Harmonics

Definition: Harmonics are unwanted higher frequencies which superimposed on the

fundamental waveform creating a distorted wave pattern

In an AC circuit, a resistance behaves in exactly the same way as it does in a

DC circuit. That is, the current flowing through the resistance is proportional
to the voltage across it. This is because a resistor is a linear device and if the
voltage applied to it is a sine wave, the current flowing through it is also a sine
wave so the phase difference between the two sinusoids is zero.
Generally when dealing with alternating voltages and currents in electrical
circuits it is assumed that they are pure and sinusoidal in shape with only one
frequency value, called the “fundamental frequency” being present, but this is
not always the case.
In an electrical or electronic device or circuit that has a voltage-current
characteristic which is not linear, that is, the current flowing through it is not
proportional to the applied voltage. The alternating waveforms associated with
the device will be different to a greater or lesser extent to those of an ideal
sinusoidal waveform. These types of waveforms are commonly referred to as
non-sinusoidal or complex waveforms.
Complex waveforms are generated by common electrical devices such as iron-
cored inductors, switching transformers, electronic ballasts in fluorescent lights
and other such heavily inductive loads as well as the output voltage and
current waveforms of AC alternators, generators and other such electrical
machines. The result is that the current waveform may not be sinusoidal even
though the voltage waveform is.
Also most electronic power supply switching circuits such as rectifiers, silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR’s), power transistors, power converters and other such
solid state switches which cut and chop the power supplies sinusoidal
waveform to control motor power, or to convert the sinusoidal AC supply to
DC. Theses switching circuits tend to draw current only at the peak values of
the AC supply and since the switching current waveform is non-sinusoidal the
resulting load current is said to contain Harmonics.
Non-sinusoidal complex waveforms are constructed by “adding” together a
series of sine wave frequencies known as “Harmonics”. Harmonics is the
generalised term used to describe the distortion of a sinusoidal waveform by
waveforms of different frequencies.
Then whatever its shape, a complex waveform can be split up mathematically
into its individual components called the fundamental frequency and a number
of “harmonic frequencies”. But what do we mean by a “fundamental
frequency”.

Fundamental Frequency
A Fundamental Waveform (or first harmonic) is the sinusoidal waveform that
has the supply frequency. The fundamental is the lowest or base
frequency, ƒ on which the complex waveform is built and as such the periodic
time, Τ of the resulting complex waveform will be equal to the periodic time of
the fundamental frequency.
Let’s consider the basic fundamental or 1st harmonic AC waveform as shown.

Where: Vmax is the peak value in volts and ƒ is the waveforms frequency in Hertz
(Hz).
We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current),
which varies as a sine function of angle, 2πƒ. The waveforms frequency, ƒ is
determined by the number of cycles per second. In the United Kingdom this
fundamental frequency is set at 50Hz while in the United States it is 60Hz.
Harmonics are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an
integer (whole-number) multiple of the fundamental frequency. So given a
50Hz fundamental waveform, this means a 2nd harmonic frequency would be
100Hz (2 x 50Hz), a 3rd harmonic would be 150Hz (3 x 50Hz), a 5th at 250Hz,
a 7th at 350Hz and so on. Likewise, given a 60Hz fundamental waveform, the
2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th harmonic frequencies would be at 120Hz, 180Hz, 240Hz
and 300Hz respectively.
So in other words, we can say that “harmonics” are multiples of the
fundamental frequency and can therefore be expressed as: 2ƒ, 3ƒ, 4ƒ, etc. as
shown.

Complex Waveforms Due To Harmonics

Note that the red waveforms above, are the actual shapes of the waveforms as
seen by a load due to the harmonic content being added to the fundamental
frequency.
The fundamental waveform can also be called a 1st harmonics waveform.
Therefore, a second harmonic has a frequency twice that of the fundamental,
the third harmonic has a frequency three times the fundamental and a fourth
harmonic has one four times the fundamental as shown in the left hand side
column.
The right hand side column shows the complex wave shape generated as a
result of the effect between the addition of the fundamental waveform and
the harmonic waveforms at different harmonic frequencies. Note that the
shape of the resulting complex waveform will depend not only on the number
and amplitude of the harmonic frequencies present, but also on the phase
relationship between the fundamental or base frequency and the individual
harmonic frequencies.
We can see that a complex wave is made up of a fundamental waveform plus
harmonics, each with its own peak value and phase angle. For example, if the
fundamental frequency is given as; E = Vmax(2πƒt), the values of the harmonics
will be given as:
For a second harmonic:
E2 = V2(max)(2*2πƒt) = V2(max)(4πƒt), = V2(max)(2ωt)
For a third harmonic:
E3 = V3(max)(3*2πƒt) = V3(max)(6πƒt), = V3(max)(3ωt)
For a fourth harmonic:
E4 = V4(max)(4*2πƒt) = V4(max)(8πƒt), = V4(max)(4ωt)
and so on.
Then the equation given for the value of a complex waveform will be:

Harmonics are generally classified by their name and frequency, for example, a
2nd harmonic of the fundamental frequency at 100 Hz, and also by their
sequence. Harmonic sequence refers to the phasor rotation of the harmonic
voltages and currents with respect to the fundamental waveform in a
balanced, 3-phase 4-wire system.
A positive sequence harmonic ( 4th, 7th, 10th, …) would rotate in the same
direction (forward) as the fundamental frequency. Where as a negative
sequence harmonic ( 2nd, 5th, 8th, …) rotates in the opposite direction
(reverse) of the fundamental frequency.
Generally, positive sequence harmonics are undesirable because they are
responsible for overheating of conductors, power lines and transformers due
to the addition of the waveforms.
Negative sequence harmonics on the other hand circulate between the phases
creating additional problems with motors as the opposite phasor rotation
weakens the rotating magnetic field require by motors, and especially
induction motors, causing them to produce less mechanical torque.
Another set of special harmonics called “triplens” (multiple of three) have a
zero rotational sequence. Triplens are multiples of the third harmonic ( 3rd, 6th,
9th, …), etc, hence their name, and are therefore displaced by zero degrees.
Zero sequence harmonics circulate between the phase and neutral or ground.
Unlike the positive and negative sequence harmonic currents that cancel each
other out, third order or triplen harmonics do not cancel out. Instead add up
arithmetically in the common neutral wire which is subjected to currents from
all three phases.
The result is that current amplitude in the neutral wire due to these triplen
harmonics could be up to 3 times the amplitude of the phase current at the
fundamental frequency causing it to become less efficient and overheat.
Then we can summarise the sequence effects as multiples of the fundamental
frequency of 50Hz as:

Harmonic Sequencing

Name Fund. 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th

Frequency, Hz 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

 Sequence + – 0 + – 0 + – 0

Note that the same harmonic sequence also applies to 60Hz fundamental
waveforms.

Sequence Rotation Harmonic Effect

+ Forward Excessive Heating Effect

– Reverse Motor Torque Problems

0 None Adds Voltages and/or Currents in Neutral Wire causing Heating

Harmonics Summary
Harmonics are higher frequency waveforms superimposed onto the
fundamental frequency, that is the frequency of the circuit, and which are
sufficient to distort its wave shape. The amount of distortion applied to the
fundamental wave will depend entirely on the type, quantity and shape of the
harmonics present.
Harmonics have only been around in sufficient quantities over the last few
decades since the introduction of electronic drives for motors, fans and pumps,
power supply switching circuits such as rectifiers, power converters and
thyristor power controllers as well as most non-linear electronic phase
controlled loads and high frequency (energy saving) fluorescent lights. This is
due mainly to the fact that the controlled current drawn by the load does not
faithfully follow the sinusoidal supply waveforms as in the case of rectifiers or
power semiconductor switching circuits.
Harmonics in the electrical power distribution system combine with the
fundamental frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) supply to create distortion of the
voltage and/or current waveforms. This distortion creates a complex
waveform made up from a number of harmonic frequencies which can have an
adverse effect on electrical equipment and power lines.
The amount of waveform distortion present giving a complex waveform its
distinctive shape is directly related to the frequencies and magnitudes of the
most dominant harmonic components whose harmonic frequency is multiples
(whole integers) of the fundamental frequency. The most dominant harmonic
components are the low order harmonics from 2nd to the 19th with the triplens
being the worst.
Determining the Harmonic Frequencies
Consider an 80-cm long guitar string that has a fundamental frequency (1st harmonic)
of 400 Hz. For the first harmonic, the wavelength of the wave pattern would be two
times the length of the string (see table above); thus, the wavelength is 160 cm or 1.60
m. The speed of the standing wave can now be determined from the wavelength and
the frequency. The speed of the standing wave is
speed = frequency • wavelength

speed = 400 Hz • 1.6 m

speed = 640 m/s
This speed of 640 m/s corresponds to the speed of any wave within the guitar string.
Since the speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the medium (and not
upon the properties of the wave), every wave will have the same speed in this string
regardless of its frequency and its wavelength. So the standing wave pattern associated
with the second harmonic, third harmonic, fourth harmonic, etc. will also have this
speed of 640 m/s. A change in frequency or wavelength will NOT cause a change in
speed.
Using the table above, the wavelength of the second harmonic (denoted by the
symbol λ2) would be 0.8 m (the same as the length of the string). The speed of the
standing wave pattern (denoted by the symbol v) is still 640 m/s. Now the wave
equation can be used to determine the frequency of the second harmonic (denoted by
the symbol f2).
speed = frequency • wavelength

frequency = speed/wavelength
 f2 = v / λ2
f2 = (640 m/s)/(0.8 m)
f2 = 800 Hz
 
This same process can be repeated for the third harmonic. Using the table above, the
wavelength of the third harmonic (denoted by the symbol λ3) would be 0.533 m (two-
thirds of the length of the string). The speed of the standing wave pattern (denoted by
the symbol v) is still 640 m/s. Now the wave equation can be used to determine the
frequency of the third harmonic (denoted by the symbol f3).
speed = frequency • wavelength

frequency = speed/wavelength
f3 = v / λ3
f3 = (640 m/s)/(0.533 m)
f3 = 1200 Hz
 
Now if you have been following along, you will have recognized a pattern. The
frequency of the second harmonic is two times the frequency of the first harmonic. The
frequency of the third harmonic is three times the frequency of the first harmonic. The
frequency of the nth harmonic (where n represents the harmonic # of any of the
harmonics) is n times the frequency of the first harmonic. In equation form, this can be
written as
fn = n • f1

The inverse of this pattern exists for the wavelength values of the various harmonics.
The wavelength of the second harmonic is one-half (1/2) the wavelength of the first
harmonic. The wavelength of the third harmonic is one-third (1/3) the wavelength of
the first harmonic. And the wavelength of the nth harmonic is one-nth (1/n) the
wavelength of the first harmonic. In equation form, this can be written as
λn = (1/n) • λ1

These relationships between wavelengths and frequencies of the various harmonics for
a guitar string are summarized in the table below.
Harmonic Frequency Wavelength Speed
fn / f1 λn / λ1
# (Hz) (m) (m/s)

1 400 1.60 640 1 1/1

2 800 0.800 640 2 1/2

 3 1200 0.533 640 3 1/3

4 1600 0.400 640 4 1/4

5 2000 0.320 640 5 1/5

n n * 400 (2/n)*(0.800) 640 n 1/n

 
The table above demonstrates that the individual frequencies in the set of natural
frequencies produced by a guitar string are related to each other by whole number
ratios. For instance, the first and second harmonics have a 2:1 frequency ratio; the
second and the third harmonics have a 3:2 frequency ratio; the third and the fourth
harmonics have a 4:3 frequency ratio; and the fifth and the fourth harmonic have a 5:4
frequency ratio. When the guitar is played, the string, sound box and surrounding air
vibrate at a set of frequencies to produce a wave with a mixture of harmonics. The
exact composition of that mixture determines the timbre or quality of sound that is
heard. If there is only a single harmonic sounding out in the mixture (in which case, it
wouldn't be a mixture), then the sound is rather pure-sounding. On the other hand, if
there are a variety of frequencies sounding out in the mixture, then the timbre of the
sound is rather rich in quality.