Chapter II: Asking and Answering

Sociological Questions / Social

Research Methodology

Poverty and Famine

Lack of Entitlements to production

system/resources

Amarta Sen
  Sociological Question
 Common Sense
 Science (in-depth/details)
 Theory
 Basic Elements of Science
 What is Social Research?
 Types of Social Research
 Phases/Steps/Elements of Social Research/Research
Design

Sociological Questions?
 How society works?
 Factual information about society
 Factual investigations

Understanding cause and effect relation

Causation and correlation
Causal Mechanisms

Education and Income

Foundation of Social Research:

What is common sense?

Common sense is sound practical judgment concerning everyday

matters, or a basic ability
to perceive, understand,
and judge that is shared by ("common
to") nearly all people.

Your common sense is your natural ability to make good judgments and

to behave in a practical and sensible way.

Common sense is a value imposed knowledge.

Where things are commonly believed and are considered to be true.

What is science?
Science is in-depth
Knowing the natural world and human world by explaining the

natural phenomenon and social phenomenon

through
 An systematic
 Scientific
 And mathematical observation

Basically science is to understand/discover

different activities/functions around
our world/environment

Basic three elements of science

1. Observation and Description: Events/things that are apparent
around us science does observe and describe

2. Discover general rules: Discover the rules how things work/function

3. Construction of theory: Make a theory based on the knowledge

gained from observation
Example: Transformation of Intimacy/Theory of Class Struggle

POVERTY and FAMINE

Amerta Sen: Entitlement Approach

Lack of Entitlement (Right/Control/Access to) to

Resources Available in Society
What is theory?

It is difficult to nail down the term theory because

 the concept has different meaning to different
disciplines and even at different moments in a
particular discipline.

GOD/SUPERNATURAL POWER

In its most simple sense any conjecture and deduction drawn from
general experiences is called theory.

It is a set of principles, abstracts that

is used to
 explain
 analysis and
 predict any phenomena, process and
occurrence

Theory is a analytical framework to explain

 “if and then” conditions
Theory is basically an explanation of the
 Relationship and
 Underlying principles
that appear to characterize the particular phenomena under study.

More specifically theory explains the

 Relationships
 Causality and
 Dependency of certain variables.

Social Research
Social research relating to the questions relevant to
 The social scientific fields such as sociology,
human geography, social policy, politics etc.

Definition
Social research involves research that draws on the social sciences for conceptual and
theoretical inspiration.

Poverty and Famine: Amerta Sen

Lack of Entitlement (Right/Access/Control) to
Resources

Systematic Inquiry/Investigation

Social research can take many forms, systematic

inquiry is a common thread.

Systematic inquiry requires

 careful planning of an orderly investigation.

Social Research like

 other forms of scientific inquiry is a sequence of
highly interrelated activities

What is Research?
Research is
 discovering the truth
  systematic investigation to find answers of
social problem
 to search again
 to take another more careful look
 to find more

What is scientific method?

The scientific method is a
 Systematic
 Organized series of steps
that ensures maximum
 objectivity and
 consistency in reaching a problem.

A Sen

POVERTY AND FAMINE

(Lack of) Entitlement Matters for
Famine
Types of Social Research

Based on the nature

1. Fundamental/Pure/Basic Research: Primarily
attempts
 Develop theoretical base and logical
foundation of certain discipline
 Attempts to raise core or fundamental
issues related to the principles and
philosophical foundation of the
subject matter
 Pursues knowledge for knowledge
sake
2. Applied/Operational research: Is carried out
for practical purpose to
 Produce findings
 Identify interventions
that are applicable for functional and immediate use
Applied research refers to investigation carried
out for the
 Acquisition of knowledge
 Application packages in order to control
natural phenomena.

Based on Purpose/Objectives
1. Exploratory Research: Exploratory research
attempts to develop a general understanding
and common familiarity with a phenomenon
and form a new ideas and to achieve new
insight into it.

2. Explanatory Research aims to find out why

things are as they are. It involves
demonstrating the existence or non-existence
of causal relationship between and among
variables.
 3. Experimental Research is specially required
when the research purpose is to

 Test a hypothesis or to documents the

expected results of introduction of a
specific intervention.
Based on data
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
 Lecture II
Steps / Phases / Elements of the
research / Research Design

1. Defining the Problem

The research process begins with problem discovery
and identifying the problem is the first
step towards its solution.

Education and Income

Income and Ownership of Car

Operational Definition

An operational definition, when applied to data

collection, is a clear, concise detailed definition of a
measure. The need for operational definitions is fundamental when collecting all
types of data. It is particularly important when a decision is being made about whether
something is correct or incorrect, or when a visual check is being made where there is
room for confusion.

For example, data collected will be erroneous if those completing the checks have
different views of what constitutes a fault at the end of a glass panel production line.
Defective glass panels may be passed and good glass panels may be rejected. Similarly,
when invoices are being checked for errors, the data collection will be meaningless if the
definition of an error has not been specified.

When collecting data, it is essential that everyone in the system has the same
understanding and collects data in the same way. Operational definitions should therefore
be made before the collection of data begins.
  “A problem well defined is a
problem half solved” is worth
remembering.
 Problem definition allows the researcher to the proper research objectives.
 If the purpose of the research is clear, the chances of collecting the necessary and
relevant information will be much greater

 Albert Einstein noted “the

formulation of a problem is often
more essential than its solution.”
 In social research, if the data are collected before the nature of the business
problem is carefully throughout, the data probably will not help to solve the
problem.

2. Review the literature

We need to know
  What is already known about the
topic/problem?
 What concepts and theories have been
applied to the topic
 What research method has been applied
 What controversies about the topic
 What clashes of evidence

3. Formulate a testable hypothesis / R.Q / R.

Objectives

Educated Guess /Assumptions

What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a speculative
statement about the relationship
between two or more factors known
as variables.

What is variable? Variable is a measurable trait or

characteristics that is subject to change under
different conditions.

Independent Variable: The variable hypothesized to

cause or influence another is called independent
variable
Dependent variable: The variable which actions
depends on the influence independent variable

Example: Education and Income,

Religion and Economy

Cause and Effect:

4. Planning a research design/Action Plan

A research design is a

 master plan specifying the methods and

 procedures
for collecting the needed information.
What is Validity?
Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or
scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.

What is Reliability?
Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure
produces consistent result.

Age and Marriage

5. Planning sample (respondents /

participants)

Sampling
Example
Pattern of Behavioral Changes and
Seniority of the NSU Students

Total Students 15000

500 out of 15000

What is population?

In statistics, a population is a set of similar items or

events which is of interest for some question or
experiment.

What is sample?
A group of people or things that are taken from a
larger group and studied, tested, or questioned to
get information
What is sampling?
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in
which a predetermined number of observations are
taken from a larger population.
Types of Sampling

 Probability sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of

sampling that utilizes some form of random

selection

 Non Probability sampling/ purposive

The difference between non-probability and

probability sampling is that non-probability sampling
does not involve random selection and probability
sampling does.
6. Analyzing the data
 Primary data
Data observed or collected directly from first-hand experience.
 Secondary data
Published data and the data collected in the past or other parties is called
secondary data.

7. Formulating the conclusion/decision

8. Ideas for further Research

 Lecture III

Data Collection Methods/Techniques

1. Quantitative data/Quantitative Research

2. Qualitative data/ Qualitative Research

Behavioral Changes and Seniority of the NSU

Students

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.  It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into
the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive
deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or
semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group
discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is
typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

Quantitative Research: is used to quantify the

problem by way of generating numerical data or
data that can be transformed into useable
statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger
sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more
structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods
include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and
kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website
interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.

Quantitative data and Qualitative data

Data that can be quantified and verified, and is amenable to statistical manipulation.
Quantitative data defines whereas qualitative data describes.

Survey Method for Quantitative data

The survey method of obtaining information is based

on
 the questioning of respondents.
 Question and
Questionnaire (sets of questions)

Advantages of Survey
 Surveys provide quick, inexpensive, efficient
and accurate means of assessing information
about the population
 Survey research techniques and standards are
quite scientific and accurate

Disadvantages
 Surveys are biased
 Questions are poorly phrased
 Interviewers are not properly instructed and
supervised
 Results are misinterpreted
 Sponsor may mislead into a costly area example
world bank
 Even well planned and neatly executed surveys
may be useless if the results come too late and
that does happen very often.
Modes/Forms/Types of Survey method
Typically the questions (questionnaire) are
 Structured (Closed/Close Ended) even though
there are also
 Unstructured (Open/Open Ended) questions
 Semi-Structured (Mix of both Structured and
Unstructured)

Survey research could be various such as which also

depends on types of questionnaire whether open
ended or close ended.
 Mail/Post Interview/Survey
 Telephone interview/Survey
 Face to face interview/Survey
 Internet interview/Survey
Observation Method for Qualitative data

When/Why do use Observation method?

Checklist definitely unstructured

Observation becomes a tool for scientific inquiry

when it
 Serves a formulated research purpose
 Is planned systematically
 Is recorded systematically
 Is subjected to checks or controls on validity
and reliability

What can be observed?

A wide variety of information about the behavior of
people and objects can be observed.
Phenomenon
Example
Human behavior or action worker’s
movement patterns in a factory

The Nature of Observation Studies

Business researchers can observe people, objects,
events or other phenomena by assigning the task to
human observers or by using machine designed for
specific observation tasks. Human observers are
commonly used when the situation or behavior to be
recorded is not easily predictable in advance of the
research.
Types of Observation
 Participant / Direct Observation
 Non Participant / Indirect Observation

Participant/Direct Observation
Participant observation carried out when the
researcher is playing an established participant
role in the scene studied. In participant observation,
the researcher moves out side the controlled settings
typical of experiments and
 interviews to the field,
 the uncontrolled
 sometimes unpredictable
settings in which people live out their lives

Participant or direct observation can produce a

detailed record of events or what people actually do.
The observer plays a passive role, that there is no
attempt to control or manipulate a situation. The
observers merely records what occurs.
For example a factory visit to know the skill or
activities of the worker . . . .

Access one of the key and yet most difficult steps in

participant is gaining access to a social setting that is
relevant to the research problem in which you are
interested.

Overt Versus Covert

Covert Role: One way to ease the access problem is
to assume a covert role – in other words, not to
disclose the fact that you are a researcher. On the
other hand overt role is to disclose the fact that you
are a researcher.
3. Experiments
An experiment can be defined as an attempt to test a hypothesis under highly controlled
conditions established by an investigator.

The researchers assign the subjects to one of two groups:

 The experimental group
 The controlled group

4. Life Histories
 Belong purely to sociology/social sciences
 No place in natural sciences
 Consists of biographical material assembled about particular individuals
themselves
 Recalled by the individuals themselves

Life history method does about the development of beliefs and attitudes over time.

Life historical studies rarely rely on wholly on people’s memory

To Check the Validity

 Letters
 Contemporary reports
 Newspaper sources are used.
Ethics of Research

Sociologists must abide by certain

specific standards in conducting
research is called a code of ethics.

Basic principles
 Maintain objectivity and integrity
 Respects the subject’s right to privacy and
dignity
 Preserve confidentiality
 Disclose all sources of financial support

Ethics Committee/Body