes,.the.continuity.of.rung.#9.would.break ..This.will.result.in.de-energi-
zation.of.COOLING_FAN_3:O DriveLogicRslt Start.output.to.the.VFD,.and.
Cooling.Fan.#3.will.stop ..

(b).Answer:.Upon.inspection.of.Rung.#10,.we.see.that.a.normally.closed.con-
tact. belonging. to. output. “COOLING_FAN_3:O DriveLogicRslt Start” is.
in.series.in.Rung.#10 ..This.normally.closed.contact.opens.when.COOLING_
FAN_3:O DriveLogicRslt Start.output.is.energized ..That.is.the.reason.why.
both.elements.in.this.rung.are.shown.de-energized.(no.shading.or.highlighting) ..
Note. that. the. output. of. this. rung. is. labeled. as. COOLING_FAN_3:O Driv-
eLogicRslt Stop This.implies.that.when.COOLING_FAN_3:O DriveLogi-
cRslt Start. output. is. turned. ON,. the. STOP. signal. to. the. Cooling. Fan. VFD.
is. disabled. through. the. normally. closed. contact. of. COOLING_FAN_3:O
DriveLogicRslt Start.“coil”.in.Rung.#10 ..In.essence,.Rung.#10.serves.as.an.
interlock.to.ensure.that.the.STOP.command.to.Cooling.Fan.#3.is.disabled.when.
Cooling.Fan.#3.START.bit.is.ON ..

Timer Based Starting Control Logic

The. PLC. control. program. examined. in. this. section. is. shown. in. Figure.
10 .10 ..The.logic.elements,.input.and.output.symbols,.employed.in.this.section.
of.the.overall.PLC.program.are.shown.on.Rung.11,.in.Figure.10 .10 ..The.logic.
represented.in.this.rung.is.more.complex.than.the.logic.associated.with.Rung.
#9.on.Figure.10 .8 ..The.essence.of.this.program.rung.is.as.follows:
. If.all.of.the.requirements,.conditions,.or.bits.for.the.Examine.if.ON.(la-
beled.as.XIC,.Examine.if.Closed).and.Examine.if.Off.(XIO),.in.Rung.11,.are.
True. then. Timer. P105 .TD_CASCADE_START. will. start. timing .. Notice. the.
rectangular.block.on.the.right.side.of.this.rung ..This.block.represents.the.timer ..
The. timer. setting. is. annotated. as. 2500 .. The. set-point. of. 2500,. in. this. case,.
implies.2500.milliseconds ..In.other.words,.the.timer.will.time.for.2 .5.seconds.
before.energizing.the.output ..When.2 .5.seconds.expire,.timer.output.labeled.as.
P105 .TD_.CASCADE_.START .DN.becomes.True,.and.P105_CONVEYOR_
CMD. will. turn. ON. starting. P105. conveyor. in. this. simple. material. handling.
conveyor.system.application ..

Example 10 2
. Consider.the.logic.associated.with.Timer.P105 .TD.in.Rung.#.11.of.the.
PLC.relay.ladder.logic.program.shown.in.Figure.10 .10.and.answer.the.follow-
ing.questions:

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 Electrical and Control Drawings
337
Figure 10 10: PLC.Relay.Ladder.Logic.Programming.Example—Cascade.start.timer .
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338 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

a).. Which.“register”.of.field.on.Rung.#11.represents.the.time.elapsed.while.
the.timer.is.timing?

b). .What.is.the.status.of.the.timer?.How.many.seconds.remain.on.the.clock.
before.the.timer.times.out?

c). What. is. the. function. of. Rung. #11. branch. consisting. of. the. “P105 .TD_
CASCADE_START .DN”.bit.and.the.“P105.Conveyor._CMD”.coil?.

(a) Answer:.As. we. examine. the. right. side. of.Timer. P105 .TD. in. Rung. #. 11,.
we.see.the.register.or.field.labeled.“Preset.2500 .”.This.register.holds.the.timer.
preset.time.of.2500.milliseconds ..The.register.directly.below.the.Preset.regis-
ter.is.labeled.“Accum.2500 .”.This.field.can.be.interpreted.as:.Accumulated.or.
elapsed.time.=.2500.milliseconds,.or.2 .5.seconds ..

(b) Answer:.As.observed.in.part.(a),.the.accumulated.or.elapsed.time.=.2500.
milliseconds ..Since.the.accumulated.or.elapsed.time.is.equal.to.the.Preset.time,.
the.timer.has.timed.out,.and.“0”.milliseconds.remain .

(c) Answer:.As.we.examine.the.right.side.of.Timer.P105 .TD.in.Rung.#.11,.and.

observe. the. branch. with. two. elements,. the. “P105 .TD_CASCADE_. START ..
DN”. bit. and. the. “P105. Conveyor. _CMD”. coil,. we. note. the. fact. that. P105.
Conveyor.is.commanded.to.turn.ON.when.the.P105 .TD_CASCADE_.START ..
DN.contact.or.bit.is.closed,.or.True ..In.other.words,.after.the.accumulated.time.
reaches. the. preset. time. of. 2500. milliseconds,. the. “Done”. coil. labeled. as—
(DN)—,.turns.ON.or.becomes.True ..This.results.in.the.closure.(or.conversion.
to. True. state). of. the. timer. Done. bit:. “--|. |--“. 105 .TD_. CASCADE_. START ..
DN,.and.with.the.three.XIC.and.one.XIO.conditions.satisfied.(True),.the.P105.
Conveyor._CMD”.coil.is.energized.to.turn.on.P105.Conveyor .

Self-assessment Problems and Questions—Chapter 10

1 ... Answer.the.following.questions.pertaining.to.the.branch.circuit.shown.in.
the.schematic.diagram.below:
(a).. What.is.the.maximum.voltage.the.power.distribution.system.for.this.
branch.circuit.rated.for?
(b)..How.many.wires.and.phases.is.the.power.distribution.system.for.this.

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Electrical and Control Drawings 339

motor.branch.circuit.rated.for?.
(c). What. would. be. the. proper. rating. for. the. branch. circuit. disconnect.
switch?
(d)..What. should. the. solid-state. overload. device. be. set. for. at. commis-
sioning.of.this.branch.circuit?

2 ... Determine. the. sizes/specifications. of. the. following. components. in. the.
branch. circuit. shown. below. using. the. Bus®Table. and. information. in-
cluded.in.the.questions:
. (a).Conductor.size .
. (b).Conduit.size .
. (c).Overload.setting.based.on.the.115%.NEC®.stipulation .
. (d).Disconnect.switch.size,.safety.and.fusible .

3 .. .Consider.the.wiring.diagram.for.the.75-hp.motor.shown.in.Figure.10 .6.
and.answer.the.following.questions.based.on.the.control.logic.explained.
in.this.chapter:
a). What.would.be.the.likely.outcome.if.the.START.switch.is.depressed.
while.the.motor.is.operating?.

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340 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

b). What.would.be.the.outcome.if.START.and.STOP.switches.are.de-
pressed.simultaneously?.
c). What.would.be.the.likely.outcome.if.the.main.disconnect.switch.for.
the.MCC.is.opened?.
d). Can. the. motor. be. stopped. if. the. motor. starter. latching. contact.
“welds”.shut.due.to.overheating?

4 .. Consider.the.logic.associated.with.Timer.P105 .TD.in.Rung.#.11.of.the.
PLC.relay.ladder.logic.program.shown.in.Figure.10 .10.and.answer.the.
following.questions:
a). What.would.be.status.of.the.timer.Done.bit:.“--| |--“.105 .TD_.CAS-
CADE_.START ..DN,.if.the.XIC.System.E-Stop.bit.turns.“False”.1.
second.after.Timer.P105 .TD.in.Rung.#.11.is.turned.on?.
b). Would. the. “P105. Conveyor. _CMD”. bit—commanding. P105. Con-
veyor.to.turn.ON.be.True.if.and.when.the.system.E-Stop.switch.is.
engaged/pressed?.

librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 11

Electrical Power Rate Schedules

And Electrical Energy
Cost Savings Opportunities
Introduction
. The. purpose. of. this. brief. chapter. is. to. introduce. the. reader. to. three.
pronged. approach. associated. with. comprehensive. electricity. cost. reduction ..
This.chapter.allows.readers.an.opportunity.to.enhance.their.knowledge.about.
various.electrical.power.rates.or.contracts ..Better.awareness.of.electrical.en-
ergy. cost. structure. allows. a. utilities. engineer,. plant. engineer,. or. a. facilities.
manager.an.opportunity.to.make.calculated.and.informed.decisions.associated.
with.electrical.energy.cost.minimization ..We.will.also.explore.some.electrical.
cost. reduction. ideas .. We. will. explore. the. concepts. of. EPC. and. ESCOs. as. a.
means.for.pursuing.electrical.energy.intensity.improvement.projects.with.little.
or.no.capital.investment .

three Pronged aPProaCh to

eleCtriCal energy Cost reduCtion*
. Most. energy. programs—adopted. for. residential,. commercial,. or. indus-
trial.settings—focus,.mainly,.on.energy conservation ..However,.in.order.to.de-
velop.a.more.comprehensive.and.complete.energy.program,.one.should.view.an.
electrical.energy.intensity.improvement.program.as.a.three.pronged.approach ..
Those.three.prongs.or.pillars.are.as.follows:

. I .. Energy Conservation: This.facet.consists.of.the.application.of.high.ef-

ficiency. electrical. equipment,. i .e .. premium. efficiency. electric. motors,.
energy.efficient.lighting.systems,.etc .

. II .. The Supply Side:.Exploration,.evaluation.and.application.of.local.elec-

trical.power.generating.systems.that.are.cost.competitive.with.the.grid .

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

341

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342 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. III .. Energy Cost Rate:.This.approach.focuses,.primarily,.on.exploration.and.

financial.evaluation.of.electrical.power.schedules.and.contracts.that.of-
fer.the.lowest.overall.cost.rates.for.commercial.and.industrial.applica-
tions .

eleCtriC utility rate sChedules*

. Measurement,. verification. and. computation. of. utility. bills. are. key. ele-
ments.in.understanding,.planning.for.and.managing.the.consumption.of.various.
utilities .. Conservation. of. utilities. is. an. essential. and. strategic. component. of.
overall.utility.cost.reduction.effort ..Its.primary.impact.is.through.enhancement.
of.utility.productivity;.or,.in.the.strict.energy.realm,.through.maximization.of.
energy.productivity ..The.other.vital.determinants.of.the.overall.cost.of.utilities.
are.contract.and.rate.structure ..In.a.given.billing.month,.once.the.utility.usage.
has.been.recorded,.it.must.be.processed.using.the.rate.schedule.or.structure.the.
contract.calls.for .
. The.thrust.of.our.discussion,.in.this.chapter,.will.entail.introduction.of.
various.rate.schedules.and.the.impact.of.major.rate.schedules.on.the.composi-
tion.of.the.electric.bill.in.the.industrial.and.residential.realm ..The.residential.
rate.structures.and.computation.methods.are.relatively.straightforward ..Conse-
quently,.our.discussion.on.residential.electric.bills.will.be.brief ..Some.of.the.
contract.categories.and.rate.schedules.are.as.follows:

•. Industrial
•. Commercial
•. Residential
•. Municipal.or.Co-ops
•. OPT,.or.Time.of.the.Day
•. HP,.or.Hourly.Pricing
•. Interruptible

. Most. utility. companies,. around. the. United. States,. offer. rate. schedules.
similar. to. the. ones. stated. above .. However,. in. many. instances. the. names. of.
the.rate.schedules.may.vary.from.one.utility.to.another ..Despite.the.apparent.
semantic.differences.among.rate.schedules.offered.by.various.utilities,.the.cost.
components,. cost. tiers. and. rate. application. mechanisms. are. similar .. The. es-
sence.and.format.of.electrical.rate.schedules.are.being.introduced.in.this.text.
using.Duke.Energy®.Company.as.an.example .

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 343

. Duke®. is. one. the. largest. electric. power. holding. company. in. the. Unit-
ed.States,.supplying.and.delivering.energy.to.approximately.7 .2.million.U .S ..
customers ..Duke®.has.approximately.57,700.megawatts.of.electric.generating.
capacity. in. the. Carolinas,. the. Midwest. and. Florida .. Duke®. is. headquartered.
in. Charlotte .. Duke’s®. service. area. consists. of. approximately. 104,000. square.
miles.in.the.Southeast.and.Midwest .
. Details.on.Duke®.Energy.electric.power.rates.are.available.at.the.follow-
ing.Duke.Energy®.Website:

http://www .duke-energy .com/rates/north-carolina .asp

. Some. of. the. rates. schedules. offered. by. Duke®. are. listed. in.Table. 11 .1.
below,.with.the.more.common.ones.highlighted .
. Three.of.the.most.common.schedules.are.explained.in.more.detail.below.
through. excerpts. from. the. Duke. Energy®. website .. These. schedules. are. also.
more.pertinent.to.the.topics.introduced.in.this.text ..The.reader.is.advised.to.re-
gard.the.following.excerpted.rate.schedule.information.as.reference informa-
tion intended.to.introduce.the.reader.to.typical.electrical.billing.terminology.
and.general.format.of.the.electrical.power.bills.in.the.residential.and.industrial.
sectors ..The.rates.quantified.in.the.discussion.that.follows.represent.a.“snap-
shot”.at.the.time.this.text.was.authored,.and.only.the.current.prevailing.rates.
should.be.used.in.the.practice.of.engineering,.energy.or.facilities.management .

Schedule RS (NC)
. The.RS.stands.for.Residential.Service ..This.specifics.of.this.schedule,.as.
published.by.Duke®,.apply.to.the.State.of.North.Carolina,.only .
. This.schedule.and.associated.rates.are.available.only.to.residential.cus-
tomers. in. residences,. condominiums,. mobile. homes,. or. individually-metered.
apartments.which.provide.independent.and.permanent. facilities.complete.for.
living,.sleeping,.eating,.cooking,.and.sanitation .

Type, or Specification, of (RS) Service

Under.this.schedule,.Duke.Energy®,.agrees.to.furnish.60.Hertz.service.
through.one.meter,.at.one.delivery.point,.at.one.of.the.following.approximate.
voltages,.where.available:

—. Single-phase,.120/240.volts
—. Or,.3-phase,.208Y/120.volts
—. Or.other.available.voltages.at.the.Company’s.(Duke’s®).option .

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344 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Table 11 1: Some.Rate.schedules.offered.by.Duke®.Energy

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 345

—. Motors.in.excess.of.2.H ..P .,.frequently.started,.or.arranged.for.auto-

matic.control,.must.be.of.a.type.to.take.the.minimum.starting.cur-
rent.and.must.be.equipped.with.controlling.devices.approved.by.the.
Company.(Duke®) .

. Where.three-phase.and.single-phase.service.is.supplied.through.the.same.
meter,.it.will.be.billed.in.accordance.with.the.rates.listed.below ..Where.three-
phase.service.is.supplied.through.a.separate.meter,.it.will.be.billed.on.the.ap-
plicable.General Service schedule:

. I .. Basic.Facilities.Charge.per.month:.$ 9 90

. II .. Energy.Charges

•. For. the. billing. months. of. July—October,. for. all. kWh. used. per. month:.
9 2896¢.per.kWh*

•. For.the.billing.months.of.November—June,.for.all.kWh.used.per.month:.
9 2896¢.per.kWh* .

Note.that.the.two.rates.stated.above.may.not.always.be.the.same .

*For.complete.details.and.exemptions,.the.reader.is.encouraged.to.visit.Duke.
Energy®.rate.schedule.website,.referenced.above .

Schedule OPT-I (NC)

. This.rate.schedule.represents.an.optional power industrial service.that.is.
based.on.time.of.use ..Therefore,.it.is.often.referred.to.as.Time of Use Indus-
trial Service
. This.rate.schedule,.offered.by.Duke.Energy®,.as.specified.in.this.text,.is.
available.in.North.Carolina.Only ..Furthermore,.this.rate.schedule.is.available.
only.to.establishments.classified.as.“Manufacturing.Industries”.by.the.Standard.
Industrial.Classification.Manual.published.by.the.United.States.Government,.
and.where.more.than.50%.of.the.electric.energy.consumption.of.such.establish-
ment.is.used.for.its.manufacturing processes .
. The.specifications.of.this.rate.schedule.or.service,.as.stipulated.by.Duke.
Energy®,.are.as.follows:

•. The.Company.(Duke.Energy®).will.furnish.60.Hertz.service.through.one.
meter,. at. one. delivery. point,. at. one. of. the. following. approximate. volt-
ages,.where.available:

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346 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

—. Single-phase,. 120/240. volts,. 120/208. volts,. 240/480. volts. or. other.

available.single-phase.voltages.at.the.company’s.option;.or
—. 3-phase,.208Y/120.volts,.460Y/265.volts,.480Y/277.volts;.or
—. 3-phase,.3-wire,.240,.460,.480,.575,.or.2300.volts;.or
—. 3-phase,.4160Y/2400,.12470Y/7200,.or.24940Y/14400.volts

•. Motors.of.less.than.5.H .P ..may.be.single-phase ..All.motors.of.more.than.5.

H .P ..must.be.equipped.with.starting.compensators ..The.Company.(Duke.
Energy®). reserves. the. right,. when. in. its. opinion. the. installation. would.
not.be.detrimental.to.the.service.of.the.Company,.to.permit.other.types.of.
motors .

rates under oPt—i sChedule

. As.evident.below,.due.to.the.fact.that.this.rate.schedule.is.a.function.of.
time.and.seasons,.rate.structure.under.the.OPT-I.schedule.is.multi-dimensional.
and.more.complex ..The.rate.(or.charge).components.of.an.OPT-I.based.electric.
power.bill,.at.the.time.this.text.was.authored,.were.as.shown.in.Table.11 .2 .

Table 11 2: Time.of.Use,.OPT-I.Rate.Schedule offered.by.Duke®.Energy

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 347

On-Peak.and.Off-Peak.Hours,.for.Schedule.OPT-I,.are.classified.as.follows:

On-Peak Hours:
Summer Months
. June.1-September.30,.Monday-Friday
. . On-Peak.Period.Hours
. . 1:00.p .m ..-9:00.p .m .

Winter Months
. October.1-May.31,.Monday-Friday
. . On-Peak.Period.Hours
. . 6:00.a .m .-1:00.p .m .

Off-Peak Hours:
•. All.weekday.hours.not.included.under.On-Peak.hours,.and.all.Saturday.
and.Sunday.hours .
•. All.hours.for.the.following.holidays:
—. New.Year’s. Day,. Memorial. Day,. Good. Friday,. Independence. Day,.
Labor.Day,.Thanksgiving.Day,.Day.after.Thanksgiving,.and.Christ-
mas.Day .

Determination of Billing Demand

A .. The.On-Peak Billing Demand.each.month.shall.be.the.largest.of.the.fol-

lowing:
1 .. The.maximum.integrated.thirty-minute.demand.during.the.applica-
ble.summer.or.winter.on-peak.period.during.the.month.for.which.the.
bill.is.rendered .
2 .. Fifty.percent.(50%).of.the.Contract.Demand.(or.50%.of.the.On-Peak.
Contract.Demand.if.such.is.specified.in.the.contract)
3 .. 15.kilowatts.(kW)

B Economy Demand: To.determine.the.Economy.Demand,.the.larger.of

1 .. The.maximum.integrated.thirty-minute.demand.during.the.month.for.
which.the.bill.is.rendered;.or
2 .. 50%.of.the.Contract.Demand.shall.be.compared.to.the.On-Peak.Bill-
ing.Demand.as.determined.in.A ..above .

. If.the.demand.determined.by.the.larger.of.B .1.and.B .2.above.exceeds.the.

On-Peak.Billing.Demand,.the.difference.shall.be.the.Economy.Demand .

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348 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Power Factor Correction

. When. the. average. monthly. power. factor. of. the. Customer’s. power. re-
quirements. is. less than 85 percent,. the. Company. may. correct. the. integrated.
demand.in.kilowatts.for.that.month.by.multiplying.by.85 percent.and.dividing.
by.the.average.power.factor.in.percent.for.that.month .

hourly PriCing oPtion/sChedule

. If. your. business. is. expecting. incremental. loads. and. has. the. ability. to.
manage.consumption.patterns.on.a.day.ahead,.hourly.basis,.Duke.Energy®.can.
offer.electric.energy.cost.savings.through.rate.schedule.HP,.also.referred.to.as.
Hourly Pricing ..This.opportunity.is.available.to.customers.who.have.the.ability.
to.be.responsive.to.fluctuations.in.hourly.prices.(use.more.energy.when.prices.
are.low,.use.less.energy.when.prices.are.high) .
. The. HP. schedule. is. available. to. non-residential. establishments. with. a.
minimum.contract.demand.of.1000.kW.who.qualify.for.service.under.the.Duke.
Energy®. rate. schedules. LGS,. I,. OPT-G,. OPT-H,. OPT-I,. or. PG,. at. the. Com-
pany’s.(Duke.Energy®).option.on.a.voluntary.basis ..The.maximum.number.of.
customers.on.the.system.to.be.served.under.this.schedule.is.one.hundred.fifty.
(150) .. Service. under. this. Schedule. is. available. to. contracting. customer. in. a.
single.enterprise,.located.entirely.on.a.single,.contiguous,.premises .

areas of oPPortunity for eleCtriCal energy Cost saVings

. There. are. several. areas. of. potential. cost. savings. available. to. electrical.
power. consumers,. beyond. the. ones. discussed. in. this. text,. so. far .. The. reader.
is. encouraged. to. see. organized. and. comprehensive. approach. to. energy. cost.
reduction,.supported.by.illustrative.case.studies,.in.Finance and Accounting
for Energy Engineers, By S. Bobby Rauf..Some.areas.of.opportunity,.related.
specifically.to.electrical.rate.schedules,.are.listed.below:

Schedule or Rider SG, On-Site Generation

. This. program. is. designed. to. offer. large. industrial. or. commercial. con-
sumers.an.opportunity.take.advantage.of.on-site.emergency.power.generation.
assets.they.already.own ..Most.emergency.power.generators.have.to.be.tested,.
under. load,. periodically,. for. predictive. maintenance,. preventive. maintenance.
and.personnel.training.purposes ..Why.not.get.compensated.or.credited.for.this.
routine,.but.necessary,.exercise.by.the.power.company?.That.is.where.Schedule.
or.Rider.SG.offers.the.larger.consumers.an.opportunity.to.do.so .
. Therefore,.if.a.large.consumer.owns.emergency.standby.generators.and.
can. make. their. capacity. available. for. use. by. Duke. Energy®. during. times. of.
system.emergencies,.monthly.credits.are.offered.through.rate.rider.SG .

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 349

Schedule or Rider IS, Interruptible Power Service

. The.interruptible.power.service.schedule,.IS, is.available.for.nonresiden-
tial.customers.receiving.concurrent.service.from.the.Company.(Duke.Energy®).
on.Schedules.LGS,.I,.HP,.OPT-G,.OPT-H.or.OPT-I,.served.under.continually.
effectively.agreements.for.this.Rider.made.prior.February.26,.2009 ..Under.this.
schedule,.the.customer.agrees,.at.the.Company’s.(Duke.Energy’s®).request,.to.
reduce.and.maintain.his.load.at.a.level.specified.in.the.individual.contract ..The.
Company’s.request.to.interrupt.service.may.be.initiated.at.any.time.the.Com-
pany.has.capacity.problems .
. Contracts.for.interruptible.power.service.are.accepted.by.Duke.Energy.
on.the.basis.of.successive.contracts,.and.each.contract.must.specify.an.inter-
ruptible,.integrated.demand.of.not.more.than.50,000.KW.to.be.subject.to.these.
provisions .. The. Company. can. limit. the. acceptance. of. contracts. to. a. total. of.
1,100,000.KW.of.Interruptible.Contract.Demand.on.all.non-residential.sched-
ules.on.the.total.system .
. Duke.Energy®.reserves.the.right.to.test.the.provisions.of.this.Rider.once.
per.year.if.there.has.not.been.an.occasion.during.the.previous.12.months.when.
the.Company.requested.an.interruption ..Duke.Energy®.gives.advance.notice.of.
any.test.to.customers.served.under.this.Rider ..In.return.for.participation.in.this.
schedule,.Duke.issues.credits.to.the.participating.customers.based.on.a.specific.
formula.that.can.be.reviewed.at.Duke.Energy®.Website .

Tips on Utility Rate Schedules and Contracts

. Its,. ultimately,. the. consumer’s. responsibility. to. maintain. vigilance. and.
awareness. of. opportunities. and. incentives. available. through. the. power. com-
pany.that.serves.the.region ..The.following.tips.can.prove.to.be.useful.to.the.
consumer.for.minimizing.the.cost of.electrical.energy:

1 .. Electric.Utility.Company.is.not.obligated.to.notify.facilities.about.avail-
ability.of.more.favorable.rates.or.“schedules .”.Some.utility.companies,.for.
example,.Duke.Energy®,.assign.Account.Managers.to.certain.segments.of.
their.market ..In.order.to.maximize.the.utility.of.the.consumer’s.relation-
ship. with. the. assigned.Account. Manager,. the. consumer’s. representative,.
namely.the.energy.or.utilities.engineer,.must.note.the.following:
—. Utility.company.Account.Managers.will,.at.times,.advise.their.larger.
accounts.of.favorable.rate.schedules.as.the.customers’.demand.and.
usage.changes ..However,.it.is.good.practice.to.explore.suitable.con-
tract. alternatives,. when. some. of. the. following. changes. are. experi-
enced.in.load.characteristics.and.profile:

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350 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

—. Addition.or.removal.of.loads.that.constitute.a.substantial.percentage.
of.facility’s.overall.load .
—. Addition. of. highly. reactive. loads,. i .e .. large. motors,. transformers ..
This.might.impact.the.facility’s.overall.power.factor.and.energy.con-
sumption .

2 .. Look. for. newfound. flexibility in load schedules .. For. example. “Off-

Peak”.unloading.of.rail.cars,.in.industries.where.mass.transport.of.raw.
materials.is.required .

3 .. Look.for.addition.of.onsite generation;.Standby.or.Cogeneration.assets .

4 .. Be.vigilant.of.any.change.in.facility’s.operation.constraints ..For.instance:
—. Could. the. facility. tolerate. power. interruption,. with. some. advance.
notice?
—. Could.facility.participate.in,.on-line,.diesel.generator.testing .

5 .. Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (REPS) Adjustment:

. The.monthly.bill.shall.include.a.REPS.Adjustment.based.upon.the.rev-
enue.classification:

. Commercial/Governmental.Classification—$3 22/month

. Industrial/Public.Authority.Classification—$32 20/month

. Upon. written. request,. only. one. REPS. Adjustment. shall. apply. to. each.
premise.serving.the.same.customer.for.all.accounts.of.the.same.revenue.
classification ..If.a.customer.has.accounts.which.serve.in.an.auxiliary.role.
to.a.main.account.on.the.same.premise,.no.REPS.charge.should.apply.to.
the.auxiliary.accounts.regardless.of.their.revenue.classification.(see.An-
nual.Billing.Adjustments.Rider.BA) .

6 .. Transformation Discounts:.When.Customer.owns.the.step-down.trans-
formation.and.all.other.facilities.beyond.the.transformation.which.Com-
pany.(Duke.Energy).would.normally.own,.except.Company’s.metering.
equipment,.the.charge.per.kW.of.on-peak.billing.demand.will.be.reduced.
as.follows:

Transmission Service: $0 75/kW

Distribution Service: $0 5/kW

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 351

. For. customer. to. qualify. for. the. Transmission. Service. Transformation.

Discount,.customer.must.own.the.step-down.transformation.and.all.other.
facilities. beyond. the. transformation. which. Company. (Duke. Energy®).
would.normally.own,.except.Company’s.metering.equipment,.necessary.
to.take.service.at.the.voltage.of.the.69.kV,.115.kV,.or.230.kV.transmission.
line.from.which.Customer.received.service .

energy PerformanCe ContraCting and esCo oPPortunities*

. EPC,.energy.performance.contracting,.is.a.service.vehicle.for.provision.
of.energy.conservation.or.energy.productivity.enhancement.services ..In.most.
cases,.EPC.type.contracts.and.projects.involve.turnkey.service ..Turnkey.ser-
vice.is.defined.as.a.comprehensive.service.provided.by.a.vendor.or.contractor.
that.begins.with.definition.and.scope.of.an.energy.project.and.ends.with.project.
start.up,.commissioning.and.subsequent.verification.of.energy.savings ..Projects.
covered.by.EPC.range.from.simple.energy.conservation.efforts.such.as.replace-
ment.of.inefficient.lighting.systems.to.more.complex.projects.that.address.the.
supply.side.of.the.energy.equation.through.renewable.energy.systems .
. While.EPC.and.ESCO.alternatives.are.often.adopted.for.substantial.en-
ergy.conservation.or.renewable.energy.projects,.initiatives.that.leverage.lower.
cost. power. contracts. can. be. included. in. the. overall. energy. project. portfolio ..
EPC.projects.and.contracts.often.include.guarantees.that.the.savings.produced.
by.a.project.will.be.sufficient.to.finance.the.full.cost.of.the.project .
. The.guarantee.to.fund.the.project.through.the.savings.generated.by.the.
project. is. what. distinguishes. EPC. projects. from. non-EPC,. or. owner. funded.
energy.projects ..Even.though.it.appears.counter.intuitive,.often.EPC.projects.
are. not. limited. to. energy. conservation. or. energy. capacity. enhancement. proj-
ects,.instead,.the.breadth.of.their.scope.includes.water.conservation,.sustain-
able.materials.and.operations .
. ESCO.stands.for.Energy.Service.Company ..One.way.to.understand.the.
relationship.and.distinction.between.EPC.and.ESCOs.is.to.think.of.EPC,.En-
ergy.Performance.Contracting,.as.a.process.and.the.ESCOs.as.entities that im-
plement the EPC process ..ESCOs.can.provide.a.full.range.of.services.required.
to.complete.an.energy.project ..Such.services,.often,.include.the.following.or.a.
combination,.thereof:

•. Energy.audit
•. Design.engineering

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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352 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

•. Construction.management.and.supervision
•. Facilitation.or.provision.of.project.financing
•. Start-up.and.commissioning
•. Operations.and.maintenance
•. Monitoring.and.verification.of.energy.savings

. Historically,.the.inception.of.EPC.could.be.traced.as.far.back.as.the.early.
eighties ..In.the.pre-1985.era,.ESCOs.were.established,.as.a.part.of.the.DSM,.
Demand. Side. Management,. efforts. to. provide. personnel. and. equipment. re-
sources.to.the.utilities.as.they.strived.to.meet.the.energy.conservation.mandates.
imposed.by.federal.and.state.governments .
. From.the.mid.1980s.through.2003,.ESCOs,.and.EPC.industry.as.a.whole,.
have.seen.substantial.ebb.and.flow.in.growth,.acceptability.and.revenue ..Over.
this. period,. some. of. the. ESCOs. have. transformed. and. some. have. grown. ei-
ther. organically. or. accretively,. through. consolidation .. This. evolution. within.
the. EPC. domain. was. influenced,. favorably,. by. the. state. and. federal. govern-
ments ..The.successes.of.the.EPC.industry,.in.the.1994-2002.period.could,.to.a.
certain.extent,.be.attributed,.to.studies.by.LBNL,.Lawrence.Berkley.National.
Laboratory,. and. NAESCO,. National.Association. of. Energy. Service. Compa-
nies,.that.highlighted.the.EPC.successes.and.encouraged.the.state.and.federal.
governments.to.promote.EPC ..Another.important.event.that.could.be.credited.
for.EPC.growth.and.successes.in.the.1994-2002.period.was.the.formulation.and.
implementation.of.the.IPMVP,.or.International.Performance.Measurement.and.
Verification.Protocol ..The.IPMVP.provided.standard.methods.for.documenting.
project.savings.and.provide.commercial.lenders.the.confidence.to.finance.EPC.
projects .
. As.plausible,.the.EPC.industry.was.impacted.unfavorably.by.the.ENRON.
debacle,.as.ENRON.was.a.significant.player.in.the.ESCO.market ..The.ENRON.
collapse.coupled.with.the.uncertainty.about.the.deregulation.of.the.electric.util-
ity.industry.impeded.the.growth.of.EPC.in.the.2002.to.2004.period .
. The. 2004-2006. period. showed. 20%. growth. in. the. EPC. industry. with.
comparable.projected.growth.trend ..The.20%.growth,.and.subsequent.upward.
trend. can. be. attributed. to. volatility. in. the. energy. market. and. the. increasing.
energy.prices ..Other.contributors.to.the.heightened.interest.in.the.EPC.are.state.
and.federal.mandates,.inadequate.capital.and.maintenance.budgets.for.federal.
and. state. facilities .. Growing. awareness. of. the. greenhouse. gas. emissions. and.
realization.of.the.fact.that.large.scale,.sustained,.remediation.is.needed.in.this.
regard.has.made.EPC.more.attractive.at.local,.state.and.federal.levels,.and.in.
the.private.sector .

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 353

. While. ESCOs,. in. response. to. customer. requests,. are. constantly. adding.
new.measures.and.services.to.their.project.portfolios,.electrical.and.non-elec-
trical,.they.are.not.to.be.construed.as.stewards.for.technological.research,.de-
velopment.and.marketing.in.the.energy.domain ..ESCOs.and.their.clients.tend.to.
be.fairly.conservative.and.risk.averse.in.selection.of.technologies.for.projects ..
Due.to.the.fact.that.the.cost.of.most.ESCO.projects.are.paid.from.energy.sav-
ings,.often.secured.with.financial.guarantees,.ESCOs.and.their.clients.tend.to.
lean.in.favor.of.proven.technologies .
. Energy.performance.contracting.involves.distinct.skills.and.areas.of.ex-
pertise.in.the.following.two.areas:

—. Energy.procurement
—. Commercial.law

. Both.of.these.disciplines.involve.risk.management,.risk.allocation,.isolat-
ing.benefits,.and.option.analysis ..The.following.list.could.serve.as.a.checklist.
for. energy. managers,. utilities. engineers. and. facilities. managers. as. they. con-
sider.EPC.and.ESCOs.in.formulation.of.the.energy.program.strategy:

✓. EPC,.or.Energy.Performance.Contracting.is.one.way.to.finance.and.im-
plement.energy.conservation.projects .

✓. Remuneration.sought.by.the.EPCs.is.typically.included.in.the.overall.cost.
of.the.project .

✓. Initial. investment,. maintenance. cost,. energy. cost. (over. the. life. of. the.
project).monitoring.and.training.cost,.are—and.should.be—included.in.
the.overall.cost.of.the.project .

✓. The.energy.and.cost.savings.produced.by.the.project.need.to.be.sufficient.
to.cover.all.project.costs.over.the.term.of.the.contract .

✓. EPC.project.contracts,.typically,.span.a.period.of.10.years.or.more .

. Some. of. the. benefits. associated. with. the. EPC. and. ESCO. approach. for.
implementation.Energy.Programs.and.Strategies.are.as.follows:

☐. EPCs.save.company.capital.for.projects.that.lack.financial.justification .

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354 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

☐. EPCs.fund.energy.conservation.projects.from.savings.generated.by.the.
project .

☐. EPCs.reduce.repair.and.maintenance.costs.caused.by.inadequate,.aging,.
or.obsolete.equipment,.electrical.or.non-electrical .
☐. EPCs,. and. energy. conservation. projects. in. general,. provide. secondary.
benefits.i .e ..increased.employee.productivity,.safe.and.more.comfortable.
working. environment .. For. example,. energy. efficient. lighting. projects/
programs,.computer/PLC.based.automated.HVAC.systems.and.computer/
PLC.based.EMS,.Energy.Management.Systems .

☐. Improve.the.environment.and.conserve.energy.resources .

eleCtriCal energy related measures

tyPiCally inCluded in esCo or ePC endeaVors
. Additional.details.on.some.of.the.mainstream.technical.measures,.typi-
cally. included. in. ESCO. or. EPC. driven. projects,. are. recounted. for. reference.
below:

•. Lighting:. Replacement. of. inefficient. lighting. systems. with. energy. effi-

cient. lamps,. energy. efficient. ballasts. and. optimally. designed. light. fix-
tures ..Examples.of.such.measures.include:
—. Replacement. of. mercury. lamps. with. higher. efficacy. sodium. vapor.
lamps
—. Replacement. of. incandescent. and,. in. some. cases,. florescent. lamps.
with. high. efficacy. LED,. Light. Emitting. Diode,. lamps ..An. LED. is.
constructed.similar.to.a.regular.diode.with.the.exception.of.the.fact.
that.when.an.LED.is.forward.biased,.holes.and.the.electrons.combine.
at.the.p-n.junction.releasing.light.energy,.or.photons ..Symbol.for.a.
light.emitting.diode.is.shown.below:

—. Replacement. of. older. florescent. lamps. and. fixtures. with. high. effi-
ciency.T-8.or.T-5.florescent.light.systems .
—. Replacement.of.lighting.systems,.that.are.inadequately.designed.by.

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 355

today’s.standards,.with.light.systems.that.are.designed.with.empha-
sis.on.important.factors.such.as.lighting.efficacy.(lumens/watt),.CU,.
coefficient. of. utilization. (Lumens. Reaching. the. Work. Plane/Total.
Lumens.Generated) ..See.Chapter.12 .

•. HVAC,.heating,.air.conditioning.and.ventilation:.Optimization.and.im-
provement.of.chilled.water.systems,.replacement.of.lower.efficiency.and.
high. maintenance. HVAC. Systems. with. HVAC. systems. that. carry. high.
Energy.Star.Rating,.utilize.high.efficiency.chillers,.use.green.technolo-
gies,.i .e ..geothermal,.solar,.thermal.storage,.etc ..Convert.manual.HVAC.
control. systems. to. BMCS,. Building. Management. Control. Systems,. or.
Direct.Digital.Control.Systems* .

•. Control.systems:.Control.systems.incorporating.effectively.designed.and.
optimally.applied.control.architecture.in.energy.usage.and.energy.gener-
ating.systems ..These.control.systems.employ.cutting.edge—yet.proven—
sensors,.transducers.and.other.control.devices.for.field.application ..Fur-
thermore,.these.control.systems.are.driven.by.CPUs,.Central.Processing.
Units,.or.computers.and.PLCs,.Programmable.Logic.Controllers.that.of-
fer.the.latest.improvements.in.hardware,.firmware,.application.software.
and.HMI,.Human.Machine.Interface,.options .

•. Building.Envelope.Improvements:.Measures.in.this.category.include.in-
frastructure.improvements.related.to.the.building.envelope.or.exterior .

•. Cogeneration. and. CHP:. Cogeneration. and. CHP,. Combined. Heat. and.

Power,.measures.address.the.supply.side.of.the.energy.equation,.through.
production.of.electricity.while.catering.to.other.needs.such.as.steam.re-
quired. for. production. processes .. Measures. in. this. category. can. include.
the.following:
—. Topping.Cycle.Cogeneration.System:.In.topping.cycle.cogenerating.
systems,.electrical.power.is.generated.at.the.top,.or.beginning,.of.the.
cogeneration.cycle .
—. Bottoming.Cycle.Cogeneration.System:.In.bottoming.cycle.cogen-
erating.systems,.electrical.power.is.generated.at.the.bottom,.or.tail.
end,.of.the.cogeneration.cycle .
—. Combined. Cycle. Cogeneration. System:. In. the. combined. cycle. co-

*Thermodynamics Made Simple for Energy Engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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356 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

generating.systems,.electrical.power.is.generated.at.the.top.and.bot-
tom.segment.of.the.cogeneration.cycle .

. Since.the.combined.cycle.systems.employ.both.the.topping.cycle.feature.
as.well.as.the.bottoming.cycle.feature,.they.offer.higher.efficiency.in.the.pro-
duction.of.electricity .

•. Demand. Response. Measures:. Demand. response. measures. are. projects.

or. actions. undertaken. to. avert. the. need. for. electrical. power. generating.
capacity. expansion .. Demand. response. measures. are. also. referred. to. as.
DSM,.or.Demand.Side.Management,.measures ..DSM.is.an.important.tool.
to.help.balance.supply.and.demand.in.electricity.markets,.to.reduce.price.
volatility,.to.increase.system.reliability.and.security ..This.enables.the.util-
ity.industry.to.rationalize.investment.in.electricity.supply.infrastructure.
and. to. reduce. greenhouse. gas. emissions .. Examples. of. these. measures.
include.the.following:

—. Energy.efficiency.enhancement.technologies,.management.practices.
or.other.strategies.in.residential,.commercial,.institutional.or.govern-
mental.arena.that.reduce.electricity.consumption .

—. Demand. response. or. load. management. technologies,. management.

practices. or. other. strategies. in. residential,. commercial,. industrial,.
institutional.and.governmental.arena.that.shift.electric.load.from.pe-
riods.of.peak.demand.to.periods.of.off-peak.demand,.including.pump.
storage.technologies .

—. Industrial. by-product. technologies. consisting. of. the. use. of. a. by-

product. from. an. industrial. process,. including. the. reuse. of. energy.
from.exhaust.gases,.steam.or.other.manufacturing.by-products.that.
are.used.in.the.direct.production.of.electricity .

. Figure.11 .1.is.Quantity.(Q)—Price.(P).graph ..This.graph.shows.the.effect.

of.demand response.on.demand elasticity ..The.inelastic.demand.in.the.electri-
cal.power.market.place.is.represented.by.curve.D1 ..The.high.price.P1.associat-
ed.with.the inelastic.demand.D1.is.extrapolated.off.the.point.of.intersection.of.
the.supply.curve.S.and.the.demand.curve.D1 ..When.demand.response.measures.
are.introduced,.demand.becomes.elastic ..The.elastic.demand.is.represented.by.
curve.D2 ..The.point.of.intersection.of.elastic.demand.curve.D2.and.the.supply.

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 357

curve.S.precipitates.in.a.substantially.reduced market price P2 .

. It.is.estimated.that.a.5%.lowering.of.the.demand.would.result.in.a.50%.
reduction.in.price.during.peak.hours,.as.demonstrated.in.the.California.Elec-
tricity.Crisis.of.2000-2001* .

Figure 11 1 ..Demand.elasticity.and.the.effect.of.demand.response .

. Other.studies,.such.as.the.two.studies.sponsored.by.Carnegie.Mellon.in.
2006†,.examined.the.impact.of.demand.response.measures.on.demand.elastic-
ity.and.price .
. The.price.reduction.can.be.explained.by.the.fact.that.operators.generally.
plan. to. use. the. least. expensive,. or. lowest. marginal. cost,. generating. capacity.
first,. and. use. additional. capacity. from. more. expensive. plants. as. demand. in-
creases .

Renewable Energy Measures:.Renewable.energy.is,.mostly,.derived.from.nat-

ural.resources.such.as.sunlight,.wind,.rain,.tides,.and.geothermal.heat;.these.are.
energy.sources,.or.forms.of.energy,.that.are.renewable.and.replenished.natu-
rally ..Of.course,.the.energy.harnessed.from.these.renewable.natural.sources.is.
often.in.form.of.electrical energy .

*The.Power.to.Choose—Enhancing.Demand.Response.in.Liberalised.Electricity.Markets.Findings.
of.IEA.Demand.Response.Project,.Presentation.2003 .
†CEIC-07-01.“Demand.Response.and.Electricity.Market.Efficiency,”.Kathleen.Spees.and.Lester.
Lave ..CEIC-07-02.“Impacts.of.Responsive.Load.in.PJM:.Load.Shifting.and.Real.Time.Pricing”.
Kathleen.Spees.and.Lester.Lave .

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358 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Some.of.the.more.proven.renewable.energy.technologies.are.as.follows:

•. Hydroelectric Power

•. Biomass Energy
— Biomass Heat
—. Biomass.Power

•. Solar Energy
— Solar Heat Energy
— Solar Photovoltaic Electrical Energy

•. Wind Energy

•. Geothermal Energy
— Geothermal Heat
— Geothermal Power

•. Ocean or Tidal Energy

. Published. data. show. that. approximately13%. of. the. total. US. electrical.
energy.is.derived.from.renewable.sources ..This.13%.of.the.overall.electricity.
generated.in.the.US.can.be.segmented.as.shown.in.Figure.11 .3 ..This.segmenta-
tion.shows.that:

—. Almost.80.GW,.Gigawatts,.of.renewable.electrical.energy.is.derived.
from.conventional hydroelectric dams .

—. Almost.40.GW,.Gigawatts,.of.renewable.electrical.energy.is.derived.
from.wind turbines .

—. Solar comes.in.3rd,.at.almost.10.GW

—. The.rest.of.renewable.electrical.energy.is.derived.from.biomass and
geothermal sources.

Water and Sewer:.Consumption.of.water.and.discharge.into.sewage.systems,.

at. face. value,. may. not. appear. to. have. a. direct. relationship. with. the. electri-
cal.energy ..However,.as.one.examines.the.process.behind.the.reclamation.and.

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 359

Figure 11 2:. Sources. of.

U .S .. Electricity. Genera-
tion ..By.EIA,.U .S ..Ener-
gy.Information.Adminis-
tration

Figure 11 3:.Renewable.electricity.generation.breakdown—U .S .

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360 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

distribution.of.potable.water,.the.vital.and.indispensable.role.that.energy.plays.
becomes. palpable .. It. takes. energy,. and. therefore. dollars,. to. drive. the. pumps.
to.collect.untreated.water ..The.filtration.and.sanitization.phases.of.water.pu-
rification.require.hydraulic.head.to.move.water,.which.amounts.to.conversion.
of.electrical.energy.to.hydraulic.head ..In.addition,.significant.and.continuous.
amount.of.electrical.energy.is.needed.to.store.and.pump.water.to.consumers.at.a.
standard.head ..Hence,.it’s.obvious.that.if.the.consumption.of.water.is.reduced,.
energy.is.conserved.and.the.demand.for.electrical.energy.abates .

Sustainable Materials and Associated Operations:. Mining,. transportation,.

refinement,.treatment,.sizing,.packaging,.marketing,.sale,.distribution.and.ap-
plication.of.all.types.of.materials—pure.metals,.alloys,.non-metallic.substanc-
es,.polymers.and.myriad.synthetic.substances—require.energy.in.all.phases.of.
production ..Even.recycling.of.materials,.as.“green”.as.it.is,.requires.energy ..As.
we.assume.this.perspective,.it.becomes.easy.to.see.how.conservation.in.the.use.
of.materials.can.have.an.impact.on.energy.demand .

Self-assessment Problems and Questions—Chapter 11

1 .. HP,.or.hourly.pricing,.program.is.a.standard.feature.in.all.OPT,.or.Time.
of.Use,.schedules .
A .. True
B .. False

2 .. The.energy.charge.rate.structure.with.Electrical.OPT.schedule.is:
A .. Flat,.year.round
B .. Tiered
C .. Exponential
D .. Is.a.function.of.time.and.season .

3 .. A.large.industrial.electricity.consumer.set.the.peak.demand.in.July’s.bill-
ing. month. at. 40. megawatt .. The. demand. rate. structure. is. same. as. that.
included.in.Duke.Energy®.OPT-I,.Time.of.Use,.rate.schedule,.as.shown.
in.Table.11 .2 ..Determine.the.demand.cost.for.the.month .
A .. $367,000
B .. $505,000

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Electrical Power Rate Schedules and Electrical Energy Cost Savings Opportunities 361

C .. $407,000
D .. $476,579

4 .. Calculate.the.energy charge.for.the.month.of.July.considered.in.Problem.
3.if.all.of.the.energy.is.consumed.during.On-Peak.hours,.for.10.hours.per.
day ..Assume.that.there.are.30.days.in.the.billing.month.and.that.the.load.
factor.is.1,.or.100% .
A .. $902,000
B .. $416,808
C .. $2,064,187
D .. None.of.the.above

5 .. Which.of.the.following.statements.describes.the.role.of.EPC.and.ESCO.
most.accurately?
A .. The.terms.EPC.and.ESCO.are.synonymous
B .. EPC.is.method.for.implementing.energy.projects.and.ESCOs.are.en-
tities.that.offer.this.alternative .
C .. EPC.is.required.by.Department.of.Energy,.ESCOs.are.not .
D .. None.of.the.above

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Chapter 12

Illumination and Lighting

System Design

Introduction
. Electricity.is.the.lifeline.of.most.non-solar,.artificial,.light.produced.and.
used.by.mankind ..Substantial.portion.of.electricity.consumed.in.the.world.can.
be.attributed.to.the.generation.of.light ..Most.electrical.energy.conservation.pro-
grams.include.lighting.improvement.as.a.cornerstone.of.the.overall,.compre-
hensive.energy.conservation.effort ..This.is,.especially,.true.when.a.program.is.
evaluated.with.consideration.to.the.ROI,.return.on.investment,.payback.period.
and. NPV,. Net. Present. Value.Analysis* .. Many. large. energy. productivity. im-
provement.project.portfolios.depend.on.short.payback,.high.ROI.and.high.NPV.
lighting.improvement.measures.to.“float”.the.more.capital.intensive.measures.
like. energy. efficient. chillers. and. energy. efficient. air. compressors ..Therefore,.
understanding.of.illumination.and.efficacies.of.various.lighting.systems.is.an.
important.and.integral.part.of.electrical.engineering .
. In.this.chapter,.we.will.examine.fundamental.concepts.of.illumination ..
We.will.gain.familiarization.with.illumination.and.lighting.principles,.and.we.
will.learn.basic.considerations.pertaining.to.lighting.system.design .
. In.the.interest.of.facilitating.continuous.learning.and.updating.of.reader’s.
knowledge.on.the.subject.of.lighting,.it.should.be.noted.that.IESNA,.Illumina-
tion.Engineering.Society.of.North.America,.provides.a.vital.leadership.role.in.
the. illumination. arena ..IESNA. is. a. non-profit. organization. that. develops. and.
publishes.lighting.standards ..IESNA.also.collaborates.with.ICI,.International.
Commission.on.Illumination.to.promote.uniformity.of.illumination.standards.
worldwide ..The.reader.is.encouraged.to.stay.abreast.of.IESNA.publications.to.
stay.current.on.the.evolving.illumination.standards .

*Finance and accounting for energy engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf .

363

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364 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

lighting terms, ConCePts and standards

Solid angle: A solid.angle.is.an.angle.represented.by.a.given.area.on.the.sur-

face.of.a.sphere ..It.can.also.be.defined.as.a.two-dimensional.angle.subtended,.
at.a.point,.by.an.object,.in.three.dimensional.space ..Solid.angle.is.denoted.by.
symbol.ω The.units.for.solid.angle.are.steradians,.sr .

Luminous flux: Luminous.flux.is.a.measure.of.the.amount.of.light.that.passes.

through.a.certain.area.of.cross-section.ΔA ..The.symbol.used.to.denote.lumi-
nous.flux.is.Φ The.units.for.luminous.flux.are.lumens ..One.lumen.is.defined.
as.the.amount.of.luminous.flux.produced.by.a.light.source.when.it.emits.one
candela.of.luminous.intensity.over.a.solid.angle.of.one steradian .
. A.lumen.is.an.SI.unit ..As.apparent.from.Table.12 .1,.luminous.flux.can.
also.be.measured.in.watts.per.steradian,.or.w/sr;.which.implies.that.luminous.
intensity.can.be.quantified.in.watts .
. The.formula.for.Luminous.Flux.Φ is:

. . Φ.=.4p .I. Eq 12 1
Where,
I.=.Luminous.intensity.from.a.uniformly.radiating.point.source
Φt.=.Total.luminous.flux.originating.from.the.source
4π.=.Solid.angle.in.steradians

Luminous intensity: Luminous.intensity.is.a.measure.of.the.source intensity.

as.seen.by.the.eye ..The.symbol.used.to.denote.luminous.flux.is. I ..If.light.is.
perceived.as.emanating.out,.three.dimensionally,.from.a.point.source,.luminous.
intensity. could. be. conceived. as. flow. of. the. light. radiation. on. per. unit. solid.
angle.basis .
The.formula.for.luminous.intensity.is.as.follows:
. . dΦ
. I.=. ——
. . dω

. I.=
. . . Eq 12 2

Where,
I. =. Luminous.intensity.from.a.uniformly.radiating.point.source
Φ. =. Luminous.flux,.in.lumens
Φt. =. Total.luminous.flux.originating.from.the.source

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 365

. . . . A
ω. =. Solid.angle.in.steradians.(sr).=. — Eq 12 3
. . . . r2
A. =. Area.illuminated,.in.ft2
r. =. Distance.of.the.work.plane.from.the.light.source,.in.ft

Luminous.intensity.is.measured.in.candelas ..One.candela.can.also.be.defined,.
mathematically,.as.follows:

. . 1.lm
. 1.cd. ——
. . sr

Illuminance: Illuminance.defines.the.quantity.of.light.that.falls.on.a.given.sur-
face area ..The.area.can.be.real.area.—pertaining.to.a.real.surface.—or.it.can.be.
a.virtual.area.in.space ..Illuminance.is.denoted.by.E ..The.formula.for.computing.
illuminance.is.as.follows:

. . Φ t. . Φ t
. E.=. —. =. ——. Eq 12 4
. . A. . 4pr2
Where,
Φt. =. Total.luminous.flux.originating.from.an.omnidirectional.light.source
A. =. Spherical.area.illuminated.by.the.omnidirectional.light.source
r. =. Distance.the.light.source.and.the.illuminated.spherical.area
E = Illuminance

The.units.for.illuminance,.in.the.SI.realm.are.“lux .”.The.units.for.illuminance,.
in.the.US.realm.are.ft-c,.or.foot.candles .

One.lux.can.be.defined.as:

. . Number.of.lumens. . Lm
. 1.lux.=. ————————. or. ——
. . m2. . m2

One.ft-c.can.be.defined.as:

. . Number.of.lumens. . lm
. 1.fl-c.=. ————————. or. ——
. . ft2. . ft2

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366 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Illuminance.is.also.referred.to.as.illumination,.brightness.or,.irradiance,.
and.as.such,.it.could.be.quantified.in.terms.of.Watts/m2 .
. While. the. more. common. illumination. entities. are. introduced. and. dis-
cussed.in.this.chapter,.Table.12 .1.shows.symbols,.units.and.conversion.factors.
for.many.common.and.uncommon.illumination.entities .

Example 12 1
. A.two.(2).lumen.omnidirectional.light.source.is.located.5.meters.from.a.
1-meter-diameter.target.as.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..Determine.the.follow-
ing.illumination.parameters.for.this.scenario:

a). Luminous.intensity.of.the.source .
b). Luminous.flux.emitted.by.the.source.and.received.by.the.target
c). Illuminance.at.the.given.distance.of.5.meters .

Table 12 1:.Symbols,.units.and.conversion.factors.in.illumination

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 367

Solution

a). Luminous.intensity.of.the.source .

The.formula.for.luminous.intensity.is.as.follows:

. . Φ
Ι= —
. . ω
. . A
And,.ω.=.solid.angle,.in.steridians.=.—
. . r2
Where,
A. =. Area.illuminated,.in.m2
=. .π .(radius.of.illuminated.circle)2
= π ..(1/2.m)2 = 0 785 m2
r. =. Distance.of.the.work.plane.from.the.light.source.=.5 m
I. =. Luminous.intensity.from.a.uniformly.radiating.point.source
Φ. =. Luminous.flux.at.the.source,.in.lumens

Therefore,

. . A. . 0 .785m2
. ω.=. —. =. ———. =0 .0314.sr
. . r2. . 5m2

And,
. . Φ. . 2
. I.=. —. =. ———. =.6369.lm/sr
. . ω. . 0 .0314

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368 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

b). Luminous.flux.emitted.by.the.source.and.received.by.the.target

The.formula.for.Luminous.Flux.Φ is:

. Φ.=.4 .p .I

Where,
I =. Luminous.intensity.as.calculated.above.=.63 .69.lm/sr
4π =. Solid.angle.in.steradians

. Φ.=.4 .p.sr .(I).=.4 .p.sr .(63 .69.lm/sr).=.800.lm

c). Illuminance.at.the.given.distance.of.5.meters .

. . Φ t. . Φ t. . 2
. E.=. —. =. ——. =. ——————. =0 .0064.lm
. . A. . 4pr2. . 4 .(3 .14) .(5m)2

Where,
Φ.t. =. Total.luminous.flux.originating.from.an.omnidirectional.light.source
A. =. Spherical.area.illuminated.by.the.omnidirectional.light.source
r. =. Distance.between.the.light.source.and.the.illuminated.spherical.area

luminous effiCaCy or luminous effiCienCy

. Luminous.efficacy.is.also.referred.to.as.luminous.efficiency.or.lamp.effi-
cacy ..Luminous.efficacy.is.defined.as.the.ratio.of.luminous.flux.of.a.light.source.
to.the.amount.of.power.required.by.the.light.source ..Since.the.units.for.lumi-
nous.flux.are.lumens.and.the.electrical.power.is.measured.in.watts,.the.units.for.
luminous.efficacy.are.lm/W ..Luminous.efficacy.or.efficiency.is.denoted.by.the.
symbols.“ɳ”.or.“K,”.and.is.defined,.mathematically,.as:

. . Φ
. h.=.K.=. —
. . P

Where,
. Φ. =. Flux,.in.lumens
. P. =. Electrical.power.demanded.by.the.light.source.or.lamp

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 369

. Luminous.efficacy.is.used.extensively.to.compare.energy.productivity*.
of.various.light.sources ..Luminous.efficacies.of.some.common.light.sources.or.
lamps.are.listed.in.Table.12 .2 .

Table 12 2:.Efficacy.values.for.common.light.sources

. The.significance.of.luminous.efficacy.and.its.role.in.the.design.of.lighting.
systems.is.illustrated.through.Example.12 .2

Example 12 2:
. A.40.watt.fluorescent.lamp,.with.a.rated.luminous.efficiency.factor.(K).of.
80.lm/W,.is.mounted.to.the.ceiling.of.an.office.as.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..
The.purpose.of.this.light.fixture.is.to.provide.adequate.lighting.for.work.being.
performed.on.the.desk ..Assuming.that.the.interior.design.of.the.office.allows.
the.lamp.to.illuminate.hemispherically,.determine.the.illumination.level.on.the.
desk.in.the.office .

*Finance and Accounting for Energy Engineers,.by.S ..Bobby.Rauf

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370 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution
. Illumination.level.and.illuminance,.E,.are.synonymous ..As.stated.earlier.
in.this.chapter,.Illumination.level.can.be.defined,.mathematically,.as.follows:

. . Φ
. E.=. —. Eq 12 4
. . A
Where,
Φ. =. Luminous.flux
A. =. Spherical.area.illuminated,.in.ft2.or.m2
In.this.case,
Φ =. Luminous.flux.=.K.(lm/W) .(Power.Rating.of.the.Lamp.in.Watts)
. .=. 80.(lm/W) .(40.Watts)
. .=. 3200.lm

Since.the.area.over.which.the.light.is.radiated.is.“hemispherical’.and.not.spheri-
cal:
. . 1. . 1
. A.=. —. .(Area.of.a.Sphere).=. —. .(4pr2).=.2pr2
. . 2. . 2
. . Φ
. E.=. ———
. . 2pr2
Where,
. r.. =. Radius.of.the.hemisphere
=. Height.of.the.lamp.from.the.top.of.the.desk.=.15.ft.or.4 .57.m

Therefore,.illumination.level.in.foot-candles.(US.Unit.System).would.be:

And,.the.illumination.level.in.lux.(SI.Unit.System).would.be:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 371

Example 12 3:
. A.special.application.lamp.is.rated.500.W ..Using.a.photometer,.the.lamp’s.
light.output.is.measured.and.recorded.to.be.8000.lumens,.at.the.lamp ..Deter-
mine.the.lamp’s.luminous.efficacy,.K .

Solution
Given:
. P.=.500.W
. Φ.=.8000.lumens
. . Φ. . 8000.lm
. h.=.Lumanious.Efficacy.=.K.=. —. =. ———
. . P. . 500.W

. . lm
. =.16. —
. . W

iesna reCommended illumination leVels and

lighting effiCaCy ComParison
. IESNA,. Illumination. Engineering. Society. of. North.America. has. made.
numerous. significant. contributions. as. a. non-profit. lighting. standards,. guide-
lines.and.recommendations.development.body ..Some.of.those.contributions.are.
as.follows:

1). Recommended.illuminance.levels
2). Lighting.design
3). Efficacy.comparison.between.various.lamps,.or.light.sources

Recommended Illuminance or Illumination Level

. Comprehensive. illuminance. guidelines. for. common. indoor. venues. and.
specific.tasks.are.shown.in.Table.12 .3 ..These.indoor.venues,.tasks.and.illumi-
nance.ranges.are.classified.into.categories.A,.B,.C,.D,.E,.F,.G,.H,.and.I ..The.
range.of.illuminance.levels,.allocated.to.each.category.is.stated.in.lux.as.well.
as.fc.(foot-candles) ..The.illuminance.levels.range.from.low,.moderate.to.high .
. An.illuminance.level.is.selected.for.a.specific.activity.or.task.based.on.
an.aggregate.weighting.factor.derived.from.a.combination.of.age.of.occupants,.
specific. activity,. pace. or. frequency,. venue,. level. of. importance,. and. back-
ground. or. surface. reflectance .. The. weighting. factors. for. these. attributes. are.
listed.in.Tables.12 .4.and.12 .5 .

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372 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Table 12 3:.IESNA.illumination.guidelines

. Table.12 .4.lists.the.weighting.factors.for.categories.A.through.C ..If.the.

nature. of. the. task. or. activity. falls. within. categories.A. through. C,. age. of. the.
subjects.(or.occupants).is.used.in.combination.with.reflectance.level.(%).in.the.
room.to.determine.the.aggregate.weighting.factor ..If.the.aggregate.weighting.
factor.is.+2,.High.illuminance.number.is.selected ..If.the.aggregate.weighting.
factor.is.-2,.Low.illuminance.number.is.selected ..For.aggregate.scores.of.-1,.
0.and.+1,.middle.illuminance.value.is.selected ..This.method.for.determination.
of.recommended.illuminance.level.based.on.age.and.reflectance.factors.is.il-
lustrated.through.example.12 .4 .

Example 12 4:
. The.lobby.of.a.government.building.is.visited.by.individuals.with.a.mean.
age.of.59 ..The.reflectance.in.the.lobby.is,.approximately,.75% ..These.individu-
als.sign.a.log.and.collect.supplies.once.each.day ..Determine.illuminance.level.
the.lobby’s.lighting.system.should.be.designed.for .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 373

Table 12 4:. IESNA. illumination. level. weighting. guidelines,. categories.A.

through.C .

Solution
. Based.on.the.problem.statement,.this.activity.would.be.classified.under.
Category C.on.Table.12 .3, i .e ..“working.spaces.with.occasional.visual.tasks .”

•. From.Table.12 .4,.the.weighting.factor.associated.with.age.56.and.over.is.
+1 .

•. The.weighting.factor.for.reflectance.of.70%.or.greater.is.-1 .

•. Therefore,.the.total.weighting.factor.for.this.scenario.would.be.=.+1.+.
(-1).=.0 .

. According.to.Table.12 .1.and.the.rules.stated.earlier,.the.aggregate.weight-
ing.factor.of.“0”.would.point.to.the.use.of.middle.lux.or.lumen.value.under.
Category-C The.illuminance.range.in.this.category.is.100.–.150.–.200.lux.or.
10.–.15.–.20.fc .
. Therefore,.the.recommended.illuminance.would.be.150 lux or 15 fc
. If.the.nature.of.a.task.or.activity.falls.in.categories.D.through.I,.Table.
12 .5.is.used.to.assess.the.weighting.factor ..When.a.situation.is.classified.in.cat-
egories.D.through.I,.the.age.of.the.subjects.(or.occupants).is.used.—in.combi-
nation.with.speed.of.activity,.desired.accuracy.of.the.task,.and.reflectance.level.
(%).—to.determine.the.aggregate.weighting.factor ..If.the.aggregate.weighting.
factor.is.+2.or.+3,.high.illuminance.number.is.selected.from.Table.12 .3 ..If.the.
aggregate.weighting.factor.is.-2.or.-3,.Low.illuminance.number.is.selected ..For.
aggregate. scores. of. -1,. 0. and. +1,. middle. illuminance. value. is. selected ..This.
method. for. determination. of. recommended. illuminance. level. based. on. age,.
nature.of.activity.and.reflectance.factors.is.illustrated.through.example.12 .5 .

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374 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Table 12 5:. IESNA. illumination. level. weighting. guidelines,. categories. D.

through.I .

Example 12 5:
. An.upscale.custom.watch-maker.needs.to.assess.the.minimum.illumina-
tion.level.in.the.final.assembly.room.of.its.facility ..The.mean.age.of.the.crafts-
men.in.this.room.is.56 ..The.craftsmen.are.expected.to.work.an.average.of.10.
hours.per.day ..The.accuracy.of.the.task.is.critical ..The.walls.and.the.ceilings.
offer.a.measured.reflectance.40% ..Calculate.the.required.illumination.level .

Solution
. Upon.examination.of.Table.12 .3, the.most.suitable.classification.of.this.
task. would. be. Category-G, which. entails. “Visual tasks involving low con-
trast or very small size, over a prolonged period .”
. As.explained.earlier,.weighting.factors.for.categories.D.through.I.are.as-
sessed.in.accordance.with.Table.12 .5 .

•. From.Table.12 .5,.the.weighting.factor.associated.with.age 56.and.over.is.

+1 .

•. Since.accuracy.is.critical.in.the.watch.assembly.task,.the.weighting.fac-
tor.for.this.task.attribute.would.be.+1,.as.well .

•. The.reflectance.is.given.as.40%,.therefore,.the.weighting.factor.contri-
bution.in.this.category,.in.accordance.with.Table.12 .5,.would.be.0 .

•. The.total.weighting.factor.for.this.scenario.is.=.+1.+1.+.(0).=.+2 .

. According. to. the. rules. stated. earlier,. and. the. illuminance. ranges. stated.
in.Table.12 .3,.the.aggregate.weighting.factor.of.“+2”.would.point.to.the.use.

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 375

of.High.lux.or.lumen.value.under.category.G ..The.illumination.range.for.Cat-
egory.G is.2000.–.3000.–.5000.lux,.or.200.–.300.–.500.fc ..The.highest.illumi-
nation.level.in.Category.G.is.5000.lux.or.500.fc ..Therefore,.the.recommended.
illuminance.level.in.this.watch.assembly.room.is.5000 lux or 500 fc
. When. the. nature. of. activity. being. conducted. in. a. specific. illuminated.
space. is. well. defined. but. other. attributes. such. as. age,. speed. of. activity,. size.
of.work.elements,.contrast.and.reflectance.levels.are.not.well.defined.and.can.
safely. be. assumed. to. be. mid-range,. the. process. of. determining. the. illumina-
tion.level.can.be.simplified.through.the.use.of.Table.12 .6,.below ..This.table.is.
a.simplified.derivative.of.Table.12 .3 ..Table.12 .6.is.derived.from.Table.12 .3.by.
assuming.that.all.weighting.factor.defining.attributes.are.mid-range ..This.as-
sumption.yields.total.weighting.factor.for.each.category.to.be.zero,.which.in.
turn.results.in.selection.of.mid-range.illumination.level.for.each.category .

Alternative, Rae Method

. An.alternative.to.the.IESNA.method.is.the.Rae.Method,.named.after.M ..
S ..Rae,.who.first.introduced.this.approach.in.1988 ..The.Rae.method.results.in.
target.illumination.levels.comparable.to.the.ones.derived.through.the.IESNA.
method .

Table 12 6:. Illumination. level. guidelines. for. important tasks. performed. by.
40- to 55-year-old.individuals.with.30-70% task background reflectance

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376 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

lambert’s law
. Lamberts.law,.also.called.the.cosine law,.establishes.the.relationship.be-
tween.the.illuminance.on.a.surface,.or.target,.the.illuminance.at.the.source,.and.
the.angle.“θ”.the.inclined.source.radiation.(light).portends.with.respect.to.the.
target.surface’s.normal.vector ..Where,.normal.vector.would.be.defined.as.a.unit.
vector.that.is.perpendicular.to.the.target.surface .

Figure 12 1:.Illustration.of.Lambert’s.Law

. Figure.12 .1.illustrates.a.scenario.where.light.travelling.from.a.source,.at.a.
luminous.level.of.E1,.falls.on.a.target.area.that.lies.at.an.angle.θ.with.respect.to.
the.inclined.path.of.the.light ..In.such.a.case,.Lambert’s.law.could.be.interpreted.
to.state.that.the.illuminance.on.any.surface.varies.as.the.cosine.of.the.angle.of.
incidence,.θ ..Therefore,.Lambert’s.Law,.can.be.stated,.mathematically,.as:

E2 = E1Cosθ Eq 12 5
Where,
E1 =. Illuminance.at.the.source.or.at.a.specified.point.along.the.path.of.the.
light .
E2 =. Illuminance,.at.a.point.on.a.surface,.whose.normal.vector.portends.an.
angle.θ.with.respect.to.the.inclined.path.of.the.light.from.the.light.
source .

Notice. that. according. to. Lambert’s. Law,. and. Eq 12 5,. if. the. light. source. is.
directly.above,.perpendicular,.or.orthogonal.to.the.target.surface,.θ, would.be.
“0,”.and

. E2 = E1Cos θ = E1Cos (0) = E1

Or,
E2 = E1

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 377

illuminanCe inVerse square law

. Within.the.realm.of.physics,.inverse.square.law.defines.the.relationship.
of.extending.force.or.radiating.energy.to.the.distance ..In.illumination.domain,.
inverse.square.law.stipulates.the.relationship.between.illuminance,.illuminance.
intensity,.and.the.distance ..Illuminance.on.a.surface.varies.in.accordance.with.
the. illuminance. inverse square law In. other. words,. according. the. inverse.
square.law,.Illuminance.is.inversely.proportional.to.the.distance.between.the.
source.and.the.surface ..This.law.can.be.stated,.mathematically,.as.follows:

. . I
. Iluminance,.in.lx.=.E.=.—. Eq 12 6
. . d2

Where,
E. =. Illuminance.expressed.in.lx,.or.lux
I. =. Illuminance.intensity.expressed.in.cd,.candela
d. =. Distance.between.the.luminaire.and.the.surface.being.illuminated,.mea-
sured.in.“m”.or.meters .

Figure 12 2:.Illustration.of.the.Inverse.Square.Law

. The.inverse.square.law.applies.only.to.situations.where.the.distance.d.is.
at.least.five.times.the.max.dimension.of.the.light.source ..The.inverse.square.law.
can.be.illustrated.graphically.as.shown.in.Figure.12 .2 ..Eq ..12 .7.is.an.extension.
of.Eq ..12 .6.and.it.can.be.used.to.assess.the.illumination.contribution,.by.the.
same.source.at.multiple.points.along.the.work.surface .

. Elrl2.=.E2r22. Eq 12 7

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378 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Where,
E1.=. Illuminance,.in.lx.or.cd,.due.to.the.source.at.a.distance.r1 .
E2.=. Illuminance,.in.lx.or.cd,.due.to.the.source.at.a.distance.r2 .

Example 12 6:
. Consider. the. scenario. depicted. in. Example. 12 .2. and. assume. that. the.
manufacturer’s. specifications. show. tested. illuminance. of. the. lamp,. at. 1 .0. m.
(3 .28.ft),.to.be.900.lx ..Determine.the.amount.of.illuminance,.E,.at.the.top.of.the.
desk.surface .

Solution
. Apply.the.single.source.special.case.interpretation.of.the.inverse.square.
law.in.form.of.Eq ..12 .7:

. Elrl2.=.E2r22

In.this.case,
E1 = 900.lx
r1 = 1 .0.m
r2 = 4 57 m
E2 = ?

Then,.by.rearranging.Eq ..12 .7:

illuminanCe Cosine-Cubed law

. The. illuminance. cosine-cubed. law. can. be. viewed. as. a. combination. of.
the.Lambert’s.law.and.the.inverse.square.law ..As.described.earlier,.Lamberts.
law,.also.referred.to.as.the.cosine law,.establishes.the.relationship.between.the.
illuminance.on.a.surface,.or.target,.the.illuminance.at.the.source,.and.the.angle.

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 379

“θ”.the.inclined.source.radiation.(light).portends.with.respect.to.the.target.sur-
face’s.normal.vector ..Equation 12 .5.is.the.mathematical.representation.of.this.
law ..On.the.other.hand,.the.inverse.square.stipulates.the.relationship.between.
illuminance.and.the.target.distance ..Mathematical.representation.of.this.inverse.
square.law is.embodied.in.the.form.of.Eq ..12 .6
Combination. of. these. laws,. and. their. respective. equations,. yields. Eq
12 8, which.is.a.mathematical.representation.of.the.cosine-cubed.law ..In.order.
to.facilitate.a.comparison.of.these.laws,.their.respective.equations.are.restated.
below .

E2 = E1Cosθ Eq 12 5

. . I
. Illuminance,.in.lx.=.E.=. —. Eq 12 6
. . d2

Combination.of.Eqs ..12 .5.and.12 .6.yields

. . I
. Illuminance.=.E.=. —. Cosθ. Eq 12 8
. . d2

When.light.is.radiating.toward.a.target.at.an.angle.of.inclination.θ, the.geom-
etry.of.its.path.can.be.portrayed.as.shown.in.Figure.12 .3 .

Figure 12 3:.Geometry.of.the.inclined.light.path

Substitution.of.d = h/cosθ, from.Figure.12 .3.into.Eq ..12 .8,.yields.Eq ..12 .9,.or.

the.cosine-cubed law:

. . I
. Illuminance.=.E.=. —. Cos3θ. Eq 12 9
. . h2

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380 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Example 12 7:
. Proposed.layout.of.the.lighting.system.for.a.work.space.is.depicted.in.the.
figure.below ..The.luminous.intensity,.I,.for.lamps.X,.Y.and.Z.is.450.cd ..Deter-
mine.the.following:

a). Illuminance.EZ-C,.at.point.C,.due.to.light.source.Z .
b). Illuminance.EZ-B,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.source.Z .

Solution
a). There.are.multiple.alternative.methods.for.solving.this.problem ..One.ap-
proach.is.to.simply.apply.the.cosine-cubed.law ..Since.point.C.lies.directly.
below.source.Z,.angle.θ.=.0 ..Apply.Eq ..12 .8:

. . I
. Illuminance.=.E.=. —. Cos3q Eq 12 9
. . h2

b). In.this.case,.the.angle.of.the.angle.of.the.light.path.under.consideration.
is.not.zero ..Therefore,.before.the.law.of.cubed.cosine.can.be.applied,.the.
angle.θ.must.be.determined .
. . Applying.Pythagorean.theorem.to.the.triangle.ZBC:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 381

lighting design Considerations

. Lighting. system. design. is. driven. primarily. by. the. illuminance. require-
ment.at.the.point.of.interest ..Factors.that.must.be.considered.in.lighting.design.
are.as.follows:

•. Type.of.light.source
•. Nature.of.task,.or.tasks,.being.performed
•. Illuminance.contributed.by.direct.light
•. Illuminance.contributed.by.reflected.light
•. Illuminance.contribution.by.delighting.measures,.when.lumen.method.is.
used
•. Interior.only.light.when.zonal.cavity.method.is.used

daylight based design Considerations

. As.implied.in.the.list.of.factors.above,.lighting.systems.design.varies.de-
pending.on.the.lighting.approach.employed ..When.daylight.is.included.among.
the.light.sources.in.a.lighting.system,.the.following.points.must.be.noted:

• Daylight. consists. of. unique. spectra. and. light-level. distributions .. This.

distinguishes. the. characteristics. and. performance. of. daylight. from. those.
exhibited.by.artificial.light.sources .

• Daylight.varies.seasonally

• Standard.power.distributions.of.daylight,.allow.illuminance.from.the.sun.
to.be.determined.by.factoring.in.the.following.factors:
—. Site.location
—. Time.of.desired.illumination
—. Solar.position
—. Skylight

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382 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

—. Ground.light.contributions
—. Human.response.factors

Daylight Factor Method

. The.daylight.factor.method.is.used.with.known.illuminance.distributions ..
These.distributions.include.the.standard.three.daylight.illuminations ..The.data.
for.calculating.the.illuminance.is.given.in.a.tabular.format ..The.daylight.factor,.
DF,.is.a.ratio.of.the.illuminance.at.a.point.to.the.illuminance.from.the.unob-
structed. sky ..This. definition. of. daylight. factor,. DF,. can. be. stated. mathemati-
cally.as.follows:

. . Ex
. DF.=. —. Eq 12 10
. . Es

Where,
. Ex. =. Illuminance.at.a.point.x
. Es. =. Illuminance.from.the.unobstructed.sky.or.another.light.source

. Daylight.factor.can.also.be.defined.as.the.sum.of.sky.component,.exter-
nally.reflected.illuminance,.and.internally.reflected.illuminance ..This.definition.
of.daylight.factor.can.be.stated.in.form.of.an.Eq ..as.follows:

DF.=.SC.+.ERC.+.IRC Eq 12 11

Where,
SC. =. Sky.Component
ERC =. Externally. reflected. component,. in. lumens,. emitted. by. each. light.
source
IRC =. Internally.reflected.illuminance.component .

. Eq .. 12 .11. can. be. used. to. compute. the. DF. value. for. a. daylight. system ..
The.DF.value.thus.defined.can.be.substituted.in.Eq ..12 .10,.in.conjunction.with.
known.source.illuminance.value.Es,.to.determine.the.estimated.illuminance,.Ex,.
at.specific.point.x .

The Lumen Method

. The. lumen. method. accounts. for. total. lumens. projected. by. a. luminaire,.
derated.by.the.coefficient.of.utilization.factor,.CU,.for.a.specific.lighting.sce-
nario ..The.CU.factor.accounts.for.the.following.lighting.system.parameters:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 383

•. Efficiency.of.the.luminaire
•. Distribution.of.light.or.shape.of.the.light.distribution.area
•. Reflective.properties.of.the.space

. . (LTotal) .(CU)
. Ei.=. —————. Eq 12 12
. . AW

Where,
Ei. =. Initial,.unmitigated,.illuminance.in.the.work.plane .
LTotal. =. Total.illuminance.emitted.by.the.light.source;.based.on.manufac-
turer’s.specs .
Aw. =. Area.in.the.work.plane.to.be.lit
CU =. Coefficient.of.utilization;.either.given.or.computed.using.the.zonal.
method.described.below .

. As.a.light.source.ages,.it.experiences.a.loss.in.its.luminance.due.to.vari-
ous.factors,.including.dirt.accumulation.on.the.lamp,.lens,.reflector,.etc ..Such.
degradation.in.the.illuminance.is.accounted.through.computation.of.maintained.
illuminance,.Em.as.shown.in.Eq ..12 .13 .

. . (LT) .(CU) .(LLF)

. Maintained.Illuminance.=.EM.=.———————. Eq 12 13
. . AW
Where,
LT =. Lumens.(initial).emitted.by.the.light.source
CU. =. Coefficient.of.utilization
LLF. =. Light.loss.factor.used.to.derate.the.initial.illuminance
AW. =. Area,.in.the.work.plane,.to.be.illuminated

. When.a.lighting.system.consists.of.multiple.lamps.or.light.sources,.the.
maintained.illuminance.can.be.computed.through.Eq ..12 .14,.below .

. . (NT) .(LE/L) .(CU) .(LLF)

. Maintained.Illuminance.=.EM.=. ———————. Eq 12 14
. . AW

Where,
NL. =. The.number.of.lights.or.lamps
LE/L. =. Lumens.emitted.by.each.light.source.or.lamp

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384 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

CU. =. Coefficient.of.utilization.for.the.lighting.system
LLF. =. Light.loss.factor
AW. =. Area,.in.the.work.plane,.to.be.illuminated

. There.are.various.methods.for.determining,.accessing.or.computing.the.
CU.values.for.specific.lighting.system.scenarios ..A.thorough.discussion.of.CU.
computation.methods.is.beyond.the.scope.of.this.text ..Use.of.tables.to.identify.
the.CU.value.for.particular.situations.is.illustrated.through.Example.12 .8 ..This.
example.utilizes.Table.12 .7 .

Table 12 7:.Coefficient.of.utilization

. When.using.Table.12 .7.for.determination.of.CU,.certain.parameters.are.
expected.to.be.known.or.available ..These.parameters.include.(1).reflectance.of.
the.ceiling.or.floor,.commonly.referred.to.as.the.base.reflectances,.(2).the.wall.
reflectance,.and.(3).cavity.ratio .

Example 12 8:
. Determine.the.CU,.coefficient.of.utilization,.for.a.lighting.scenario.where.
the.wall.reflectance.is.known.to.be.50%,.the.base.(ceiling.or.floor).reflectance.
is.estimated.to.be.90%,.and.the.cavity.ratio.is.0 .6 .

Solution
. Identify.the.column.in.Table.12 .7.that.represents.the.given.wall.reflec-
tance.of.50%.and.base.reflectance.of.90% ..Then,.identify.the.row.in.the.table.
that. represents. the. given. cavity. ratio. of. 0 .6 .. The. CU. value. for. this. lighting.
scenario.would.be.represented.by.the.table.entry.that.lies.at.the.point.of.inter-
section.of.the.identified.column.and.row.as.shown.below ..This.entry.is.80% ..
Therefore,.the.CU.value.for.this.scenario.would.be.82% .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 385

Chapter 12—Self-assessment Problems and Questions

1 .. Consider. the. lighting. scenario. described. in. Example. 12 .1 .. Determine.

the.impact.on.the.luminous.flux.at.the.1.m.circular.target.if.the.distance.
increased.to.10.m ..See.the.diagram.below .

2 .. A.180W.low.pressure.sodium.vapor.lamp.is.being.used.to.illuminate.an.
exterior.space ..Determine.the.luminous.flux.that.would.be.emitted.by.this.
lamp .

3 .. Consider. the. scenario. depicted. in. Example. 12 .2. and. assume. that. the.
manufacturer’s.specifications.show.tested.illuminance.of.the.lamp,.at.3 .0.
ft,. to. be. 1000. lx .. Determine. the. amount. of. illuminance,. E,. at. the. floor.
elevation,.directly.below.the.lamp .

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386 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

4 .. Consider. the. situation. stated. in. Example. 12 .7 .. Proposed. layout. of. the.
lighting.system.for.the.work.space.is.shown.below ..The.luminous.inten-
sity,.I,.for.lamp.Y.is.700.cd ..The.luminous.intensity.for.lamps.X.and.Z.is.
600.cd ..Determine.the.following:

a). Illuminance.EY-B,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.source.Y .
b). Total.Illuminance,.EB,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.sources.X,.Y.and.Z .

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Appendices

Appendix A
. This.appendix.includes.the.solutions.and.answers.to.end.of.chapter.self-
assessment.problems.and.questions .

ChaPter 1—solutions

1 .. In.an.AC.system,.a.voltage.source.V(t) = 120Sin(377t + 0°).volts,.rms,.sets.

up.a.current.of.I(t) = 5Sin(377t + 45°) amps,.rms ..Calculate.the.maximum.values.
of.voltage.and.current.in.this.case .

Solution
According.the.Eq ..1 .2:

2 . A.phase.conductor.of.a.transmission.line.is.one.mile.long.and.has.a.diameter.
of. 1 .5. inch ..The. conductor. is. composed. of. aluminum .. Calculate. the. electrical.
resistance.of.this.conductor .

Solution
Solution. Strategy:. Since. the. resistivity. value. of. aluminum,. as. stated. in.
Chapter.1,.is.in.metric.or.SI.unit.system,.the.length.and.diameter.specifications.
stated.in.this.problem.must.be.streamlined.in.metric.units.before.application.of.
Eq ..1 .9.for.determination.of.resistance.in.Ohms.(Ωs) .

387

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388 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

L.=.1.mile.=.1,609.m
Diameter.=.1 .5.inch.=.0 .0381m;.∴R.=.Radius.=.D/2.=.0 .019.m
A.=.Area.of.cross-section.=.π R2.=.(3 .14) .(0 .019).2.=.0 .00113m2
ρaluminum.=.28 .2.n.Ωm.=.28 .2x10-9.Ωm;.given.in.Chapter.1

. . L
. R.=.r ..—. Eq 1 9
. . A
. .

3 .. What.is.the.resistance.of.the.following.circuit.as.seen.from.the.battery?

Solution
No.current.will.flow.through.the.two.4.Ω.resistors,.the.two.3.Ω.resistors,.
or. the. 7. Ω. resistor .. The. current. finds. the. path. of. least. resistance. through. the.
highlighted.short.circuit.segment.of.the.circuit ..Therefore,.the.circuit.reduces.to.
one.6.Ω.in.series.with.two.12.Ω.in.parallel .

4 .. Consider.the.RC.circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below ..The.source.voltage.is.
12V ..The.capacitor.voltage.is.2V.before.the.switch.is.closed ..The.switch.is.closed.
at.t.=.0 ..What.would.the.capacitor.voltage.be.at.t.=.5.sec?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 389

Solution
This. particular. case. represents. a. capacitor. charging. scenario .. Given. the.
value.of.R, C,.vc(0).and.the.source.voltage.V,.Equation.1 .18.allows.us.to.calculate.
the.voltage.after.and.elapsed.time.“t,”.during.the.capacitor.charging.phase .

. . Eq 1 18

Given:
R. =. 1.MΩ.=.1,000,000.
. C. =. 5µF.=.5x10-6F
vc(0). =. 2.V.=.Voltage.across.the.capacitor.at.t.=.0
vc(t) = Voltage.across.the.capacitor,.at.a.given.time t = ?
V = Voltage.of.the.power.source.=.12V
t = 5.sec
τ = RC circuit.time.constant.= R.C
=.(1,000,000)(5x10-6).=.5.sec

Substitute.the.given.and.derived.values.in.Eq ..1 .18:

5 .. Determine. the. equivalent. capacitance. for. the. DC. circuit. shown. in. the.
circuit.diagram.below.if.C1.=.5µF.and.C2.=.10µF .

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390 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution
Application. of. Eq .. 1 .21. to. the. two. capacitor. series. circuit. shown. in. the.
given.circuit.diagram.yields:

6 .. Determine.the.equivalent.capacitance.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.
this.circuit.consists.of.twenty.100µF.capacitors.in.series .

Solution
Apply.Eq ..1 .22.to.“n”.series.capacitor.circuit.shown.in.diagram:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 391

7 Determine. the. equivalent. capacitance. in. series. and. parallel. combination.

circuit.shown.below ..The.capacitance.values.are:.C1.=.10µF,.C2.=.10µF,.C3.=.
20µF,.C4.=.20µF .

Solution
The.capacitors.in.this.circuit.that.lend.themselves.to.linear.combination.are.
C3.and.C4 ..Therefore,.the.combined.capacitance,.C34,.would.be:

. C34.=.C3.+.C4.=.20µF.+.20µF.=.40µF

Then,.by.applying.Eq ..1 .24.to.this.special.hybrid.capacitor.combination.case:

8 .. Assume. that. the. circuit. in. problem. 6. is. powered. by. a. 60. Hz.AC. source.
instead.of.the.DC.source ..Determine.the.total.capacitive.reactance,.Xc,.seen.by.
the.AC.source .

Solution
If.the.DC.source.is.replaced.by.an.AC.source,.the.circuit.would.appear.as.
follows:

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392 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

As.computed.in.problem.6,.the.combined.or.net.capacitance.contributed.to.the.
circuit.by.the.parallel.and.series.network.of.capacitors.is.CEQ.=.4 .44µF ..Then,.by.
applying.Eq ..1 .26:

Where,
. f.=.frequency.=.60.Hz
. CEQ.=.4 .44µF

9 .. Consider. the. series. RL. circuit. shown. in. the. diagram. below .. The. source.
voltage.is.12V,.R.=.10Ω.and.L.=.10mH ..The.switch.is.closed.at.t.=.0 ..What.would.
be.magnitude.of.current.flowing.through.this.circuit.at.t.=.2ms?

Solution
In. most. series. RL. cases,. the. current. value. at. a. certain. time. “t”. can. be.
predicted.through.Eq 1 31 .

Given:
. t.=.2.x.10-3s
. L.=.10.x.10-3H
. R.=.10Ω
. V.=.12.V
. i(0).. =. 0

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 393

10 .. Consider.the.series.RL.circuit.given.in.problem.9,.in.discharge.mode,.with.
voltage. source. removed .. Parameters. such. as. R. =. 10Ω. and. L. =. 10mH,. are. the.
same ..The.switch.has.been.closed.for.long.period.of.time,.such.that.the.current.
has. developed. to. the. maximum. or. steady. state. level. 1 .04.A .. How. much. time.
would.need.to.elapse.for.the.current.to.drop.to.0 .5.A.after.the.switch.is.opened .

Solution
Apply.series.RL.current.equation,.Eq 1 31 .

Given:
. t. =.?
. L. =.10.x.10-3H
. R. =.10Ω
. V. =.0
. i(0). =.1 .04A
. iL(t). =.0 .5A

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394 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

11 .. Determine. the. equivalent. inductance. LEQ. for. three. parallel. inductor. DC.
circuit.shown.in.the.diagram.below.if.L1.=.2mH,.and.L2.=.5mH.and.L3=.20mH .

Solution
Apply.Eq ..1 .36.to.compute.LEQ.for.the.three.parallel.inductor.circuit .

12 .. Calculate.the.net.or.total.inductance.as.seen.from.the.24V.source.vantage.
point.in.the.circuit.shown.below .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 395

Solution
Focus.on.the.parallel.combination.of.L2, L3, and L4,.first ..Apply.Eq ..1 .36.
to.calculate.the.equivalent.inductance.L234.for.the.three.parallel.inductors:

This.reduces.the.circuit.as.shown.below:

Inductors. L1. and. L234,. in. this. reduced. circuit,. lend. themselves. to. a. linear.
combination ..Therefore,.the.equivalent.inductance.LEQ for.the.entire.parallel.and.
series.inductor.hybrid.circuit.would.be:

LEQ = L1 + L234 = 10H +9 23H = 19 23 H

13 .. Assume.that.the.circuit.in.Problem.12.is.powered.by.a.60.Hz.AC.source ..
Calculate.the.inductive.reactance,.XL,.as.seen.by.the.AC.voltage.source .

Solution
If.the.DC.source.is.replaced.by.an.AC.source,.the.circuit.would.appear.as.
follows:

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396 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

LEQ,. as. seen. by. the.AC. voltage. source,. is. shown. in. the. simplified. equivalent.
circuit.below:

As.computed.in.Problem.12,.the.combined.or.net.inductance.contributed.to.the.
circuit.by.the.parallel.and.series.network.of.inductors.is.LEQ.=.19 .23.mH ..Then,.
by.applying.Eq ..1 .37,.the.inductive.reactance,.XL-EQ.as.seen.by.the.AC.voltage.
source.VAC,.would.be:

XL-EQ = ω L = (2πf) LEQ

= 2(3 14)(60Hz)(19 23mH)
= 7 25 Ω

ChaPter 2—solutions

1 .. Determine.the.following.for.the.DC.circuit.shown.below.if.R1.=.5Ω,.R2.=.
R3=10Ω,.and.R4.=.R5.=.20:
. a). Current.flowing.through.resistor.R1
. b). Voltage.across.resistor.R5

Solution
a).Req was.derived.in.Example.1 .2.as.follows:
Combination.of.R2.and.R4.=.R2,4.=.R2.+.R4.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω
Combination.of.R3.and.R5.=.R3,5.=.R3.+.R5.=.10Ω.+.20Ω.=.30Ω

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 397

Combination.of.R2,4.and.R3,5.=

Req.=.R1.+.R.2-5.=.5Ω.+.15Ω.=.20Ω

Current.through.R1.would.be.the.same.as.the.current.through.the.12V.supply:

b).One.method.for.determining.VR5,.voltage.across.R5,.is.to.first.calculate.VR2-
5,.the.voltage.across.the.combined.resistance.of.resistances.R2,.R3,.R4,.and.R5 ..
Then,.by.applying.voltage.division,.calculate.VR5:

According.to.Ohm’s.law:
. VR2-5.=.I .(R2-5).=.(0 .6A) .(15Ω).=.9V

Then,.by.applying.the.voltage.division.rule:

2 What.is.the.current.through.the.6.Ω.resistor?

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398 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution
Simplify.the.circuit .
. 3.Ω.in.parallel.with.6.Ω.=.2.Ω
. 2.Ω.in.series.with.4.Ω.=.6.Ω

3 ..Find.the.current.through.the.0 .5.Ω.resistor .

Solution
The. voltage. sources. around. the. left. loop. are. equal. to. the. voltage. drops.
across.the.resistances .
. 20.V.–.19.V.=.0 .25.Ω.i1.+.0 .4.Ω.(i1.–.i2)

The.same.is.true.for.the.right.loop .
. 19.V.=.0 .4.Ω.(i2.–.i1).+.0 .5.Ω.i2

Solve. two. equations. and. for. two. unknowns,. using. the. simultaneous. equation.
method:
. 0 .65.Ω.i1.–.0 .4.Ω.i2.=.1.V
. –0 .4.Ω.i1.+.0 .9.Ω.i2.=.19.V
. i1.=.20.A
. i2.=.30.A
The.current.through.the.0 .5Ω.resistor.is.30A .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 399

4 .. Determine. the. value. of. currents. I1,. I2. and. I3. in. the. circuit. shown. below.
if. the. voltage. source. V3. fails. in. short. circuit. mode .. The. specifications. of. all.
components.are.listed.in.the.table.below:

Solution
Two.noteworthy.observations.are.in.order.before.formulation.of.the.three.
equations.Necessary.for.the.derivation.of.the.three.unknown.currents:

(1). Even.though.the.stated.value.of.voltage.for.source.V3.is.12V,.the.value.used.
in.the.formulation.of.second.and.third.loop.equations.would.be.0V.because,.in.
this.scenario,.voltage.source.V3.is.assumed.to.have.failed.in.short.circuit.mode .

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400 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

(2). As.a.matter.of.simplification,.series.resistors.R2.and.R7.are.combined.into.
one.resistor.R2-7

. R2-7.=.R2.+.R7.=.2Ω.+.5Ω.=.7Ω

The.revised,.simplified,.would.then.be:

The.three.simultaneous.equations.derived.by.applying.KVL.to.loops.1,.2.and.3,.
as.described.in.Example.2 .5,.are:

21I1 + 7I2 - 4I3 = 20

7I1 + 13I2 + 3I3 = 5
- 4 I1 + 3I2 + 14 I3 = 0

As. in. Example. 2 .5,. apply. the. Cramer’s. rule. to. solve. for. the. three. unknown.
currents.I1,.I2.and.I3 ..The.augmented.matrix.thus.developed.would.be:

The.coefficient.matrix,.denoted.as.A,.would.be:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 401

The.determinant.of.the.coefficient.matrix,.denoted.as.|A|,.would.be:

|A| = 21{(13x14).-.(3x3)}.–.7{(7x14).-.(-4x3)}.-.4{(7x3).-.(4x13)}.=.2571

The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A1,.for.determining.the.value.of.I1,.
is.denoted.as.|A1|,.and

|A1| = 20{(13x14).-.(3x3)}.–.7{(5x14).-.(0x3)}.-.4{(5x3).-.(0x13)}.=.2910

The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A2,.for.determining.the.value.of.I2,.
is.denoted.as.|A2|,.and

|A2| = 21{(5x14).-.(0x3)}.–.20{(7x14).-.(-4x3)}.-.4{(7x0).-.(-4x5)}.=.-810

The.determinant.of.the.substitutional.matrix,.A3,.for.determining.the.value.of.I3,.
is.denoted.as.|A3|,.and

|A3| = 21{(13x0).-.(3x5)}.–.7{(7x0).-.(5x-4)}.+.20{(7x3).-.(-4x13)}.=.1005

Applying.the.Cramer’s.rule,.the.unknown.variables,.currents.I1, I2.and.I3,.can.be.
calculated.by.dividing.the.determinants.of.substitutional.matrices.A1,.A2.and.A3,.
respectively,.by.the.determinant.of.the.coefficient.matrix.A .

Therefore,

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402 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Note: The. negative. sign. for. I2 indicates. that. the. counterclockwise. direction.
assumed.for.this.current.is.incorrect.and.that.the.correct.direction.of.the.flow.of.
current.in.loop.2.is.clockwise .

5 Use.current.division.to.determine.the.value.of.current.I1.in.the.circuit.below:

Solution
We. must. to. determine. the. value. of. source. current. I, first .. In. order. to.
determine. the. value. of. current. I. flowing. through. the. source. and. the. two. 5Ω.
resistors,.we.must.consolidate.all.resistors.into.an.equivalent.resistance.REQ.and.
then.apply.the.Ohm’s.law .

Apply.current.division.formula.in.form.of.Eq 2 7

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 403

6 .. Using. Kirchhoff’s. Voltage. Law,. calculate. the. current. circulating. in. the.
series.resistor.network.below:

Solution
This.problem.is.similar.to.the.Example.2 .2,.with.following.exceptions:

1). The. two. voltage. sources. are. driving. the. current. the. same. direction,. i .e .,.
clockwise .
2). There.are.four.resistors.in.series.instead.of.three .

Using.the.strategy.described.in.Example.2 .2.and.preparing.the.circuit.for.KVL.
application,.the.circuit.would.appear.as.follows:

Apply. the. Ohm’s. law. to. define. the. voltages,. or. voltage. drops,. across. the. four.
resistors .. Note:. since. all. four. of. the. resistors. are. in. series,. we. could. combine.
them. into. a. single. REQ. before. applying. KVL .. However,. in. this. case. we. will.
keep.resistors.separate.just.to.maintain.consistency.with.the.approach.adopted.
in.Example.2 .2 .

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404 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

With. all. voltages—voltage. source,. voltage. load. and. voltage. drops. across. the.
resistors—identified. and. their. polarities. noted,. apply. KVL. by. “walking”. the.
annotated.circuit.beginning.at.the.cathode.or.negative.electrode.of.the.voltage.
source,.V1s ..Add.all.voltages,.with.respective.polarities,.as.you.make.a.complete.
circle.around.the.circuit,.in.the.clockwise.direction .

Ancillary exercise:.Verify.the.derived.value.of.current.through.the.alternative,.
REQ.and.the.Ohm’s.law.method,.as.illustrated.in.Approach.1.of.the.solution.for.
Example.2 .2 .

7 .. Determine.the.value.of.voltage.source.current.in.the.parallel.circuit.below.
using.KCL,.Kirchhoff’s.Current.Law .
Ancillary question:.If.one.of.the.5Ω.resistors.is.removed.(or.replaced.with.an.
open.circuit).and.the.other.one.is.replaced.with.a.short.circuit,.what.would.be.the.
source.current?

Solution
KCL.is.applied.to.the.given.circuit.after.the.node.has.been.identified,.circuit.
has. been. annotated. with. voltage. designation,. voltage. polarity,. branch. currents.
and.current.directions ..See.circuit.diagram.below:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 405

Subscribing.to.the.definition.of.a.node.as.a.point.where.three.or.more.conductors.
merge,.the.shaded.segment.in.the.diagram.above.is.designated.as.the.node.for.this.
circuit ..Then,.before.applying.KCL.to.determine.the.source.current—using.the.
Ohm’s.law—define.the.individual.currents.through.each.of.the.resistors,.in.terms.
of.the.specific.resistance.values.and.the.voltages.around.them:

Since.all.of.the.resistors.are.in.parallel.with.the.voltage.source,

. V1.=.V2.=.V3.=.V4.=.Vs.=.20V

Therefore,

Then,.application.of.KCL.at.the.designated.node.yields.the.following.equation:

. I.=.I1.+.I2.+.I3.+.I4
Or,
. I.=.4A.+.6 .67A.+.2A.+.4A.=.16 .67A

Ancillary Question:.If.one.of.the.5Ω.resistors.is.open-circuited.and.the.other.one.
short-circuited,.the.parallel.resistor.network.would.appear.as.follows:

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406 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

The. highlighted. segment. in. the. circuit. above. represents. the. short. circuit. that.
replaces.R1 ..Since.R1.is.replaced.by.a.short.circuit—regardless.of.the.disposition.
of. other. circuit. elements—it. becomes. a. path of least resistance. for. the. entire.
circuit ..In.other.words,.the.voltage.source.is.short-circuited ..Interpreted.in.terms.
of.the.Ohm’s.law,.this.would.mean:

. . Vs
. I.=. ——. =.∞. .
. . 0

Since. infinite. current. is. not. practical,. this. means. that. a. very. large. amount. of.
current.would.pass.through.the.shunt.or.short.circuit.resulting.in.a.catastrophic.
failure.(burning.or.melting).of.the.short.circuiting.conductor,.the.interconnecting.
wires.or.a.fault.in.the.voltage.source .

ChaPter 3—solutions

1 .. A.plating.tank.with.an.effective.resistance.of.100.Ohm.is.connected.to.the.
output. of. a. full-wave. rectifier ..The.AC. supply. voltage. is. 340Vpeak .. Determine.
the.amount.of.time,.in.hours,.it.would.take.to.perform.0 .075.faradays.worth.of.
electroplating?
Solution
Therefore,. the. amount. of. charge. transfer,. in. Coulombs,. in. this. electro.
deposition.case,.would.be:

As.explained.in.Example.3 .1,.we.are.interested.in.the.amount.of.time.it.takes.to.
transfer.a.known.amount.of.charge,.so,.rearrangement.of.Eq ..3 .1.results.in:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 407

. . q
. t.=. —
. . I

The.next.step.entails.determination.of.the.DC.voltage.and.current.produced.by.
the.full.wave.rectification.of.340.Vpeak.AC;.which.is.the.same.as.340Vmax .

Eq 3 2

And,

Eq 3 4

Then,.application.of.Eq ..3 .1.yields:

2 .. Determine.the.source.current.Irms.in.the.AC.circuit.below .

Solution
Solution. strategy:. Convert. the. given. inductance. value. of. L. =. 4. mH. into.
its.equivalent.inductive.reactance.XL ..Convert.the.given.capacitance.value.C.=.
800µF.into.its.equivalent.capacitive.reactance.XC ..Convert.the.given.“black.box”.
impedance.of.Z=10∠45°.into.the.rectangular.form ..Combine.R, XL, XC and.Z,
linearly,.to.determine.ZEQ ..Then.apply.Ohm’s.Law.to.calculate.the.source.current.

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408 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

I ..Note.that.the.given.polar.version.of.the.“black.box”.impedance.Z=10∠45°Ω.
can. be. converted. into. the. equivalent. rectangular. form. through. Pythagorean.
Theorem,.as.explained.in.this.chapter,.or.through.a.scientific.calculator.to:

Current “I” calculation:

3 .. Calculate. the. impedance. ZEQ. as. seen. by. the. AC. voltage. source. in. the.
circuit.below:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 409

Solution
Solution.strategy:.Convert.the.given.inductance.value.of.L1.=.10.mH.into.
its.equivalent.inductive.reactance.XL ..Convert.the.given.capacitance.value.C1.=.
10µF.into.its.equivalent.capacitive.reactance.XC ..Combine.the.load.elements.in.
each.of.the.two.parallel.branch.circuits.into.a.single.branch.circuit.impedance,.
and.then.combine.the.resulting.parallel.branch.circuits.into.a.single.impedance,.
using. parallel. load. combination. formula ..The. impedance. thus. derived. would.
be. combined,. through. series. combination. approach,. with. resistor. R1=10Ω. to.
arrive. at. the. combined. equivalent. impedance. representing. all. load. elements.
driven.by.the.156.VP.AC.source .
. The. 10mH. inductor. and. the. 10Ω. resistive. branch. circuit,. series.
combination:

The.10µF.capacitor.and.the.20Ω.resistive.branch.circuit,.series.combination:

The.formula.for.parallel.combination.of.the.RC.and.RL.parallel.circuits:

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410 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

The.final.combination.consisting.of.R1.=.10Ω.and.the.newly.derived.impedance.
ZEqRLC.=.10 .9∠18 .5Ω:

. .

4 .. A.single.phase.1.kVA.resistive.load,.designed.to.operate.at.240.VAC,.has.
to.be.powered.by.a.480.VAC.source ..A.transformer.is.applied.as.shown.in.the.
diagram.below ..Answer.the.following.questions.associated.with.this.scenario:
(a). Would.the.transformer.be.connected.in.a.“step.up”.configuration.or.a.
“step.down”.configuration?
(b). When. installing. the. transformer,. what. turns. ratio. should. it. be.
connected.for?
(c). What.would.be.the.secondary.current,.Is,.when.the.load.is.operating.
at.full.capacity?
(d). What.would.be.the.primary.current.at.full.load?

Solution
The.scenario.described.in.this.problem.can.be.illustrated.as.follows:

(a).As.discussed.in.this.chapter,.when.voltage.must.be.reduced.to.accommodate.
the. load,. the. transformer. must. be. connected. in. a. step. down. configuration ..
Therefore,.the.answer.is:.step down configuration .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 411

(b).Turns ratio: According.to.Eq ..3 .3,.the.relationship.between.the.turns.ratio,.

the.primary.voltage.and.the.secondary.voltage.is.defined,.mathematically,.as:

. . Eq ..3 .12
Or,

.
Therefore,
. . 480
. Turns.Ratio.=.a.=. ——. =.2:1
. . 240

(c).Secondary current:.As.explained.the.single.phase.transformer.section.of.
this.chapter,.and.mathematically.expressed.in.form.of.Eq ..3 .15:

. Single.Phase.AC.Apparent.Power.=.|S1–Φ|.=.Vs .Is.=.Vp .Ip

Rearranging.of.this.equation.yields:

(d).Primary current at full load:.According.to.ideal.transformer.equation.Eq ..

3 .4,

Since.the.turns.ratio.was.determined.to.be.2:1.in.part.(b),.and.the.secondary.
current.Is.was.determined.to.be.4 .2.A.in.part.(c),

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412 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

5 Calculate.the.equivalent.impedance.as.seen.from.the.vantage.point.of.the.AC.
source.Vac.in.the.circuit.shown.below ..The.transformer.in.the.circuit.is.assumed.
to.be.ideal ..The.values.of.the.primary.and.secondary.circuit.elements.are:.Xlp.=.
1Ω,.Rp.=.4Ω,.Rs.=.10Ω,.XLs.=.5Ω,.XCs.=.10Ω,.Np.=.100,.Ns.=.200 .

Solution
As.in.Example.3 .2,.for.simplicity,.the.primary.and.secondary.inductors.
are. given. in. form. of. their. reactances. “XL”. instead. of. inductance. values .. In.
this.problem,.a.capacitor.is.introduced.on.the.secondary.side ..This.capacitor.is.
represented.in.form.its.XCs ..As.explained.earlier.in.this.chapter,.in.the.process.
of. reducing. the.AC. circuits. to. an. equivalent. impedance. form,. the. individual.
inductive. and. capacitive. reactances. are. combined. in. form. of. their. respective.
impedance .

Therefore,.on.the.primary.side:
ZLp =.jXLp.=.j1Ω
. Hence,.ZP.=.Rp.+.ZLp = 4.+.j1Ω

On.the.secondary.side:
ZLs =.jXLs.=.j5Ω,.and
ZCs =.-.jXCs.=.-.j10Ω;.the.reason.for.the.negative.sign,.as.explained.in.
chapter.3,.lies.in.the.fact.that.ZCs =.(1/j)XCs.and.that.1/j.=.- j

Hence,.the.total.secondary.impedance. =.Zs.=.Rs.+.ZLs + ZCs

= 10.+.j5.-.j10Ω

a = Turns.ratio.=.Np/Ns.=.100/200.=.1/2

Z′s =.a2 .Zs

Z′s =.(1/2)2 . (10.+.j5.-.j10Ω).=.2 .5.+.j1 .25 -.j2 .5Ω

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 413

Then,.combination.of.the.primary.impedance.and.the.total.reflected.secondary.
impedance.would.result.in.the.equivalent.impedance.Zeq:

Zeq= Zp + Z′s = (4.+.j1Ω).+.(2 .5.+.j1 .25 -.j2 .5Ω)

=.6 5 – j0 25Ω

This.final.equivalent.impedance.Zeq.can.be.represented.in.rectangular.complex.
form.as:

The.equivalent.impedance.Zeq,.derived.in.the.rectangular.form.above,.can.be.
stated.in.polar.or.phasor.form.as:

Zeq= 6 .5.–.j0 .25Ω.=.6 5∠-2 2°

This.conversion.from.rectangular.to.phasor.form.can.be.accomplished.through.
a.scientific.calculator,.with.complex.math.feature.or,.as.illustrated.earlier.in.this.
chapter,.through.application.of.Pythagorean.Theorem.and.trigonometry .

6 .. The.no.load.voltage.at.the.main.switch.yard.of.a.manufacturing.facility.is.
13,400.VAC ..The.voltage.regulation.of.the.main.switch.yard.is.4% ..What.is.the.
rated.full.load.voltage.that.is.most.likely.to.be.measured.on.the.load.side.of.the.
main.switch.yard .

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414 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution
VNL.=.13,400.V
. Voltage.Regulation = 4% = 0 04
VFL.= VRated.=.?

Apply.Eq ..3 .19:

7 .. Consider. the. power. distribution. system. shown. in. the. schematic. below ..
Determine. the. following. unknown. parameters. on. the. Y. load. side. of. the.
transformer.given.that.the.turns.ratio.is.2:1:

a). |IL-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.load.or.secondary.line.current
b). |IP-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.secondary.phase.current.or.load.phase.current
c). |VP-Pri|.=.Magnitude.of.Phase.voltage.on.the.source.or.primary.side.of.
the.transformer
d). |VL-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.Line.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.of.the.
transformer
e). |VP-Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.Phase.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.side.of.
the.transformer
f). |VL-N, Sec|.=.Magnitude.of.Line.to.neutral.voltage.on.the.load.or.secondary.
side.of.the.transformer

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 415

Solution

. . Eq ..3 .28

. . Eq ..3 .29

. .
. . Eq ..3 .30

. .
. . Eq ..3 .31

Where,
VP-Pri.=.Primary.phase.voltage.=.V
VL-Pri.=.Primary.line.voltage.=.VLine-Delta.=.V
VP-Sec.=.Secondary.phase.voltage
VL-Sec.=.Secondary.line.voltage.=.VLine-Y

IL-Pri.=.Primary.line.current.= I
IP-Pri.=.Primary.phase.current
IP-Sec.=.Secondary.phase.current.= ILine-Y
IL-Sec.=.Secondary.line.current.= ILine-Y

For.a.Δ-Y.three.phase.transformers,.as.illustrated.in.Figure.3 .26,.the.voltage.
and.current.transformations.can.be.assessed.using.the.following.equations:

. . Eq ..3 .32

. .

. . Eq ..3 .33

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416 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

a). According.to.Eq ..3 .33:

.
b). As.characteristic.of.Y.three.phase.AC.circuits.and.in.accordance.with.Eq ..
3 .31

.
c). As.characteristic.of.Δ.three.phase.AC.circuits.and.in.accordance.with.Eq ..
3 .28

d). According.to.Eq ..3 .32:

e). As.shown.in.Figure.3 .26,.on.the.secondary.side.of.the.transformer:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 417

f). As.apparent.from.Figure.3 .25.(a):

ChaPter 4—solutions

1 .. Consider. a. hydroelectric. reservoir. where. water. is. flowing. through. the.

turbine.at.the.rate.of.1100.ft3/sec ..See.the.diagram.below ..The.turbine.exit.point.
is.700.ft.lower.than.the.elevation.of.the.reservoir.water.surface ..The.turbine.
efficiency.is.90%.and.the.total.frictional.head.loss.through.the.penstock.shaft.
and.turbine.system.is.52.ft .

a). Calculate.the.power.output.of.the.turbine.in.MWs .
b). If.the.efficiency.of.the.Electric.Power.Generator.is.92%,.what.would.
the. electric. power. output. be. for. this. hydroelectric. power. generating.
system?

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418 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Solution
Given:
γ. =. specific.weight.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3
hf. =. Frictional. head. loss. in. the. penstock. and. elsewhere. in. the. system,.
upstream.of.the.turbine.=.52.ft
Hz. =. Total.head.available.due.to.the.height.of.the.water.level.in.the.reservoir.
=.700.ft
∴Net.head.delivered.by.the.water.to.the.turbine = Head.added
= hA.= Hz - hf.=.648.ft

Turbine.Efficiency.90.%
Generator.Efficiency.92.%

a).Calculate.the.power.output.of.the.turbine.in.MWs .
.

. . Eq 4 39

Pout.=.Power.Output.of.the.Turbine
=.(0 .90.x.80,870.hp)
=.72,783.hp

b). If. the. efficiency. of. the. Electric. Power. Generator. is. 92%,. what. would. the.
electric.power.output.be.for.this.hydroelectric.power.generating.system?

P.Gen ..Syst .-out.=.Power.Output.of.the.Generator.in.MW

. =.(Power.Output.of.the.Turbine.in.MW) .(hTurbine)
. . =.(54.MW.x.0 .92)
. . . =.50.MW

2 ..Which.of.the.following.two.water.heaters.would.cost.the.least.to.operate,.on.
annual.cost.basis,.under.the.given.assumptions?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 419

A .. Electric.Water.Heater:
Estimated.annual.energy.required.to.heat.the.water:.9,000.kWh
Efficiency: 95%
Cost.Rate:.$0 10/kWh

B .. Natural.Gas.Water.Heater:
Estimated.annual.energy.required.to.heat.the.water:.Same.as.the.Electric.water.
heater
Efficiency:.98%
Cost.Rate: $10 87/DT

Solution
Note.the.given.9000.kWh.worth.of.electrical.energy.is.the.energy actually
absorbed by the water..Since.the.electric.water.heater.efficiency.is.95%,.the.
electrical.energy.pulled from the utility.would.be:

And.the.annual.operating.cost.for.the.electric.water.heater.would.be:
. =(9,474.kWh) .($0 .10/kWh).=.$947 .40

The.annual energy absorbed by the gas water heater,.assumed.to.be.the.same.

as.the.electric.water.heater.=.9000.kWh ..Since.the.gas.water.heater.efficiency.
is.98%,.the.electrical.energy.pulled.from.the.utility.would.be:

.
Then,.the.annual.energy.consumption.by.the.gas.water.heater,.in.DT.or.MMBtu.
would.be.=.(9184.kWh) .(3412Btu/kWh)(1DT/1,000,000Btu).=.31 33 DT

Since.the.natural.gas.cost.rate.is.given.as.$10 .87/DT,.the.annual.operating.cost.
for.the.gas.water.heater.would.be.=.(31 .33.DT) .($10 .87/DT).=.$340 61

Answer: The gas water heater would cost substantially less to operate.than.
the.electric.water.heater .

3 ..A. computer. manufacturing. company. is. testing. a. prototype. for. the. amount.

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420 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

of.heat.it.dissipates.as.wasted.energy.over.a.10.hour.period.of.operation ..The.
computer.is.powered.by.a.24V.DC.power.supply.and.is.designed.to.draw.3A.of.
current ..Determine.the.total.energy.dissipated.in.Btu .

Solution
Apply.Eq ..4 .10:
. Energy.=.V .I .t.=.(24V) .(3A) .(10hr).=.(72W) .(36,000.s)

.
Since.1 .055.kJ.=.1 .0.Btu

.
.
.
4 .. In. response. to. a. significant. near. miss. incident. and. midair. fire. on. a. new.
commercial.jet.aircraft,.a.governmental.agency.is.performing.forensic.analysis.
on. the. type. of. Lithium. Ion. aircraft. battery. suspected. to. be. the. root. cause ..
Estimate.the.amount.of.current.involved.in.the.suspected.fault.on.the.basis.of.
the.following.forensic.data:
–. Total.energy.released.in.the.catastrophic.failure.of.the.battery:.866kJ
–. Estimated.duration.of.fault:.2 seconds
–. Rated.voltage.of.the.battery:.3 7VDC

Solution
Apply.Eq ..4 .10:
. Energy.=.V .I .t .

.
.
.

5 ..A.156Sin377t.sinusoidal.voltage.is.connected.across.a.load.consisting.of.a.
parallel.combination.of.a.20 Ω.resistor.and.a.10Ω capacitive reactance .
(a).Determine.the.real.power.dissipated.by.the.resistor .
(b).Determine.the.reactive.power.stored.in.a.10Ω parallel.capacitive.reactance .
(c).Calculate.the.total.apparent.power.delivered.to.this.parallel.R.and.X.circuit.
by.the.AC.voltage.source .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 421

Solution
The.circuit.diagram.for.this.scenario.would.be.as.depicted.below:

(a). We. can. apply. Eq .. 4 .19. to. determine. the. power. dissipated. or. consumed.
in. the. 20Ω. resistor .. However,. we. must. first. derive. the. VRMS. from. the.
given.AC.voltage.of.156Sin377t This.is.due.to.the.fact.that.coefficient.of.
156.stated.in.the.give.AC.voltage.function.of.156Sin400t is.the.peak.or.
maximum.voltage,.Vm
. As.discussed.in.Chapter.3.and.stipulated.by.Eq ..3 .3:

(b). Apply. Eq .. 4 .20. to. determine. the. reactive. power. sequestered. in. the. 10Ω.
parallel.capacitive.reactance .

.
(c). Apply. Eq .. 4 .12. to. calculate. the. total. apparent. power. S. delivered. to. this.
parallel.R.and.X.circuit.by.the.AC.voltage.source .

Note.that.jQ.reactive.power.entity.is.entered.into.the.apparent.power.calculation.
above.as.“-jQ”.because.of.the.fact.that.capacitance.in.an.AC.circuit.results.in.
negative.impedance.contribution.or.“-jX .”.Therefore.the.reactive.power.Q.due.
to.a.capacitor.is.applied.as.“-j1217,”.in.overall.S.calculation .

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422 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

We.can.also.apply.Eq ..4 .22.to.verify.the.magnitude.of.the.total.apparent.power.

S.delivered.to.this.parallel.R.and.X.circuit:

. . ..
.
Ancillary:.Reader.is.encouraged.to.verify.the.apparent.power.of.1361.VA.
by.applying.equation.4 .21 ..Hint:.The.Z,.in.this.case.must.be.computed.through.
parallel.combination.of.R.and.ZC.as.shown.below:

6 ..A.156Sin400t.sinusoidal.voltage.is.connected.across.an.unknown.resistive.
load ..If.the.power.dissipated.in.the.resistor.is.1000.Watts,.what.is.the.resistance.
of.the.resistive.load?

Solution
We. can. apply. Eq .. 4 .19. to. determine. the. value. of. the. resistor. using. the.
given. power. dissipation. value. of. 1000W .. However,. we. must. first. derive. the.
VRMS. from. the. given.AC. voltage. of. 156Sin400t This. is. due. to. the. fact. that.
coefficient.of.156.stated.in.the.give.AC.voltage.function.of.156Sin400t.is.the.
peak.or.maximum.voltage,.Vm
. As.discussed.in.Chapter.3.and.stipulated.by.Eq ..3 .3:

. . Eq ..4 .19

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 423

7 ..The.AC. circuit. shown. below. depicts. a. three. phase,. one-line. schematic. of.
a. hydroelectric. power. generating. station .. Assume. that. there. is. no. voltage.
drop. between. the. generator. and. the. primary. side. of. the. transmission. system.
transformer ..The.line.current.is.indicated.by.an.EMS.system.to.be.10kA, RMS ..
Calculate.the.following.if.the.power.factor.is.known.to.be.0 95:
a). Magnitude.of.the.apparent.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .
b). Magnitude.of.the.real.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines .
c). The.RMS.line.to.neutral.voltage.at.the.source .

Solution
Magnitude.of.the.apparent.power.presented.to.the.transmission.lines:
Note.that.the.AC.voltage.function.is.NOT.specified.in.RMS.form;.hence,.by.
convention,.it.is.“peak”.or.“maximum”.voltage ..Therefore,.we.need.to.derive.
the. RMS. voltage. for. subsequent. computations .. The. line. current. is. given. in.
RMS.form .

According.to.Eq ..4 .30:

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424 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Therefore,

Magnitude. of. the. real. power. presented. to. the. transmission. lines. can. be.
determined.by.rearranging.and.using.Eq ..4 .23:

(c). Hint:. Use. the. VL-L. computed. in. part. (a) .. Line. to. neutral. voltage,. as.
introduced.in.Chapter.3,.can.be.stated.mathematically.as:

. VL-N,.Y.=.Line.to.neutral.voltage.in.a.Y.source.or.load

8 ..A.pump.is.to.be.installed.on.the.ground.floor.of.a.commercial.building.to.
supply.200.ft3/sec.of.water.up.to.an.elevation.of.100.ft ..Determine.the.minimum.
size.of.the.motor.for.this.application ..Assume.that.the.efficiency.of.the.pump.is.
80% ..The.weight.density.of.water.γ.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3

Solution
Solution. strategy. in. this. case. would. be. to. use. Eq .. 4 .39. to. compute. the.
WHP ..Then,. the. amount. of. real. power. “P”. delivered. by. the. motor. would. be.
computed.based.on.the.given.efficiency.of.the.pump .

Given:
hA.=.100.ft
V = Volumetric Flow Rate = 200 cu – ft/sec
Pump.Efficiency.=.80.%
γ.=.62 .4.lbf/ft3

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 425

According.to.Eq ..4 .39,.Water.Horsepower.delivered.by.the.pump.to.the.water.

can.be.stated.as:

Then,.according.to.the.Wire.to.Water.(hydraulic.pump).power.flow.diagram.in.
Figure.4 .3:

Therefore,. a. commercially. available. motor. size. above. 2,836. hp. should. be.
selected .

ChaPter 5—solutions

1 ..Determine.the.power.factor.of.the.circuit.shown.below,.as.seen.by.the.AC.
source .

Solution
This.problem.can.be.solved.through.multiple.approaches ..Two.of.those.
approaches.are.as.follows:

i .. Calculate.the.equivalent.or.combined.impedance.of.the.circuit.as.seen.by.
the.source ..Then.take.the.cosine.of.the.angle.of.that.impedance .

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426 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

ii .. Calculate. the. equivalent. or. combined. impedance. of. the. circuit. as. seen.
by.the.source ..Apply.the.Ohm’s.law.to.compute.the.AC.current ..Then.take.the.
cosine.of.the.angular.difference.between.given.AC.voltage.and.the.computed.
current .

We.will.utilize.the.first.approach:

Therefore,.PF.=.CosθZ.=.Cos(-63 .43°).=.0 .45.or.45%

Reader.is.encouraged.to.verify.the.result.through.approach.ii .

2 ..Assume. that. the. circuit. depicted. below. represents. one. phase. of. a. special.
power. transmission. line .. Determine. the. power. factor. of. the. circuit. shown.
below,.as.seen.by.the.AC.source .

Solution
As. with. problem. 1,. this. problem. can. be. solved. through. multiple.
approaches ..Two.of.those.approaches.are.as.follows:

i .. Calculate.the.equivalent.or.combined.impedance.of.the.circuit.as.seen.by.
the.source ..Then.take.the.cosine.of.the.angle.of.that.impedance .

ii .. Calculate. the. equivalent. or. combined. impedance. of. the. circuit. as. seen.
by.the.source ..Apply.the.Ohm’s.law.to.compute.the.AC.current ..Then.take.the.
cosine.of.the.angular.difference.between.given.AC.voltage.and.the.computed.
current .
. In.this.case.will.illustrate.the.application.of.approach.(ii):

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 427

Therefore,.PF.=.Cos(θV.-.φI).=.Cos(0-(22 .5°)).=.Cos(22 .5°).=.0 .923.or.92 .3%

Reader.is.encouraged.to.verify.the.result.through.approach.(i);.which,.actually,.
would.require.fewer.steps .

3 ..If.the.power.factor.in.problem.2.is.less.than.1 .0,.how.much.capacitance.or.
inductance.must.be.added.in.series.to.raise.the.power.factor.to.unity?

Solution
This.problem.can.be.solved.by.simply.focusing.on.the.total.or.equivalent.
impedance.ZEq.and.determining.the.amount.of.reactance.needed.to.offset.the.
reactance.in.the.original.impedance .

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428 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

4 The.output.of.a.variable.frequency.drive,.as.shown.in.the.circuit.below,.is.
157Sinωt ..The.VFD.output.is.currently.set.at.50Hz ..This.drive.is.connected.to.
a.resistive.load,.capacitive.reactance,.and.an.inductive.reactance .

(a). What.should.be.the.new.frequency.setting.to.attain.a.power.factor.of.
1,.or.100% .
(b). .What.is.the.existing.power.factor,.at.50Hz?
(c). What. would. be. the. power. factor. if. all. circuit. elements. remain.
unchanged.and.the.VFD.frequency.is.lowered.to.30Hz .

Solution
(a).We.must.convert.reactances.XC.and.XB.to.corresponding.capacitance,.
C,.and.inductance,.L,.values .

(b). The. power. factor. can. be. calculated. through. the. impedance. angle,. using.
equation.5 .3 ..We.must.compute.the.circuit’s.total.impedance.first, at 50 Hz .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 429

(c).The.power.factor.at.30Hz:

5 The. HMI. (Human. Machine. Interface). monitor. of. an. Automated. HVAC.
system,. monitoring. an. air. washer. supply. fan. motor. is. indicating. a. reactive.
power,.Q1,.of.60.kVARs ..This.system.is.located.in.the.United.Kingdom,.where.
the.AC.frequency.is.50.Hz ..Determine.the.amount.of.capacitance.that.must.be.
added. to. improve. the. power. factor. of. the. motor. branch. circuit. such. that. the.
reactive.power.is.reduced.to.Q2.of.20.kVARs ..The.branch.circuit.is.operating.
at.240.VRMS .

Solution
Apply.Eq ..5 .4:

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430 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

6 Power Factor Improvement and Cost Savings: In. conjunction. with. the.
local. utility. company. DSM. program,. a. manufacturing. plant. is. being. offered.
$2.per.kVA.for.improvement.in.power.factor.from.0 .75.to.0 .85 ..The.plant.is.
operating.at.its.contract.level.of.30.MW ..Determine.estimated.annual.pre-tax.
revenue.if.the.plant.accepts.the.offer .

Solution
Since.the.objective.is.to.assess.the.cost.savings.on.the.basis.of.apparent.
power.(S).reduction,.we.must.determine.the.apparent.power.S1.being.drawn.by.
the.air.compressor.motor.at.the.existing.power.factor.of.0 .75.(75%),.and.the.
apparent.power.S2.at.the.desired.power.factor.of.0 .85.(85%) ..Rearrange.and.
apply.Eq ..5 .1 .

. . .
.
Annual.DSM.revenue.expected.from.proposed.power.factor.improvement

. .
7 The.output.of.a.variable.frequency.drive,.as.shown.in.the.circuit.below,.is.
157Sinωt ..The.VFD.output.is.currently.set.at.60Hz ..This.drive.is.connected.to.a.
resistive.load,.capacitive.reactance,.inductive.reactance.and.a.“black.box”.load,.
ZB,.of.10Ω∠45° ..What.should.be.the.new.frequency.setting.to.attain.a.power.
factor.of.1,.or.100%?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 431

Solution
Solution.strategy:.As.explained.earlier.in.this.section,.the.power.factor.
of.an.AC.circuit,.consisting.of.inductive.and.capacitive.reactance,.peaks.to.the.
maximum.value.of.unity,.or.100%,.at.resonance.frequency,.f0 ..However,.in.this.
case,.because.of.the.presence.of.the.black.box.impedance.of.ZB.=10Ω∠45°,.we.
cannot.apply.Eq ..5 .8,.directly,.to.compute.f0 ..We.must.convert.impedance.into.
its.rectangular.form.to.derive.the.reactance.component.XL,B,.combine.it.with.
the.other.inductive.reactance.in.the.circuit,.derive.the.L.and.C.values.and.then.
apply.Eq ..5 .8.to.calculate.the.resonance.frequency.f0

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432 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

ChaPter 6—solutions

1 ..The.BMS.System.at.a.truck.assembly.plant,.that.operates.365.days.a.year,.is.
displaying.following.electrical.power.and.energy.consumption.data:

. Billing.Days.in.the.Current.Month:.30
. On.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.2,880,000.kWh
. Off.Peak.Energy.Consumption:.11,520,000.kWh
. Three.highest.30.minute.energy.usages.for.the.billing.month.are
. (i).12,500.kWh,
. (ii).12,300.kWh.and
. (iii).12,290.kWh .

Assuming. this. facility. is. on. OPT,. Time. of. Use,. contract. with. 30. minutes.
demand.interval,.determine.the.following:
. (a).Average.demand .
. (b).Peak.demand .
. (c).The.load.factor for.the.current.month .
. (d).Average.annual.demand

Solution
(a).Average.demand.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .1.as.follows:

(b).Peak.Demand.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .2.to.the.30.minute.interval.

during. which. the. highest. energy. consumption. is. recorded .. In. this. problem,.
three.high.30.minute.kWh.consumptions.are.stated ..However,.we.are.interested.
in. the. “highest”. kWh. recorded;. and. that. is. 12,500. kWh ..Therefore,. the. peak.
demand.would.be:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 433

(c).Load.factor.can.be.calculated.by.applying.Eq ..6 .3.as.follows:

2 .. A. 200. kVA. transformer. has. been. tested. by. the. manufacturer. to. safely.
and. continuously. sustain. a. load. of. 230. kVA ..What. service. factor. should. the.
manufacturer.include.on.the.nameplate.of.this.transformer?

Solution

3 ..A.5.hp.single.phase.AC.motor,.rated.at.a.service.factor.of.1 .10,.is.being.tested.
at.maximum.safe.load,.powered.by.230.VAC.source ..Determine.the.amount.of.
current.drawn.by.this.motor,.from.the.power.source.if.the.motor.efficiency.is.
90%.and.the.power.factor.is.0 .85 .

Solution
The.5.hp.motor,.with.a.service.factor.of.1 .10,.operating.at.its.maximum.
safe.load.is,.essentially,.delivering.energy.or.performing.work.at.the.rate.of:

. P.=.(5.hp). .(Service.Factor).=.(5.hp) .(1 .10).=.5 .5.hp .

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434 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Also.note.that.in.most.current.computations.the.power,.in.hp,.must.be.converted.
to.power.in.watts.or.kWs .

∴.PMotor-watts.=.(5 .5.hp) .(746.W/hp).=.4103.W

As.introduced.in.earlier.chapters:

4 ..Consecutive.electrical.power.meter.readings.at.a.home.in.Hawaii.are.listed.
below ..Determine.the.total.electrical.power.bill.for.the.month.of.this.residence.
if.the.flat.$/kWh.cost.rate.is¢.21/kWh ..The.renewable.energy.rider.is.$15.and.
the.energy.sales.tax.rate.is.4% .
. Previous.reading:.45000
. Current.or.present.reading:.46000

Solution
According.to.Eq ..6 .6,

Note.that.the.4%.sales.tax.is.applied.to.the.subtotal.comprising.of.the.baseline.
cost.plus.the.renewable.rider .

5 .. If. the. peak. demand. in. Case. Study. 6 .2. is. reduced. by. 10%. through.
implementation.of.peak.shaving.measures,.what.would.be.the.baseline.cost.for.
the.demand.portion.of.the.bill?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 435

Solution
According.to.spreadsheet.6 .1,.the.original.peak.demand.for.the.month.is.
26,000.kW .

Then,. revise. the. demand. portion. of. spreadsheet. 6 .1. for. the. reduced. peak.
demand.of.23,400.kW.as.shown.below:

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436 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

ChaPter 7—solutions

1 ..A.gas.powered.prime.mover.is.rotating.the.rotor.of.a.single.phase.alternator.
at.a.speed.of.1200.rpm ..The.alternator.consists.of.six.pole.construction ..The.
effective.diameter.of.the.coil.is.0 .15m.and.the.length.of.the.coil.loop.is.0 .24m ..
The.coil.consists.of.20.turns ..The.magnetic.flux.density.has.been.measured.to.
be.1 .2T ..Calculate.the.power.delivered.by.this.generator.across.a.resistive.load.
of.10Ω .

Solution
The. RMS,. effective. or. DC. voltage. produced. through. an. alternator. or.
generator.can.be.computed.by.applying.Eq ..7 .6:

.
Given:
n. =. 1200.rpm
p. =. 6
N. =. 20
B. =. 1 .2T
A. =. (Eff ..diameter.of.the.coil.conductor).x.(Eff ..length.of.the.coil)
. . =. (0 .24m).x.(0 .15m).=.0 .036m2

2 ..A.four.pole.alternator/generator.is.producing.electrical.power.at.an.electrical.
frequency.of.50.Hz ..(a).Determine.the.angular.speed.corresponding.to.the.gen-
erated.electrical.frequency ..(b).Determine.the.rotational.(synchronous).speed.
of.the.armature/rotor ..(c).Determine.the.angular.velocity.of.the.armature/rotor.
(rads/sec) .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 437

Solution
(a).Angular.speed,.ω,.corresponding.to.the.generated.electrical.frequen-
cy,.f,.can.be.calculated.using.Eq ..7 .8:

. ω.=.2pf.=.(2) .(3 .14) .(50Hz).=.314.rad/s

(b).The.rotational.or.synchronous.speed.of.the.armature/rotor.is.given.by.Eq ..
7 .7:

.
(c).Angular. velocity. of. the. armature/rotor. is. simply. the. rotational. speed,. in.
rpm,.converted.into.rad/s ..Since.there.are.2π.radians.per.revolution:

.
3 ..A.four.pole.single.phase.AC.generator.consists.of.windings.constituting.80.
series.paths.and.is.driven.by.a.diesel.engine ..The.effective.or.mean.length.of.
the.armature.is.18.cm.and.the.cross-sectional.radius.of.the.armature.is.5.cm ..
The.armature.is.rotating.at.1800.rpm ..Each.armature.pole.is.exposed.to.a.mag-
netic.flux.of.1 .0.T ..The.efficiency.of.this.generator.is.90%.and.it.is.rated.2.kW ..
Determine.the.following:
. (a).The.maximum.voltage.generated .
. (b).The.RMS.voltage.generated .
. (c).The.horsepower.rating.of.the.generator
. (d).The.horse.power.output.of.the.prime.mover .

Solution
The.maximum.voltage,.Vm,.generated.by.this.alternator.is.given.by.Eq ..
7 .7 .

. . Eq 7 7

Given:
n. =.1800.rpm
p. =.4

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438 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

N. =.Number.of.series.paths.=.80
B. =..1 .0.T
A =.(Eff ..diameter.of.the.coil.conductor).x.(Eff ..length.of.the.coil)
. . =.(2.x.5cm).x.(18cm).=.(0 .1m).x.(0 .18m).=.0 .018m2

(a)

(b).The.RMS.voltage.could.be.calculated.by.using.Eq ..7 .6,.or.simply.by.divid-

ing.Vm,.from.part.(a),.by.the.square.root.of.2.as.follows:

(c).The.horsepower.rating.of.this.generator.is.the.power.output.rating.specified.
in.hp,.premised.on.the.stated.output capacity.of.2 .0.kW ..Therefore,.application.
of.the.0 .746.kW/hp.conversion.factor.yields:

(d).The.horsepower.rating.of.the.prime.mover—or.the.propane.fired.engine—
would.need.to.offset.the.inefficiency.of.the.AC.generator ..Therefore,.based.on.
the.given.90%.efficiency.rating.of.the.generator:

4 ..A.three.phase,.four.pole,.AC.induction.motor.is.rated.170.hp,.is.operating.at.
full.load,.60.Hz,.460.Vrms,.efficiency.of.90%,.power.factor.of.80%,.and.a.slip.
of.4% ..Determine.the.(a).motor.shaft.speed,.in.rpm,.(b).torque.developed,.in.
ft-lbf ..(c).line.current.drawn.by.the.motor.and.(d).the.amount.of.reactive.power,.
Q,.sequestered.in.the.motor.under.the.described.operating.conditions .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 439

Solution
Given:
PL,3-ɸ. =. Real.power.or.rate.of.work.performed.by.the.motor.=.170.hp
. . =. (170.hp) .(746.W/hp).=.126,820.W
p. =. 4.poles
VL. =. 460.VRMS
Pf. =. 80%.or.0 .80
Eff =. 90%.or.0 .90
ns = Synchronous.speed,.in.rpm.=.?
Slip, s =. 4%
f =. Frequency.of.operation.=.60.Hz

(a).Shaft or motor speed:.Rearrange.and.apply.Eq ..7 .10:

. And,.by.rearrangement:.n.=.ns.(1.–.s)

Next,.we.must.determine.the.synchronous.speed.of.the.motor.by.applying.Eq ..
7 .9:

(b). Torque developed, in ft-lbf:.There. are. multiple. methods. at. our. disposal.
for.determining.the.torque.developed ..Formulas.associated.with.two.common.
methods.are.represented.by.Eq ..7 .12,.Eq ..7 .13.and.Eq ..7 .14 ..Since.the.power.is.
available.in.hp.and.the.rotational.speed.in.rpm,.apply.Eq ..7 .12:

.
. .

(c).Line current drawn by the motor:.Full.load.line.current.is.the.current.the.

motor.draws.from.the.power.source.or.utility.in.order.to.sustain.the.full.load ..
Application.of.Eq ..7 .22.takes.this.into.account.in.the.computation.of.3-phase.
motor.line.current,.after.the.motor.hp.rating.(or.actual.load).is.converted.into.
watts:

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440 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Three. phase. (total). real. power. was. converted. into. watts. under. “Given”. as.
PL,3-ɸ.=.126,820.W

Therefore,

(d).Reactive power, Q:.There.are.multiple.approaches.available.to.us.for.de-

termination.of.reactive.power.Q.for.this.motor.application ..We.will.utilize.the.
power.triangle.or.apparent.power.component.vector.method:

Real.power.“P”.was.computed.earlier.as.126,820.W,.and.apparent.power.S.can.
be.assessed.using.Eq ..7 .20:

5 ..A.three.phase,.four.pole,.AC.induction.motor.is.tested.to.deliver.200.hp,.at.
900.rpm ..Determine.the.frequency.at.which.this.motor.should.be.operated.for.
the.stated.shaft.speed ..Assume.the.slip.to.be.negligible .

Solution
Given:
p. =. 4.poles
ns = Synchronous.speed,.in.rpm.=.900.rpm.=.Shaft.speed,.since.slip.is.zero
f =. Frequency.of.operation.=.?

Rearrange.and.apply.Eq ..7 .9

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 441

6 A.three.phase.induction.motor.delivers.600.kW.at.a.power.factor.of.80% ..
In. lieu. of. installing. power. factor. correction. capacitors. a. synchronous. motor.
is.being.considered.as.a.power.fact.correction.measure ..Determine.the.appar-
ent. power. size. of. the. synchronous. motor—in. kVA—that. should. be. installed.
to.carry.a.load.of.300.hp.and.raise.the.(combined).power.factor.to.93% ..The.
source.voltage.is.230.Vrms .

Solution
Given:
PI. =. Real.power.delivered.by.the.3-ɸ.induction.motor.=.600.kW
PS =. Real.power.contributed.by.the.synchronous.motors.=.300.hp.=.(300.
hp).x.(0 .746.kW/hp).=.223 .8.kW
Pfi = Initial.Power.Factor.=.80%.=.0 .80
Pff = Final.Power.Factor.=.93%.=.0 .93
Vs = Source.voltage.=.230.Vrms ..However,.the.voltage.information.is.not.
needed.to.solve.this.problem .

This.problem.is.similar.to.Example.7 .6 ..So,.the.strategy.for.solving.it.is.the.
same.as.the.one.employed.for.Example.7 .6 ..Overall,.we.need.to.determine.the.
reactive.power,.QS,.contributed.by.the.synchronous.motor ..Then,.by.applying.
the. Pythagorean. Theorem. to. QS. and. PS,. we. can. derive. the. apparent. power.
(kVA).of.the.synchronous.motor .

The.combined.real.power.of.the.induction.motor.and.the.synchronous.motor:

. PT.=.600.kW.+.223 .8.kW.=.824.kW

And.since.θT,.theh.final.power.factor.angle.=.Cos–1(0 .93).=.21 .58°,

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442 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Now,.in.order.to.determine.QS,.the.reactive.power.contributed.by.the.synchro-
nous.motor,.we.must.subtract.the.original.reactive.power,.QO,.from.the.final,.
total,. reactive. power,. QT .. However,. QO. is. unknown. and. can. be. determined.
through.the.power.triangle.as.follows:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 443

ChaPter 8—answers/solutions

1 .. A.substation.in.a.manufacturing.facility.is.being.fed.from.a.13.kV.trans-
former. secondary .. This. switchgear. in. this. substation. would. be. catego-
rized.as:
A Medium voltage
B .. Low.voltage
C .. .High.voltage
D .. Medium.voltage
E .. None.of.the.above

2 .. Power.transmission.lines.would.be.categorized.as:
A .. Medium.voltage
B .. Low.voltage
C High voltage
D ..None.of.the.above

3 .. The.breakers.installed.in.residential.breaker.panels.are:
A .. OCBs
B .. Thermal.magnetic.circuit.breakers
C Low voltage thermal magnetic circuit breakers
D .. None.of.the.above
E .. Both.B.and.C

4 .. The.vacuum.circuit.breakers.tend.to.offer.longer.service.spans.between.
overhauls.than.do.air.circuit.breakers .
A True
B .. False

5 .. The.SF6.type.high.voltage.circuit.breakers.are.not.preferred.due.to.envi-
ronmental.concerns .
A .. True
B False

6 .. MCCs.are.not.designed.to.accommodate.PLCs.and.VFDs .
A .. True
B False

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444 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

7 .. The.bus.bars.in.MCCs.are.commonly.constructed.out.of:
A .. Aluminum
B Silver plated copper
C .. Silver
D .. Iron

8 .. Pilot.devices.on.MCCs:
A .. Control.circuit.breakers
B .. Indicate.the.status.of.MCC
C .. Indicate.the.status.of.motor/load
D .. Include.“Start”.and.“Stop”.controls
E Both (C) and (D)

9 .. Power.control.cubicles.in.MCCs.are.fixed.and.cannot.be.removed.while.
the.main.fusible.disconnect.switch.of.the.MCC.is.ON .
A .. True
B False

10 .. A.control.transformer,.in.a.given.MCC.compartment:
A Steps down the voltage for control circuit operation
B .. Provides.power.for.MCC.cabinet.lighting .
C .. Is.seldom.needed .
D .. Serves.as.an.isolation.transformer .
E .. Both.(C).and.(D) .

ChaPter 9—solutions

1 .. A. given. circuit. is. meant. to. carry. a. continuous. lighting. load. of. 16. A .. In.
addition,.four.loads.designed.for.permanent.display.stands.are.fastened.in.place.
and. require. 2A. each. when. operating .. What. is. the. rating. of. the. over. current.
protective.device.(OCPD).on.the.branch.circuit?

Solution
From.Article.210 .20(a).of.the.NEC.®,.the.over.current.protective.device.
(OCPD).must.be.rated.at.100%.of.the.non-continuous.load.plus.125%.of.the.
continuous.load .

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 445

∴.The.Rating.of.OCPD.=.(1 .00).(2.A.+.2.A.+.2.A.+.2.A).+.(1 .25).(16.A).

. =.28.A,.minimum

A.standard.fixed-trip.circuit.breaker.or.a.fuse.rated.at.30.A.can.be.used.(see.
Sec ..240 .6) .

2 .. A. three-phase,. four-wire. feeder. with. a. full-sized. neutral. carries. 14. A.

continuous. and. 40.A. non-continuous. loads .. The. feeder. uses. an. over. current.
device. with. a. terminal. or. conductor. rating. of. 60°C .. What. is. the. minimum.
copper.conductor.size?.Assume.no.derating.applies ..Use.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2 .

Solution
Feeder. conductor. size,. before. derating,. is. based. on. 100%. of. the. non-
continuous.load.and.125%.of.the.continuous.load.[Art ..215 .2(a)] .

. ∴.Amp.load.=.(1 .00)(40.A).+.(1 .25)(14.A)

. . =.40.A.+.17 .5.A
. . =.57 .5.A.≈.58.A

The.total.of.58.A.is.used.since.an.ampacity.of.0 .5.A.or.greater.is.rounded.up.
[Sec ..220 .2(b)] ..Using.NEC.®.Table.310 .15—as.presented.in.form.of.Tables.
9 .1.and.9 .2.in.this.text—TW,.UF,.AWG 4 from the 60 °C column should be
selected The.ampacity.of.AWG.4.is.70.amps .

Note:.AWG.6.(the.size.below.AWG.4),.with.ampacity.of.55.amps,.would.be.
undersized .

3 ..Electrical.specifications.for.a.brewery.company.call.for.a.fusible.disconnect.
switch. enclosure. that. must. be. able. withstand. occasional. splashing. of. water.
during. periodic. wash. downs. required. by. the. local. health. codes .. This. design.
will.be.applied.in.breweries.in.the.US.as.well.as.Europe ..The.water.flow.from.
the.1-in.wash.down.nozzles.is.expected.to.less.than.60.GPM.from.a.distance.
of.11.ft.for.less.than.4.min ..(a).Determine.the.NEMA.rating.of.enclosure.for.
the.US.installations ..(b).Determine.the.IP.rating.of.enclosure.for.the.European.
installations .

Solution
(a).Examination.of.the.NEMA—IP.rating.table.in.this.chapter.shows.that.
NEMA.4.enclosure.is.rated.for:

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 Table 9 1:.An.

446
older.version.of.
ampacity.table ..
Included.for.
general.format.
and.general.
content.reference.
only ..Contd ..
Courtesy,.NEC,.
NFPA .

Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

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Table 9 2:.An.older.version.of.ampacity.table ..Included.for.general.format.and.general.content.reference.
only ..Contd ..Courtesy,.NEC,.NFPA .

Illumination and Lighting System Design

447
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448 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Watertight.(weatherproof) ..Must.exclude.at.least.65.GPM.of.water.from.
1-in ..nozzle.delivered.from.a.distance.not.less.than.10.ft.for.5.min ..Used.
outdoors.on.ship.docks,.in.dairies,.and.in.breweries .

Therefore,.a.NEMA.4.enclosure.would.exceed.the.“1-in.wash.down.nozzle,.60.
GPM.from.a.distance.of.11.ft.for.less.than.4.min”.worst.case.exposure ..Hence,.
a.NEMA 4 enclosure.should.be.specified.for.the.US.installation .

(b).Since.the.European.installation.would.be.exposed.to.the.same.worst.case.
conditions,.US.NEMA.4’s.European.counterpart,.IP 66 should be specified .

Note:.If.the.health.code,.in.the.US,.were.to.require.that.chlorine.solution.be.
used. for. the. wash. down,. since. chlorine. is. corrosive,. NEMA 4X. should. be.
specified .

4 Over current Protection & Conductor Ampacity:

Applicable.Code/Codes:.Articles.210 .19.(A).(1),.210 .20.(A).and.310 .15 ..Table.
310 .15(B)(16).as.presented.in.Tables.9 .1.and.9 .2.of.this.text.(Note:.This.is.not.
a.current.table.and.is.only.reproduced.in.this.text.for.exercise.and.illustration.
purposes) .

The.branch.circuit.in.the.exhibit.below.consists.of.three.continuous.loads ..Over.
current. protection. in. the. branch. circuit. is. provided. through. a. 20. amp. circuit.
breaker .. (a). Determine. the. size. of. copper. conductor. based. on. the. ampacities.
given. in. Tables. 9 .1. and. 9 .2. assuming. conductor. temperature. is. at. 75°C. or.
less ..Assume.that.75°C.operation.and.selection.is.allowed ..(b).Verify.the.size/
specifications. of. the. circuit. breaker .. Assume. no. derating. applies .. (c). If. the.
ambient. temperature. were. to. rise. to. 50°C,. how. would. the. conductor. size. be.
impacted?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 449

Solution
(a).In.accordance.with.article.210 .19.(A).(1):.“Branch.circuit.conductors.
shall.have.an.ampacity.not.less.than.maximum.load.to.be.served… . .(and).shall.
have.an.allowable.ampacity.not.less.than.the.non-continuous.load.plus.125%.of.
the.continuous.load .

∴.The.conductor.ampacity.for.the.given.branch.circuit
. =.1 .25.x.Continuous.Load.+.1 .00.x.Non-Continuous.Load
. =.1 .25.x.(16A).+.1 .00.x.(0).=.20.amps .

According. to. Table. 9 .1. (in. this. text). for. 75°C. operation,. with. Types. RHW,.
THHW,. THW,. THWN,. XHHW,. USE,. ZW. insulation,. AWG. 12. conductor.
carries. an. allowable. ampacity. of. 25. amps. for. conductors. that. are. insulated,.
rated. for. 0-2000. volt. operation,. in. situations. with. no. more. than. three. (3).
current. carrying. conductors. in. raceway,. cable. earth. (directly. buried);. under.
ambient.temperature.(not.exceeding).30°C.(85°F);.with.no.required/applicable.
derating ..With.all.conditions.remaining.the.same,.an.AWG.14.could.carry.20.
amps ..However,.the.asterisk.annotation.on.both.AWG.14.and.AWG.12,.through.
the. footnotes. on. Table. 9 .2,. stipulates. that. if.AWG. 14. is. selected. it. must. be.
protected. at. no. more. than. 15. amps .. Selection. of. 15. amp. protection. for. a. 16.
continuous.could.result.in.nuisance.tripping.or.fuse.clearing ..Therefore,.AWG.
12,.with.the.stated.ampacity.of.25.amps,.at.75°C.operation.should.be.selected ..
Also,. selection. of. AWG. 12. would. maintain. the. existing. 20. amp. breaker. in.
compliance.with.the.code .

(b).In.accordance.with.article.210 .20.(A):

“Branch-circuit. conductors. and. equipment. shall. be. protected. by.

overcurrent.protective.devices.that.have.a.rating.or.setting.that.complies.
with.210 .20(A).through.(D) .

(A). Continuous. and. Non-continuous. Loads .. Where. a. branch. circuit.

supplies. continuous. loads. or. any. combination. of. continuous. and. non-
continuous. loads,. the. rating. of. the. overcurrent. device. shall. not. be. less.
than.the.non-continuous.load.plus.125.percent.of.the.continuous.load .”.
NEC®.2011 .

The.over.current.protection.should.be.rated.=.1 .25.x.Continuous.Load
. =.1 .25.x.(6.+.6.+.4).=.20.amps .

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450 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

∴.The.20.amp.circuit.breaker.as.an.over.current.protection.device.is.adequate.
for.the.given.branch.circuit.provided.AWG.12.conductor.is.used .

(c).Ambient.Temperature.Rise.and.Conductor.size:
According.to.Article.310,.Table.310 .15(B)(16),.as.presented.under.Tables.9 .1.
and.9 .2.of.this.text,.when.ambient.deviates.from.40°C,.the.derating/up-rating.
multipliers,.listed.at.the.bottom.of.Tables.310 .15(B)(2)(b)—Table.9 .2.in.this.
text—must.be.applied.to.adjust.the.ampacity.of.the.conductor .

As.recognized.above,.the.ampacity.of.an.AWG.#12,.under.75°C.operation,.is.
25.amps ..From.Table.9 .2,.the.multiplier.for.50°C.ambient,.under.75°C.terminal.
rating,.is.0 .75 .

∴.The.adjusted.or.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#12.conductor,.in.this.case,.would.
be:

. =.0 .75.x.25.amps.=.18,75.amps

Since.the.derated.ampacity.of.AWG.#12,.for.this.application,.falls.below.the.
20.amp.capacity.mandated.by.210 .19.(A).(1),.AWG.#12.would.no.longer.be.
adequate ..Therefore,.AWG.#10,.which.is.the.next.size.above.AWG#12,.must.
be.considered ..According.to.Table.9 .1,.for.75°C.operation,.with.Types.RHW,.
THHW,. THW,. THWN,. XHHW,. USE,. ZW. insulation,. AWG. 10. conductor.
carries.an.allowable.ampacity.of.35.amps ..Then,.if.the.50°C.adjustment.rating.
of. 0 .75. is. applied. to. 35. amp. ampacity. of. an.AWG. 10,. the. derated. ampacity.
would.be:

. =.0 .71.x.35.amps.=.26 .25.amps

Since. the. 26 .25. amp. derated. ampacity. of. AWG. #10. exceeds. the. 20. amp.
requirement,. it. would. meet. the. code .. AWG. #10. should. be. selected. for. this.
application.at.50°C.ambient.temperature .

5 .. A. US. appliance. manufacturer. is. planning. to. market. a. new. appliance. in.
Mexico ..The.most.appropriate.safety.certification.for.this.appliance.would.be:

E .. UL
F .. ULC
G .. ETL

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 451

H NOM: NOM Mark (Norma.Official.Mexicana).NOM.is.a.mark.of.

product. safety. approval. for. virtually. any. type. of. product. exported.
into.Mexico

6 Assume.that.the.alarm.switch.in.the.control.circuit.depicted.below.is.opened.
after. being. closed. for. a. prolonged. period. of. time .. Which. of. the. following.
conditions. would. best. describe. the. status. of. the. annunciating. lights. and. the.
horn.when.the.switch.is.opened?

. E .. Alarm.horn.will.turn.off
. F ... Red.light.will.turn.off
. G .. Green.light.will.turn.on
. H All of the above

ChaPter 10—solutions

1 ... Answer.the.following.questions.pertaining.to.the.branch.circuit.shown.in.
the.schematic.diagram.below:
(a). What.is.the.maximum.voltage.the.power.distribution.system.for.this.
branch.circuit.rated.for?
(b). How.many.wires.and.phases.is.the.power.distribution.system.for.this.

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452 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

motor.branch.circuit.rated.for?
(c). What. would. be. the. proper. rating. for. the. branch. circuit. disconnect.
switch?
(d). What.should.the.solid-state.overload.device.be.set.for.at.commissioning.
of.this.branch.circuit?

Solution
(a). The. maximum. voltage. rating. of. the. power. distribution. system. for.
this.branch.circuit.is.included.in.the.specification.stated.at.the.very.top.of.the.
schematic.diagram,.as.480.V,.within.the.caption:

“480 V Bus,.3.ϕ,.4W,.600.A,.60.Hz .”

Therefore,.the.answer.is:.480 V

(b). The. number. of. wires. and. phases. in. this. branch. circuit. can. be. assessed.
from.the.specification.stated.at.the.very.top.of.the.schematic.diagram:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 453

“480.V.Bus,.3 ϕ, 4W,.600.A,.60.Hz .”

Therefore,.the.answer.is: 3 ϕ, 4W

(c).. The. proper. rating. for. the. branch. circuit. disconnect. switch. can. be.
determined.by.using.the.NEC.®.or.through.the.use.of.published.tables.such.as.
the.Buss.®.table.introduced.earlier.in.this.chapter ..As.stated.in.the.schematic.
diagram—in.the.circled.motor.symbol—the.motor’s.full.load.rating.is.10 hp ..As.

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454 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

specified.at.the.top.of.schematic.diagram,.the.motor.is.being.powered.by.a.480
V, 3-phase.source.(480.V.Bus,.3.ϕ,.4W,.600A,.60.Hz) ..Therefore,.according.to.
the.Buss.®.table,.and.as.highlighted.(circled).below—under.the.“460.V(480V),.
3-ph,.section—the.fusible.disconnect.switch.size would.be 3-ϕ or 3-pole, 30A,
480V See.the.4th.column.from.the.right .

(d). Using.the.Buss.®.table.above,.for.3—phase, 10 hp motor,.operating.at.a.

480 V, the.overload.device.should.be.set.at.17 0 A .

Note:.If.NEC.®.tables.were.used.here,.with.the.full.load.current.rating.of.14A.
(See. the. circled. segment. of. the. Buss. ®. table. below). the. 115%. multiplier. by.
NEC.®.would.result.in.an.overload.setting.of.16A ..It.is.important.to.bear.in.
mind.that.the.NEC.®.requires.that.full.load.amps.stated.on.the.nameplate.of.the.
motor.be.used.for.computations.associated.with.the.code ..In.this.text,.the.Buss.
®.table.is.being.used.for.simplicity.and.illustration.purposes .

2 .. Determine. the. sizes/specifications. of. the. following. components. in. the.

branch.circuit.shown.below.using.the.Bus.®.Table.and.information.included.in.
the.questions:
. (e). Conductor.size
. (f). Conduit.size
. (g). Overload.setting.based.on.the.115%.NEC.®.stipulation .
. (h). Disconnect.switch.size,.safety.and.fusible .

Solution
(a).. Conductor size:. Since. the. load. in. the. given. branch. circuit. is. a. 20-hp.
motor,.at.460/480.V,.we.will.focus.on.the.lower.right.section.of.the.Bus.®.table ..
See.the.circled.20-hp.row.on.the.Bus.®.table.below ..The.rightmost.columns.in.
the.Bus.®.table.represent.NEC.®.based.switch,.starter,.conductor.and.conduit.
sizes ..The.second.column.from.the.right,.for.the.20-hp.motor.load,.shows.that.
AWG # 8 conductor should be specified .

(b). Conduit size: According.to.the.rightmost.column.in.the.Bus.®.table,.a.

½”.conduit.is.permitted.by.the.code.for.housing.AWG.#.8.conductors.associated.
with.the.20-hp.motor .

(c). Overload setting based on the 115% NEC ® stipulation:.First.we.must.

identify.the.FLA,.Full.Load.Amps,.for.the.20-hp.motor,.using.the.Bus.®.table ..
The.FLA.is.listed.in.the.column.adjacent.to.the.HP.column ..So,.according.to.the.

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 455

Bus.®.table,.FLA.for.a.3-phase,.20-hp.motor,.operating.at.460/480.V,.would.be.
27.A ..Then,.as.explained.in.this.chapter,.if.the.code.requires.that.equipment.be.
protected.against.overload.at.115%,.the.overload.should.be.set.at:

1 .15.x.(Motor.Full.Load.Amps).=.1 .15.x.27.A.=.31 A

(d). Disconnect switch size, safety and fusible:.In.order.to.specify.the.sizes.

of. the. branch. circuit. fusible. disconnect. switch. and. the. safety. switch. in. the.
field,. we. will. focus. on. the. fourth. column. from. the. right. in. the. Bus. ®. table ..
In.this.column.we.see.that.60 A switch is required for a 20-hp motor This.
specification.would.apply.to.the.branch.circuit.fusible.disconnect.switch.and.
the.safety.switch.in.the.field .

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456 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

3 .. Consider.the.wiring.diagram.for.the.75-hp.motor.shown.in.Figure.10 .6.
and.answer.the.following.questions.based.on.the.control.logic.explained.in.this.
chapter:

(a). What. would. be. the. likely. outcome. if. the. START. switch. is. depressed.
while.the.motor.is.operating?

Answer:.If.the.START.switch.is.depressed.while.the.motor.is.operating,.the.
START.switch.contacts.will.provide.a.redundant.120.V.supply.to.the.starter.

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 457

coil.and.the.motor.ON.light ..Therefore,.the.motor.will.continue.to.operate,.with.
no.change .

(b). What.would.be.the.outcome.if.START.and.STOP.switches.are.depressed.
simultaneously?

Answer:.If.the.START.and.STOP.switches.are.depressed.simultaneously,.the.
motor.will.stop ..This.is.due.to.the.fact.that.the.120.V.supply.to.the.motor.starter.
coil.is.interrupted.whenever.the.normally.closed.contacts.of.the.STOP.switch.
are.opened .

(c). What.would.be.the.likely.outcome.if.the.main.disconnect.switch.for.the.
MCC.is.opened?

Answer:. If. the. main. disconnect. switch. for. the. MCC. is. opened,. the. 480. V.
supply. to. the. control. transformer. primary. is. removed .. This. de-energizes. the.
secondary,.turns.off.the.120.V.supply.for.motor.control.circuit.and.turns.off.the.
motor.branch.circuit .

(d). Can.the.motor.be.stopped.if.the.motor.starter.latching.contact.“welds”.
shut.due.to.overheating?

Answer:.When.the.spring.loaded.STOP.switch.is.depressed,.the.120.V.supply.
to. the. motor. control. circuit. is. removed. and. the. motor. shuts. off .. However,.
because. the. latching. contact. is. sealed. shut,. the. moment. the. STOP. switch. is.
released,.the.motor control coil would re-energize.and restart the motor..This.
is.due.to.the.fact.that.with.the.coil.latching.contacts.sealed.closed,.the.START.
switch.is.not needed.to.start.the.motor .

4 .. Consider. the. logic. associated. with. Timer. P105 .TD. in. Rung. #. 11. of.
the. PLC. relay. ladder. logic. program. shown. in. Figure. 10 .10. and. answer. the.
following.questions:

a).What.would.be.status.of.the.timer.Done.bit:.“--| |--“.105 .TD_.CASCADE_.

START ..DN,.if.the.XIC.System.E-Stop.bit.turns.“False,”.1.second.after.Timer.
P105 .TD.in.Rung.#.11.is.turned.on?

Answer:.The.“--| |--“.105 .TD_.CASCADE_.START ..DN.bit.is.OFF.when.the.

timer. begins. the. count .. This. bit. remains. OFF. until. the. timer. has. timed. out.

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458 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

and.Accumulated.time.becomes.equal.to.the.Preset.time.of.2500.milliseconds,.
or. 2 .5. seconds .. The. XIC. System. E-Stop. bit. is. representing. the. state. of. the.
System.Emergency.Stop.switch ..When.this.switch.is.depressed,.the.E-Stop.bit.
turns. “False”. and. the. Timer. P105 .TD_CASCADE_START. rung. (Rung. #11).
is.“broken,”.and.the.timer.stops ..Since,.at.1.second,.or.1000.milliseconds,.the.
accumulated.time.is.not.equal.to.the.present.time.of.2500.milliseconds,.the.105 .
TD_.CASCADE_.START ..DN,.Done.bit.will.remain.OFF .

b).Would. the. “P105. Conveyor. _CMD”. bit—commanding. P105. Conveyor. to.

turn.ON—be.True.if.and.when.the.system.E-Stop.switch.is.engaged/pressed?

Answer:. The. answer. is. no .. This. is. because. the. XIC. System. E-Stop. bit,.
representing.the.state.of.the.System.Emergency.Stop.switch,.will.turn.“False”.
and.stop.the.timer.before.it.times.out.and.turns.ON.the.“P105 .TD_.CASCADE_.
START ..DN”.bit ..From.examination.of.Rung.#11,.we.can.see.that.if.the.P105 .
TD_CASCADE_START .. DN. Done. bit. is. not True,. P105. Conveyor. _CMD”.
coil.will.not energize.and.P105.Conveyor.will.remain.OFF .

ChaPter 11—solutions

1 ..HP,.or.hourly.pricing,.program.is.a.standard.feature.in.all.OPT,.or.Time.of.
Use,.schedules .
A ..True
B False

2 ..The.energy.charge.rate.structure.with.Electrical.OPT.schedule.is:
A ..Flat,.year.round
B ..Tiered
C ..Exponential
D Is a function of time and season

3 ..A.large.industrial.electricity.consumer.set.the.peak.demand.in.July’s.billing.
month.at.40.megawatt ..The.demand.rate.structure.is.same.as.that.included.in.

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 459

Duke. Energy. ®. OPT-I,.Time. of. Use,. rate. schedule,. as. shown. in.Table. 11 .2 ..
Determine.the.demand.cost.for.the.month .
A ..$367,000
B ..$505,000
C ..$407,000
D $476,579

Solution
As.explained.earlier.in.this.chapter,.the.demand.charges.under.OPT-I.rate.
schedule. are. tiered ..The. tiered. levels. of. demand. charges. are. shown. in. Duke.
Energy’s.OPT-I.rate.schedule.introduced.in.this.chapter.under.Table.11 .2 .
As.apparent.from.the.Table.11 .2.excerpt.below,.July.rates,.under.the.OPT-I.rate.
schedule.falls.under.the.summer.months ..Therefore,.the.shaded.section.of.the.
excerpted.table.will.be.used.for.the.tiered.demand.calculation .

Charge.for.the.first.tier,.or.2000.kW.=.(2000.kW) .($14 .0767/kW)

. =.$28,153
Charge.for.the.second.tier,.or.3000.kW.=.(3000.kW) .($12 .8972/kW)
. =.$38,691
Charge.for.the.remaining.demand.=.(40,000.kW.-.5000.kW) .($11 .7067/kW)
. =.$409,734
Total.demand.charge.for.the.month.=.$28,153.+.$38,691.+.$409,734
. =.$476,579

4 ..Calculate.the.energy charge.for.the.month.of.July.considered.in.Problem.3.
if.all.of.the.energy.is.consumed.during.On-Peak.hours,.for.10.hours.per.day ..
Assume.that.there.are.30.days.in.the.billing.month.and.that.the.load.factor.is.
1,.or.100% .

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460 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

A ..$902,000
B $416,808
C ..$2,064,187
D ..None.of.the.above

Solution
As.explained.earlier.in.this.chapter,.the.energy.charges.under.OPT-I.rate.
schedule. are. classified. into. two. categories:. (a). On-Peak. energy. charges. per.
month,. per. kWh,. and. (b). Off-Peak. energy. charges. per. month,. per. kWh ..The.
energy. cost. rates. for. On-Peak. and. Off-Peak. usage. are. shown. in. the. shaded.
fields.of.Table.11 .2.excerpt.below:

Since.the.total.energy.consumption.is.not.given,.we.can.derive.it.based.on.the.
parameters.identified.in.the.problem.statement .

Since.the.load.factor.is.unity,.or.“1,”.as.discussed.earlier.in.this.text:

The.energy.consumed.during.the.billing.month
=.(number.of.hours.of.operation) .(Average.Demand)
=.(30.days/billing.month.x.10.hours.of.operation/day) .(Average.Demand)
=.(300.hours.of.operation/month) .(40,000.kW)
=.12,000,000.kWh.per.month

Total.energy.cost.for.the.month:
=.(12,000,000.kWh) .(3 .4734¢/kWh) .(100¢/$)
. =.$416,808

5 ..Which.of.the.following.statements.describes.the.role.of.EPC.and.ESCO.most.
accurately?

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 461

A. The.terms.EPC.and.ESCO.are.synonymous
B EPC is method for implementing energy projects and ESCOs are
entities that offer this alternative
C .. EPC.is.required.by.Department.of.Energy,.ESCOs.are.not .
D .. None.of.the.above

ChaPter 12—solutions

1 .. Consider. the. lighting. scenario. described. in. Example. 12 .1 .. Determine. the.

impact.on.the.luminous.flux.at.the.1.m.circular.target.if.the.distance.increased.
to.10.m ..See.the.diagram.below .

Solution

Luminous.flux.emitted.by.the.source.and.received.by.the.target.at.a.distance.of.
10.m.is.calculated.using.Eqs ..12 .1,.12 .2.and.12 .3 .

The.ω, I.and.luminous.flux.Φ.values.calculated.above,.with.the.1.m.target.at.
a.10.m.distance,.can.be.compared.with.the.ω, I.and.luminous.flow.Φ.values.

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462 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

calculated.for.the.target.distance.of.5.m.as.shown.in.the.table.below .

It.is.apparent.from.the.table.above.that,.with.all.other.parameters.held.constant,.
as.the.distance of the 1 m target is doubled,.from.5.m.to.10.m,.the.luminous
flux Φ quadruples .

2 ..A. 180W. low. pressure. sodium. vapor. lamp. is. being. used. to. illuminate. an.
exterior.space ..Determine.the.luminous.flux.that.would.be.emitted.by.this.lamp .

Solution
Given:
. P.=.180.W
. From.Table.12 .2,.efficacy.of.a.low.pressure.vapor.lamp.is.180.lm/W

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 463

3 .. Consider. the. scenario. depicted. in. Example. 12 .2. and. assume. that. the.
manufacturer’s. specifications. show. tested. illuminance. of. the. lamp,. at. 3 .0. ft,.
to.be.1000.lx ..Determine.the.amount.of.illuminance,.E,.at.the.floor.elevation,.
directly.below.the.lamp .

Solution
Apply.the.single.source.special.case.interpretation.of.the.inverse.square.
law.in.form.of.Eq ..12 .7:

. E1r12.=.E2r22

In.this.case,
E1 = 1000.lx
r1 = 3 .0.ft
r2 = 2 .33.ft.+.15.ft.=.17 .33.ft
E2 = ?

Then,.by.rearranging.Eq ..12 .7:

4. Consider. the. situation. stated. in. Example. 12 .7 .. Proposed. layout. of. the.
lighting. system. for. the. work. space. is. shown. below .. The. luminous. intensity,.
I,.for.lamp.Y.is.700.cd ..The.luminous.intensity.for.lamps.X.and.Z.is.600.cd ..
Determine.the.following:

a).Illuminance.EY-B,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.source.Y .

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464 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

b).Total.Illuminance,.EB,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.sources.X,.Y.and.Z .

Solution
a).Illuminance.EY-B,.at.point.B,.due.to.light.source.Y .

a).Apply.the.cosine-cubed.law ..Since.point.B.lies.directly.below.source.Y,.angle.
θ.=.0 ..Apply.Eq ..12 .9:

Eq ..12 .9

b).Total.Illuminance,.EB,.at.point.B,.due.the.light.sources.X,.Y.and.Z.can.be.
expressed.as.a.sum.of.illuminance.contributions.by.the.three.sources,.at.point.
B ..In.other.words:
EB.=.EX–B.+.EY–B.+.EZ–B

E Y-B = 77 8 lx,.as.calculated.in.part.(a)
E X-B would. be. calculated. by. applying. the. cosine-cubed. law .. However,. this.
would.require.knowledge.of.value.of.angle.θ.portended.by.the.light.path.X-B.
with.respect.to.the.orthogonal.line.X-A.as.shown.in.the.diagram .

Applying.Pythagorean.theorem.to.the.triangle.XAB:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 465

Then,.by.applying.the.cosine-cubed.law,.or.Eq ..12 .9:

Due.to.symmetry,.by.inspection:

EZ-B = EX-B = 38 4 lx

Therefore,

EB. =.EX–B.+.EY–B.+.EZ–B
. =.38 .4.lx.+.77 .8.lx.+.38 .4.lx
. =.154 .7.lx

Appendix B

Common units and unit ConVersion faCtors

Power
. In.the.SI.or.Metric.unit.system,.DC.power.or.“real”.power.is.traditionally.
measured.in.watts.and:

kW.=.1,000.Watts
MW.=.1,000,000.Watts.=.10.6.W
GW.=.1,000,000,000.Watts.=.10.9.W
TW.=.10.12.W

Where.k.=.1000,.M.=.1000,000,.G.=.1.billion,.and.T.=.1.trillion .

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466 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

. Some.of.the.more.common.power conversion factors.that.are.used.to.

convert.between.SI.System.and.US.system.of.units.are.listed.below:

1 .055.kJ/s.=.1 .055.kW.=.1.Btus
1–hp.=.One.hp.=.746.Watts
. =.746.J/s
. =.746.N-m/s
. =.0 .746.kW
. =.550.ft-lbf/sec

Energy
. In.the.SI.or.Metric.unit.system,.DC.energy.or.“real” energy.is.traditionally.
measured.in.Wh,.kWh,.MWh,.GWh,.TWh.(10.12.Wh) .

kWh.=.1,000.Watt-hours
MWh.=.1,000,000.Watt-hour.=.10.6.Wh
GWh.=.1,000,000,000.Watt-hours.=.10.9.Wh
TWh.=.10.12.Wh

. Some.mainstream.conversion.factors.that.can.be.used.to.convert.electrical.
energy.units.within.the.SI.realm.or.between.the.SI.and.US.realms.are.referenced.
below:

1000.kW.x.1h.=.1.MWh
1.Btu.=.1055.J.=.1 .055.kJ
1.Btu.=.778.ft-lbf

Energy, Work and Heat Conversion Factors:

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 467

Power Conversion Factors:

Temperature Conversion Factors/Formulas:

Common Electrical Units, their components and nomenclature:

Common Unit Prefixes:

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468 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

Wire Size Conversions:

A.circular.mil.can.be.defined.as.a.unit.of.area,.equal.to.the.area.of.a.circle.with.
a.diameter.of.one.mil.(one.thousandth.of.an.inch),.depicted.as:

1 circular mil.is.approximately.equal.to:

•. 0 .7854.square.mils.(1.square.mil.is.about.1 .273.circular.mils)
•. 7 .854×10-7.square.inches.(1.square.inch.is.about.1 .273.million.circular.
mils)
•. 5 .067×10-10.m2
•. 506 .7.μm²
•. 1000.circular.mils.=.1.MCM.or.1.kcmil,.and.is.(approximately).equal.to:
•. 0 .5067.mm²,.so.2.kcmil.≈.1.mm²

AWG to Circular Mil Conversion

The.formula.to.calculate.the.circular.mil.for.any.given.AWG.(American.Wire.
Gage).size.is.as.follows:
.An.represents.the.circular.mil.area.for.the.AWG.size.n .

For.example,.a.AWG.number.12.gauge.wire.would.use.n = 12;.and.the.calculated.
result.would.be.6529 .946789.circular.mils

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Illumination and Lighting System Design 469

Circular Mil to mm2 and Dia (mm or in) Conversion:

Appendix C
Greek Symbols Commonly Used in Electrical Engineering

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Index
Symbols actuator mechanism 260
3-φ phase line current 223 addition of capacitance or capacitive
13 kV Loop Switch 259 reactance 183
∆-Y three phase transformers 126 addition of inverses 19
τ denotes torque 138 adjustable speed motor 231
φ—neutral, 112 adjusted or derated ampacity 276
adjustment factors 274
A affinity laws 251
AAC (area access control) 294 aggregate weighting factor 372, 373,
AC 87, 88 374
AC alternator 214, 215 air circuit breakers 261
AC alternator construction and out- alarm horn 301, 332
put waveform 215 alarm light 301, 332
AC asynchronous motors 231 alarm switch 300
AC circuit with a lagging power fac- algorithm 330
tor 171 Allen Bradley Control Logix Pro-
accumulated or elapsed time 338 grammable Controller 333
AC current 3, 4 alligator clip 11
AC frequency 98, 191 alternating current (AC) 87, 88
AC generator 209, 215 alternating current and impedance 94
AC induction motor 217 aluminum conductors 269
construction 218 ambient temperature rise and con-
AC inverters 230 ductor size 276
AC motor speed control 230 ampacity 267, 272
AC power 143 correction factors 272
AC sequence from ABC to ACB 250 analog 253
AC sinusoidal voltage 216 AND gates 79
AC source 37 angle 144
AC synchronous motor 231 angle computation formula 174
AC transformer circuit 107 angle of AC current 95,169
actual power demand 196 angle of AC voltage 169
actual speed 219 angle of apparent power 145
actual vs. forecasted power demand angular difference 170
(kW) 197 angular frequency 190
actuator lever 260 annual energy consumption 140

471

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472 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

anode 12 automated HVAC systems 354

ANSI (American National Standards automated manufacturing cell 302
Institute) 286, 290 automated power factor correcting
apparent power 1, 82, 146, 175, 180, capacitor system 185, 186
195 automotive battery 89
drawn by single phase motor 223 autotransformer 114, 270
drawn by three phase motor 223 average demand 199
in kVA 188 average power 198
appliance load—dwelling unit(s) 278 average value 93
application of KVL 67 of AC 90
arc blast 280 AWG 269
arc divider or extinguisher 261
arc fault 279 B
arc flash 279 back plane 254
arc flash energy 280 base 77
intensity 280 base clipper 73
arc flash hazard analysis 270, 285 baseline billing determinants 203
arc flash hazard calculation 291 baseline charge 201
arc flash hazard label 270, 281 base reflectance 384
arc flash hazards 188 base to emitter junction 77
arc flash incident 42, 44 basic characteristics of inductive
arc flash PPE 283 circuits 31
arc quenching system 262 basic facilities charge 203, 345
area, in the work plane 383 batch MCR 333
area of cross-section 210 bill calculation 203
armature control 230 billing adjustments rider 350
Art. 100—Definitions 267 billing demand for the month 203
Art. 110.6—Conductor Sizes 269 bimetallic strip 260
Art. 110.16—Arc-Flash Hazard biomass and geothermal sources 358
Warning 269 biomass energy 358
Art. 110.26—Clearances and Work- biomass heat 358
ing Space Requirements 270 biomass power 358
Art. 210.9—Circuits Derived from bipolar (FET) junction, npn transis-
Autotransformers 270 tor 77, 78
Art. 210—Branch Circuits 270 blowing of the fuse 118
artificial light sources 381 BMCS, building management control
ASD (adjustable speed drives) 230 systems 355
assessment of power factor 179 BMS, building management systems
augmented matrix 67 196

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Index 473

bolted pressure switch 244 capacitors in parallel 21

bonded (bonding) 267 capacitors in series 18, 19, 20
bottoming cycle cogeneration system cascade start timer 337
355 catastrophic failure of fuses 245
brake horsepower 141, 154, 156, 161 cathode 12, 63
delivered 162 CAT I 239
branch circuit 267, 310, 311 CAT II 239
branch currents 56, 57 CAT III 239
breakers in two phase systems 112 CAT III, 150 V 238
breaker trip threshold 118 CAT IV 239
break horsepower 3, 4 CAT IV, 1000 V 238
break horsepower-hour 3 cavity ratio 384
brightness 366 CE certification 287
brilliant flash 282 centrifugal switch 229
Btu (British thermal unit) 137, 139 ceramic resistor 80
buck boost transformers 114 charged inductor 25
buck-boost voltage regulating trans- charged particles 2
formers 116, 117 charge storage capacity 14
building envelope improvements 355 charging and discharging rate 28
Bulletin 800T 249 CHP, combined heat and power 355
bus-bar 11 circuit breaker 258, 259
Bus® Table, used for electrical de- and fuse types 271
sign verification 312, 313 circular mils 269
clamping circuit 73
C clamp-on ammeter 1, 41, 44
cable pull safety switches 294 Class B insulation windings 232
calculation for large electrical power classification based on the winding
bills 201 insulation type 231
calibration screw 260 clipped 11
Calories/cm2 280 clockwise magnetic flux 104
candela 364, 365 coefficient matrix 68
capacitance 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 168 coefficient of utilization 383, 384
required to improve the power cogeneration 355
factor 184 coil windings 209
capacitive reactance 1, 23, 181, 189 coils 25, 26
overdose 186 coincident AC voltage and current
capacitor 12, 13, 14, 19, 80 and perfect power factor 167
charging phase 18 collector 76, 77
capacitor-run 228 to base junction 77

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474 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

combination of the two impedances conjugate of vector 151

110 constant speed motors 231
combined cycle cogeneration system construction management and super-
355 vision 352
commercial 342 construction of a solenoid 26
commercial/governmental classifica- contactor 25, 249
tion 350 contacts 260
commercial law 353 continuity 11
common commutator 209 tests 11
common rail-mounted thermal-mag- continuous 253
netic miniature circuit breaker load 267, 271
261 contracts 349
common single phase AC transform- control contactor 187
er applications 111 control devices in the field 330
commutator 214 control diagram/drawing 327
comparison between SMCs, VFDs control relay 300
and soft starts 253 control sequence 327
complex AC 50 control system 255, 355
complex circuits 49 control transformer 187, 254, 325
complex numbers and vectors 121, control wires 249
144 conventional hydroelectric dams 358
complex, vector, representation of conversion of AC voltage into DC
line RMS current 151 voltage 91
complex, vector, representation of copper 7
line to line or phase to phase correction factors 274
RMS 151 cosine-cubed law 379
complex, vector representation of cosine law 376, 378
single phase AC power 145 cosine of the angle of the impedance
complex, vector, representation of 179
single phase AC voltage 145 Coulomb 4, 92
complex, vector, representation of counter and timer based control logic
three phase AC power 150 332
compliance with OSHA 280 CPU, central processing unit 327
computation of large commercial microprocessor 328
electrical power bills 201 Cramer’s Rule 64, 67, 69
concussion (noise) 282 cross-wired 324
conductor 6, 7, 25, 272 CSA (CSA Group) 286
sizes 269 CT I/O block 120
conduit and conduit size 312, 314 CU, coefficient of utilization 355

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Index 475

current 3, 4 DC generator or dynamo 210

current carrying conductors 314 DC motor 213, 214
size 311, 312 speed control 230
current comparison, AC versus DC DC output 93
90 DC power 141
current division 60 DC source 37
current function follows voltage DC voltage 2, 3, 212
function 168 DC voltage output of a DC generator
current lagging behind voltage 90, or dynamo 211
97, 168, 175 DC voltage source 39
current lagging voltage in phase dekatherms 139
angle domain 172 Delta-Delta, 3-phase transformer
current lagging voltage in time do- configuration 123
main 172 Delta-Delta, voltage and current
current leading the voltage 181 transformation 124
in phase angle domain 177 Delta-star, 3-phase voltage and cur-
in time domain 177 rent transformation 126
current protection and minimum Delta-wye transformer wiring dia-
conductor size 277 gram 125
current response 17 Delta (∆)-Delta (∆) combinations
of a diode 71 122
of a Zener diode 73 demand 195
current transformer (CT) 44, 118, computation 196
119, 120, 256 elasticity 356, 357
applied to a single phase AC 121 and the effect of demand re-
applied to a three phase 121 sponse 357
operating principle 119 forecast 196
current vs. time plot 89 demand (in kW) 198
demand response 356
D measures 357
daylight based design considerations or load management technologies
381 356
daylight factor method 382 demand-side management 203
DC 3, 39, 88 design engineering 351
DC and AC currents 3, 39, 88, 89 determinant 68
DC circuit analysis 49 determination of billing demand 347
DC clamp-on ammeters 46 DeviceNet® 293
DC electrical power 142 diagnostics 294, 301
DC generator 209, 210, 213 diagrammatic logic code 333

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476 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

dielectric medium 13, 14 hTurbin 153

differential pressure 156, 158 efficient and effective application of
digital clamp-on ammeter 45 three phase AC 150
digital multi-meter 43 electrical 195
diode 49, 69, 70, 79 electrical and controls drawings 307
diode-resistor circuit 74 electrical and electronic safety de-
direct current (DC) 87, 88 vices 291
Direct Digital Control (DDC) 120 electrical circuits 39
systems 355 electrical conduit 314
direction of flow of AC power 104 electrical energy 2, 357
direct-on-line starting 229 stored in a capacitor 14
discharge 17 electrical frequency 190, 210, 212
discrete 253 Electrical Metallic Tubing: Type
discrete 115 VAC output module 328 EMT 272
discrete signals 328 electrical power 139, 156
distribution segment 235 baseline parameters 203
distribution service 350 distribution systems 311
distributions of daylight 381 drawn by the motor 158
DNet module 293 generated 162
doping 69 generator 154
dot convention for transformers 104 rate schedules 341
DSM (demand-side management) electrical resistance 5
184, 352, 356 electrical safety certifications 286
dynamo 209, 210 electrical shielding 251
electrical shock 283
E electrical short 11, 325
economy demand 347 electric arc 24
charge 205 electric horsepower 162
effective (AC) current 4 electric motor horsepower required
effective (AC) voltage 2 140
effective resistance 91 electric power rates 343
effective value of AC voltage 3 electric utility companies 349
efficacies of various lighting systems electric utility rate schedules 342
363 electric vehicles 214
efficacy values for common light electric water heater 140
sources 369 electrochemical engine 2
efficiency 152 electrodeposition 3, 90
in percent 153 electrodes 12
of the luminaire 383 electrolytes 14

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Index 477

electromagnetic field 217 energy efficiency enhancement tech-

electromagnetic interference 113, 251 nologies 356
electromagnetism 26, 39 energy flow and power flow prin-
electromechanical equipment 239 ciples 158
electromechanically controlled energy loss reduction 188
device 249 energy performance contracting 351,
electromechanical realm 153 353
electromechanical relay 332 energy procurement 353
electromechanical safety circuits 297 energy productivity 168
electromechanical systems 220 Energy Star Rating 355
electromotive 1 energy storage capacity 26
force 2, 39, 40 energy storage device 12
electronic controls 230 energy usage (in kWh) 198
electronic devices 49 enthalpy 158, 159
electronic safety devices 235 EPC 341, 351, 352
electronic switch 78 EPC and ESCO alternatives 351
electrons 2 equivalent 19
electroplating 91 capacitance 20, 22
ELI the ICE man 168 capacitor 19, 21
emergency standby generators 348 impedance 99, 101, 109, 111, 171
emergency stop relays 301 inductance 34, 35
EMF (voltage) 215, 229 resistance 12, 52
EMI 113 resistor 9, 10
emitter 77 ESCO 341, 351, 352, 353
junction 77 opportunities 351
EMS based electrical power bill 201 projects 353
EMS, energy management systems E-Stops operator 292
354 E-stop switch 303
EMS, energy monitoring systems Ethernet connection 335
196 Ethernet LAN 256
energized conductors 117 ETL and UL Listings 286
energized equipment 285 ETLCM 286
energy 138, 142 examination of branch circuit 311,
audit 351 324
charges 205, 345 Examine if ON 336
conservation 341 Example of a Classification “0” label
conservation projects 354 285
cost rate 342 Example of NFPA 70 E Class 4 PPE
cost savings opportunities 341 284

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478 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

examples of a safety certification flow of energy 153

labels 286 flow of power and energy 156
exclusive OR gates 79 flux, in lumens 368
explosive volumetric increase 279 flux to current and current to flux
exponential effect 8 conversion 113
exponential form 94, 98 flywheel 24
externally reflected component 382 foot-candles 371
external work 220 forward biased 70, 77
extra facilities charge 203 four diode bridge 75
extra high voltage (EHV) systems frequency manipulation 182
237 approach for correction of power
extra low voltage 236 factor 189
frequency of the AC power source 37
F friction 5
fail safe 328 frictional head loss 6, 153
fan laws 251 ft-c 365
farad 13 ft-lbf 137
Faraday, Michael 24 full load 219
Faradays 91, 92 amp 312
feeder 268 condition 115
Ferraz Shawmut class J and RK 245 line current 224
ferromagnetic cylindrical core 25 voltage 115
ferromagnetic substances 41 full wave rectifier 73, 75, 76
ferroresonant, magnetic saturation fuse 79
based, transformers 116 fusible disconnect switch 310, 312,
field control 230 319
field current 213 FVNR, full voltage non-reversing
final power factor 226 motor starter 248
Finance and Accounting for Energy FVR, full voltage reversing starter
Engineers 168, 201, 203 and variety 229, 250
financial justification 353
financial return and payback associ- G
ated with power factor correction gate 72
projects 187 general duty 231
fixed charges 201 general service schedule 345
flexibility in load schedules 350 general wiring 271
flip flops 79 generation segment 235
floating 129 generator efficiency hGenerator 153,
florescent lamps 354 156

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Index 479

generators 209 high-pressure four-point connection

geometric hypotenuse 171 245
geometric representation of complex high UV emission 282
AC entities 94 high-voltage circuit breakers 262
geometry of the inclined light path 380 high voltage systems 237
geothermal energy 358 HMI (human machine interface) 184,
geothermal heat 357, 358 355
geothermal power 358 holes 1, 39
graphical analysis of lagging power Hopkinson’s Law 40
factor 173 horizontal and vertical components
graphical analysis of leading power 96
factor 178 horizontal ground bus 242
graphical contrast between AC volt- bars in an MCC 243
age and current waveforms 97 horn-acknowledge and silence button
graphical representation of imped- 332
ance Z in vector form 99 hot conductors 117
ground 268 hourly pricing option/schedule 348
ground conductor 314 HP 342
ground conductor size 311, 314 charges 205
grounded/neutral conductors 271 hourly pricing, billing determi-
grounded three phase AC service 310 nants 205
grounding 268 human response factors 382
and bonding 271 HVAC, heating, air conditioning and
ground light contributions 382 ventilation 355
ground system bus stabs in a typical hybrid capacitor combination 22
MCC 246 hybrid, parallel-series, network 50
GuardEdge™ Safety Edges 296 hydraulic horsepower or fluid horse-
power 155
H hydraulic or fluid system 158
half hour intervals 196 hydraulic pump systems 158
half wave rectifier 73, 74 hydroelectric power 358
Hall Effect Principle 46 generating system 161
hazard/risk category or Class 0 283
hazards of arc flash 281 I
heat sink 144 I2R losses 316
heat source 144 ICI, International Commission on
high efficiency chillers 355 Illumination 363
higher efficiency 199 ideal 104
higher wattage ceramic resistor 80, 82 transformer 103, 104

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480 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

transformer equivalent circuit 108 incoming power circuit breaker in a

transformer model 105, 108 typical MCC 245
IEC enclosure IP44 241 incoming power fusible disconnect
IEC enclosure IP65 241 switch in a typical MCC 244
IEC, International Electrotechnical inductance 24, 26, 27, 30, 168, 189
Commission 267, 287, 290 or inductive reactance to
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and correct for leading power
Electronic Engineers 290 factor 188
IESNA 363 inductive device 24
IESNA illumination guidelines 372 inductive reactance 1, 37, 38, 171
IESNA illumination level weighting inductive-resistive circuit 28
guidelines 371, 374 inductor 24
illuminance 365, 366, 370, 373, 376, industrial 342
377, 379, 380 industrial byproduct technologies 356
illuminance at the source 378 industrial electrical power bill—EMS
illuminance cosine-cubed law 378 system based 204
illuminance distributions 382 industrial/public authority classifica-
illuminance from the unobstructed tion 350
sky 382 inefficient lighting systems 354
illuminance in the work plane 383 ingress protection 287
illuminance inverse square law 377 initial enthalpy 160
illuminated spherical area 368 initial power factor 226
illumination 363, 366 input control diagram 328
contribution 377 input control drawing 329
Illumination Engineering Society of input module 328
North America 363 input/output (I/O) blocks 120
illumination level 370 inputs and outputs 333
guidelines for important tasks 375 inrush current 253
weighting guidelines 373 inrush limiting contactors 187
illumination standards 363 in sight from, within sight from,
imbalanced load condition 118 within sight 268
impedance 1, 38, 229 instrumentation 235
impedance analysis 98 insulators 258
impedance contribution 23, 171 integrated circuit (IC) 79
by the capacitance 39 interlock contacts 325
by the inductor 37 interlocking or duplexing feature 112
incident energy 280 interlock on MCC cubicle 248
incoming lug compartment 243 internally reflected illuminance com-
on a typical MCC 244 ponent 382

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Index 481

internal or external inputs 333 power factor 90, 170, 175

International Electrotechnical Com- power factor from impedance
mission Standard 267 perspective 170
international protection 287 power factor graph 169
International Society of Automation power factor graph as a function
(ISA) 291 of phase angle 169
International Standards 267 Lamberts Law 376
interruptible 342 illustration of 376
interruptible contract demand 349 large industrial electric bill calcula-
interruptible power service schedule, tion 206
IS 349 latching contact 327
inverse square law 379 leading 168
illustration of 377 currents 226
inverter driven AC motors 214 power factor 177
invisible (infra-red) light beams 293 power factor from impedance
I/O blocks 254 perspective 175
ionized air 24 LED, light emitting diode 80, 81, 354
IP56 233 lighting design 371
IPMVP, International Performance consideration 381
Measurement and Verification lighting efficacy 355
Protocol 352 comparison 371
IP rating 287, 288 lighting load 310
irradiance 366 lighting principles 363
lighting system design 363
J lighting terms, concepts and stan-
J (Joules) 14, 137 dards 364
jumper leads 11 light loss factor 383, 384
linear force 141
K line current drawn by the motor 224
kcmil 269 line of sight 319
key interlock solenoid switches 295 load factor 1, 195, 198
kinetic energy 24, 138, 220 load factor of unity 198
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 49, 54 load impedance 108
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law 49, 51 lockable disconnect switch 319
KVL method 62 locked rotor 230
logical functions 332
L loop switches 257
labeled 268 loose voltage regulation 116
lagging 168 lossless 104

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482 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

LOTO feature in the incoming power magnitude 144

disconnect switch 247 of AC current 95
low efficiency 199 of apparent power 146
lowest marginal cost 357 of the line to line, or phase to
low load factor 199 phase RMS 151
low voltage applications 42 of the real power 149
low voltage circuit breakers 260 of the single phase AC power 149
low voltage connectors 236 of the total apparent power 148
low voltage differential signaling 236 of three phase AC power 150
low voltage in power supplies for main circuit breaker 244
fluorescent lamps 236 main disconnecting means 243
low voltage overhead power lines 236 main fusible disconnect switch 243
low voltage systems 236 main switch yard 258, 259
low wattage resistor 80 and medium voltage switchgear
lumanious efficacy 371 256
lumen method 382 maintained illuminance 383
lumens 364 manufacturing processes 345
luminaire 377 master control relay 333
luminous efficacy or efficiency 368, maximum allowable operating tem-
369 perature 231
luminous efficiency factor 369 maximum power generated 161
luminous flux 364, 365, 366, 368, maximum torque 213
370 maximum value 98
luminous intensity 364, 365, 366, of the AC 90
367, 368, 380 MCC (motor control center) 239, 308
lux 365, 377 MCC bus bars 308
LVDS 236 and bus connections 241
voltage level 236 network 242
MCC cabinet 308
M MCC compatible power monitoring
magnet field intensity 211 equipment 256
magnetic circuits 39 MCC enclosure NEMA specifica-
magnetic energy 41 tions 240
magnetic field 24, 25, 40, 209 MCC power distribution system 308
magnetic flux 25, 26, 40, 119 MCR (master control relay) 336
density 119, 210 mean length of the core 27
magnetic reluctance 41 measures typically included in ESCO
magnetized rotor 215 or EPC endeavors 354
magnetomotive force 40 mechanical energy 2, 156

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Index 483

mechanical stress or strain 44 motor starter details 248

mechanical work 143 motor starter pilot devices 250, 251
mechanically commutated electric motor torque 229
motor 213 and power 220
medium or high voltage 44 MOV 82
medium voltage switchgear—loop multi-loop circuit analysis 61
switch 257 multi-meter 1, 41
medium voltage system 237 multiphase AC systems 44
mercury lamps 354 municipal 342
metal oxide varistor 82
metering or display of AC current 120 N
micro-Farad 13 NAESCO, National Association of
Micro-Logix series 254 Energy Service Companies 352
microphone preamp voltage level NAND gates 79
237 n and p doping 76
mid-range illumination level 375 nano-Farad 13
minimum area of cross-section 316 National Electric Code 265
minimum conductor size 277 n-doped 76
modems 256 NEC® National Electrical Code 242,
monitoring and verification of energy 272
savings 352 ampacity table 273, 274, 315
motor branch circuit 312 Article 240.6 (A) 323
motor classifications 231 Articles 266
motor control center (MCC) 235, 239 handbook 265
motor dynamometer 221 introduction and outline 266
motor efficiency 158, 223, 321 negative electrode 63
motor frame size 233 negative half of the AC 75
motor line current computation, negatively charged ions 1
single and three phase 221 NEMA and IP electrical enclosure
motor nameplate information, large ratings 289
three phase induction motor 232 NEMA based efficiency of the motor
motors 209 233
motors add inductive reactance 186 NEMA enclosure types 240
motor slip 219, 231 NEMA® ratings 287, 288
motor soft starts 252 NEMA “Size 1” starter 318
motor starter—A-B Bulletin 2100 NEMA Type 1 241
247 NEMA Type 12 241
motor starter coil 327 NEMA versus IP enclosure ratings
motor starter contactor 325 288

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484 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

net capacitance 24 Ohm’s Law 6, 39, 49, 50, 214

net head added 156 application of 53
by the pump 158 Oil circuit breaker 262
neutral conductor 268 omnidirectional light source 365, 368
neutral leg of the three phase system one-line drawing 307
118 one-line schematic 308, 310, 317
NFPA® 188 diagram 307
70 E 279 for a power distribution system
70 E 265 309
70 E Class 4 hazard 284 one time constant 32
N-m (Newton-meters) 137 on-peak billing demand 347, 350
nodal analysis technique 55 charge 205
node 54, 55 on-peak demand 199
no load condition 115 on-peak hours 347
NOM Mark: (Norma Official Mexi- onsite generation 350
cana) 286, 287 open circuit 11
non-invasive 42 opening 260
non-linear 16, 17, 28 operating frequency 226
current response 30 operations and maintenance 352
fashion 14 opportunities for electrical energy
voltage response 29 cost savings 348
non-safety control systems 303 OPT 203, 201, 360, 458
NOR gates 79 time of the day 196
normally closed contact 335 optional power industrial service 345
normally open 328 OR gates 79
contacts 325 oscilloscope 88
npn 76 OSHA, Occupational Safety and
NPV, net present value analysis 363 Health Administration 280
n-type semiconductor 69 outlets in dwelling unit(s) 278
number of poles 210, 212 output capacity 217
in the design 211 output control diagram 328, 330
number of turns 27, 102, 211 output of a variable frequency drive
190
O overcurrent 268
ocean or tidal energy 358 conditions 245
OCPD 271 protection 271, 272
off-peak hours 199, 347 and conductor ampacity 304
Ohm-meter 41 protection devices 95, 271
ohms 6 protection fuses 249

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Index 485

protection fuse size 312, 318 cal MCC 240

protection fuse specification 321 pilot devices 249, 325
overload 268 pilot light 325
current setting 318 plasma 24
protection device 327 PLC and I/O chassis 254
protection setting 312, 318 PLC based control circuits 297
PLC based control system 307, 330
P PLC control program 336
p and n doped materials 69 PLC input module 327, 330
panelboards 272 PLC output controls drawing 335
parallel combination of inductors 34 PLC output module 78
parallel DC circuit 56 based control drawing 331
parallel plate capacitor 13 PLC power supply 254
parallel resistor network 10 PLC program 336
payback period 363 PLC, programmable logic controller
PCB 79, 81 120, 298, 327, 355
peak clipper 73 PLC programming software 332
peak current, IP 4 PLC relay ladder logic programming
peak demand 196, 198, 199 example 334, 337
interval 196 PLCs incorporated into an Allen-
peak-hold 42 Bradley MCC 254
peak hours 357 plug-in ground bus 243
peak inverse voltage 71 p-n junction 69
peak shaving programs 196 pnp transistors 76
peak voltage 2 polar or phasor form 94, 98
performance of work 137 polyphase induction motors, small
permeability 26, 27 228
of free space or vacuum 27, 41 portable digital multi-meter 42
of the core material 41 positive half of the AC cycle 75
permittivity 13 positive impedance contribution 148
personal protective equipment (PPE) potential difference 12
and voltage rated tools and gloves potential energy 138, 220
281 power 137, 221
phase to ground fault 314 power bill computation 195
phasor representation 94 power conversion from steam to
of the source voltage 117 electrical form 153
physical and thermal background of power conversion from water to elec-
arc flash 281 trical form 155
physical size specifications of a typi- power conversion in hydraulic pump

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486 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

systems 157 prime mover 217

power dissipated 147 printed circuit boards 78, 81
power distribution equipment 235 programmable logic controller (PLC)
measurement categories 238 120, 298, 327, 355
power distribution systems 119 project financing 352
power factor 1, 146, 167, 168, 169, projectiles 282
174, 180, 198 p-type semiconductor 69
power factor correcting capacitors pull-apart terminal blocks 249
183, 187, 258, 259 pump efficiency 158
power factor correcting capacitors, pump horsepower 155, 157
application, installation, opera- purely resistive 167, 189
tion and maintenance 188
power factor correction 182, 348 R
power factor goal for industrial, com- raceway 269
mercial and institutional facilities rack-out assemblies 251
187 rate-of-change of slip 220
power factor improvement and cost rate of generation of energy 137
savings 184 rate schedules offered by Duke®
power isolation transformer 113 Energy 344
power monitor 256 rates under OPT-I schedule 346
power output of the generator 159 rating of the over current protective
power source 16 device (OCPD) 304
power transistor, npn (or NPN) 80 RC circuit 15, 17
predominantly capacitive 167, 176 time constant 18
AC electrical system 176 reactance 146
predominantly inductive 167 reactive power 1, 145, 147, 225
circuit 183 reactive power (Q, in VARs) 188
preset time 338 real power 1, 145, 195
pressure differential 2 demanded by a single phase mo-
pressure drop 6 tor 223
pressure loss 6 demanded by a three phase motor
pressures on the intake and exit ends 223
of a turbine 161 drawn by the motor 163
pressure switch 330 rear termination points on an Allen-
preventive maintenance program 188 Bradley Power Monitor 257
primary and secondary side of a rectangular form 94
transformer 102 rectification 70
primary and secondary windings 103 rectifiers 70, 71
primary stator 217 reduced market price 357

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Index 487

reduced-voltage reactor or auto- RLC (Resister, Inductor and Capaci-

transformer starting 229 tor) circuit 189
reduces transient voltage drops 253 RMS 211, 212
redundant coils 301 clamp-on ammeter 5
reflectance 373, 374 current 4
reflectance of task background 374 value 44
reflective properties of the space 383 voltage 2, 3
relative permeability 27 voltmeter 5
relative permittivity 13 Rockwell® Area Access Control 295
relay 25, 187 Rockwell-Automation Soft Start 253
ladder logic 332, 333 Rockwell® GaurdEdge System 298
reluctance 41 Rockwell® GaurdMat Switch System
renewable electricity 359 297
generation breakdown 359 Rockwell® Key interlock solenoid
renewable energy measures 357 safety switch system 296
renewable energy portfolio standard Rockwell® Safety Light Curtain 293
(REPS) adjustment 350 Rockwell® Safety PLC (Program-
renewable energy technologies 358 mable Logic Control) System 299
renewable natural sources 357 Rockwell® Safety Relays and Con-
residential breaker panel 112 tactors 301
residential electrical power bill 202 romagnetic circuit 40
residential rate structures 342 root mean square value 2
residential service 343 rotating 214
resistance 5, 6, 7, 9, 16, 17, 30 rotational speed 23, 37, 210, 221
resistive circuit 15 of the armature 219
resistivity 6, 7, 8 of the dynamo 211
resistors in parallel 9, 10 of the generator 212
resistors in series 9, 21 of the rotor 219
resonance angular 190 rotor 218
resonance electrical frequency 190 windings 217, 218
resonance frequency 189, 191 routers 256
response 28
return on investment 363 S
reverse biased 70 safe operating load 200
RIA—Robotics Industries Associa- SafeShield DeviceNet 294
tion 291 safety cable pull switch 303
Rider 349 Safety Compliance Statement 287
Rigid Metallic Conduit 316 safety control circuits 296
RL circuit 29, 31 safety E-stop devices 291

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488 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

safety guard 303 shrapnel injuries 282

safety interlock 332 shunt 60
contacts 325, 332 silicone controlled rectifier 71
safety laser scanner 303 silver plated copper conductors 241
safety light curtain system 292 simulated arc-flash incident 281, 283
safety limit switch 303 simultaneous equations 64
safety PLC 293, 297, 303 sine waveform 89
based control circuits 298 single phase AC alternator/generator
safety relays 300 216
schedule OPT-I (NC) 345, 347 single phase AC current 145
schedule or rider SG, on-site genera- single phase AC generator 216
tion 348 single phase AC induction motor
schedule RS (NC) 343 current 222
SCRs 71, 72 single phase AC power 143, 144, 145
sealing contacts 327 single phase AC system 118
secondary side 103 single phase alternator 212
secondary turns, NS 107 single-phase capacitor-start 228
secondary windings 218 single phase configuration 150
self-actuating electronic switch 70 single phase induction motors 119
self-commutated motors 231 sinusoidal AC waveform 74, 93
self-monitoring contact blocks 292 sinusoidal form 94, 215
self-starting polyphase induction sinusoidal or trigonometric form 96
motors 229 sinusoidal representation 97
semiconductor 69 sinusoidal voltage 96
series 9 size of the OCPD 277
series inductor combination 33 size of the service and feeder con-
series inductor hybrid circuit 36 ductors 278
series RC circuit 15 skin effect 230
series reactor 253 sky component 382
series RL circuit 27, 28, 30 SLC-500 254
series RL current 32 slip 217
service contract 201 slow blow fuses 187
service factor 195, 200 smart motor controller 252
SF6 circuit breakers 262 smart motor controllers (SMC) 251
shaded pole 228, 229 SMC 50, Rockwell-Automation
shock wave 282 Smart Motor Controller 252
short 11, 31 sodium vapor lamps 354
short-circuit current rating 269 solar energy 358
short circuit protection fuse 332 solar heat energy 358

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Index 489

solar photovoltaic electrical energy star (Y)-Delta (∆) 122

358 star (Y)-Star (Y) 122
solenoid 261 stator 218
coil 78 stator serves as an armature 214
locking switches 295 steam power generation system 154
operated valve 25 steam to wire power and energy flow
valve 78 154
solid angle 364 steam turbine efficiency 158
in steradians 365 step down, residential power distri-
solid state motor overload device 318 bution transformer 112
solid-state soft starting systems 229 with load 112
special purpose 231 step-down single phase transformer
diodes 71 configuration 111
special riders 201 step down transformer 107, 258
specification of RS service 343 configuration 107
specific weight 156, 158 step down voltage transformation
speed of a DC motor 213 111
speed/torque regulation characteris- stepping down of voltage 88
tics 213 stepping up 88
split-phase 228 step-up or step-down single phase
squirrel cage rotor 218 transformer application 111
bars 230 step up transformer 107
stab assembly 245 steradian 364
behind a typical MCC cubicle stiff 115
246 substitutional matrix 68
standard (nameplate) load 200 sulfur hexafluoride gas 262
standard temperature 8 superheated steam 144, 154
star-Delta, 3-phase voltage and cur- supply side 341
rent transformation 129 sustainable materials 360
star-delta starting 229 and associated operations 360
star-star, 3-phase transformer wiring switchboards 272
diagram 130 symbols, units and conversion factors
star-star, voltage and current trans- in illumination 366
formation 131 symmetrical fault current 269
starter size 312, 318 synchronous motors 226
starting current 268 synchronous speed 212, 217, 218,
starting methods for iduction motors 219, 231
228 system interlocks 296
start-up and commissioning 352 system power factor 182

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490 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

T toroid 40
T-8 or T-5 florescent light systems 354 toroidal core transformer 103
target illumination levels 375 toroid type inductor 79
TEFC, totally enclosed fan cooled, torque 137, 138, 220, 221
motor 218 developed in ft-lbf 224
temperature 8 total apparent power 147
temperature in ARC plasma 280, 282 total baseline charge 205
temperature switch 328, 330 total bill 201
terminal blocks 249 for the month 206
terminal strip 81 total illuminance emitted by the light
thermal coefficient of resistance 8 source 383
thermistor 229 total impedance 182
three phase AC 117 total weighting factor 375
alternator/generator 216 transduced 44
indusction motor current 222 transformation discounts 350
power 149 transformation of power 154
rectification 119 transformer 88, 102
system 118 transient 16, 17, 28
three phase configuration 150 behavior 14, 28
three phase transformers 121 response 15
three phase Y- Y transformer configu- transistor 49, 76, 79
ration 128 transmission lines 8
three phase Y-∆ transformer configu- transmission segment 235
ration 127 transmission service 350
three phase ∆-Y transformer configu- transformation discount 351
ration 124 trapped key safety switch 303
three phase ∆-∆ transformer configu- trigonometric approach 95
ration 122 trip 260
three pronged approach to electrical tripping of the breaker 118
energy cost reduction 341 true RMS ammeters 105
threshold voltage 72 true RMS voltmeters 105
thyristor 72 turbine efficiency h turbine 156
time constant 17, 24, 28 turbine entrance and exit enthalpies
time-delay fuse 318, 322 160
time of use industrial service 345 turns ratio 105
time of use rate schedule 196
timer based starting control logic 336 U
timer setting 336 UHV 237
topping cycle cogeneration system 355 UL® 286

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Index 491

ULC, Underwriters Laboratories of voltage categories 235

Canada 287 voltage comparison, AC versus DC
ultra-high voltage systems 237 89
ultra-violet light 282 voltage difference 2
unequal phase impedances 118 voltage division 58
unit for impedance 98 voltage drop 29, 53, 115
unit grounding provisions 246 polarities 66
unit ground stab 246 voltage in terms of time as well as
unit handle 246 the angle 171
unit interlock 247 voltage, nominal 269
unit load ground connector 246 voltage regulating transformers 116
units for illuminance 365 voltage regulation 114
unit vector 146 in percent 116
unity power factor 189 voltage regulator 79, 114
U.S. electrical outlet voltage 89 voltage response 16
U.S. electricity generation 359 voltage transformation 88
utility company account managers Volt-Ohm-Meter, or VOM 42
349 volumetric flow rate 158, 162
utility rate schedule and contract tips of water 156
349
W
V wall reflectance 384
vacuum circuit breakers 261 wasted heat 6
vaporized copper 282 watchdog circuit 299
variable frequency drives (VFD) 113, water horsepower 156, 157
220, 230, 235, 250, 252, 255, 335 water horsepower 161, 162
vector addition of vectors 179 water to wire 155, 156
vector representation of phasor value water to wire power and energy flow
of AC current 95 155
velocity, change in 141 Weber, Wilhelm Eduard 40
vertical and horizontal ground bus weight density 156
bars in a typical MCC 242 weighting factors 371, 372, 373
vertical ground bus 242 WHP 155, 156
VFDs or variable frequency drives wind energy 358
113, 220, 230, 235, 250, 252, winding coils 209
255, 335 wind turbines 358
virtual symbols 332 wire to water 137
voltage 2, 16 flow of energy 158
voltage applied to the armature 213 power flow 157

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492 Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers

transformation of power and

energy 157
wiring diagram 310, 324
for power distribution system 326
wiring numbers 325
work 138
wound rotor 218
wye-Delta, transformer wiring dia-
gram 127

Z
Zener, Clarence 72
Zener diodes 71, 72, 73
zener knee voltage 73
zonal cavity method 381

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