Constructional feature and operating principles of D.

C Machines
Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur
August 18, 2019

1
Contents
1 Goals of the lesson 3

2 Introduction 3
2.1 Rotor or Armature of DC Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.1 Understanding what happens to a single coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2 Understanding what happens when armature has multiple coils . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.3 What happens at other times? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.4 Commutator segments & brush arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 D.C machine Armature Winding 8

3.1 Armature winding : General procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Developed diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Lap winding 10
4.1 Simplified lap winding diagram for P=2 and for P=4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Wave winding 14
5.1 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6 Answer the following 18

2
1 Goals of the lesson
In this lesson, important constructional features of a D.C machine are presented along with a discussion
on D.C armature winding. Key Words: Field winding, armature winding, commutator segments & brush
arrangement.

After going through this section students will have clear ideas about the following:

• The function of commutator & brush in a D.C Machine.

• Double layer winding.

• coil span & commutator pitch.

• Lap & wave winding and number of armature parallel paths.

2 Introduction

N Field
ke

Coil
Yo

Armature
winding

commutattor
segments

S shaft S

Carbon brush

Figure 1: Sectional view of D.C machine.

A sectional view of a 4-pole D.C. machine is shown in figure 1. Stator is generally made of solid iron
with projected poles. The main parts of the machine are:
1. Field coils: Around each projected pole, field coils wrapped around. For the 4-pole machine we
shall have 4 coils. These coils can be connected in series and ultimately two terminals marked with

3
 F1 and F2 can be brought out. F1 and F2 are called field terminals of D.C machine. When these
coils will carry some D.C current If , alternate north and south pole will be created along the air-gap
of the machine. Field current If , also called excitation current produces the working flux φ in the
machine, the strength of which depends upon the strength of If .

2. Armature: Rotating member of the machine is called the armature. Several thin varnished circular
iron plates (laminations like transformer) with number of slots and teeth punched and each circular
plate is of course insulated from each other by the varnish coating. In these slots, conductors or coil
sides are placed following certain logic and this is called armature winding as shown in the figure1.

3. Rotating commutator segments and fixed carbon brushes: Imagine that the armature is
rotated by a prime mover, in the stationary field created by If . Then we know that the voltage
induced in the coil will be alternating in nature. But our goal is to generate D.C voltage. To convert
this inherently A.C voltage in the armature coils, to D.C voltage a mechanical way is adopted using
commutator segments and carbon brushes. Commutator segments are nothing but a number copper
segments put on the shaft. Each copper segment is insulated from the neighboring copper segments
by a thin layer of mica insulation such that each copper segment has its own electrical identity.
Individual coil terminals of the armature are terminated suitably on these commutator segments.
Since commutator segments will move at the same speed as that of the rotor because they are
mounted on the shaft of the machine.
A set of fixed carbon brushes ( will not rotate), are kept in suitable positions in space touching the
commutator segments. Obviously as time passes and machine rotates each brush will go on touching
different commutator segments. From the brushes we may be able to collect the D.C voltage. The
terminals available from the fixed brushes are called armature terminals marked as A1 and A2

2.1 Rotor or Armature of DC Machine

Rotor of a DC machine is called armature. It houses several distributed coils. We know that each coil will
have AC induced voltage when the rotor is driven by a prime mover and field coil is excited. To convert
this voltage to DC, some additional components ( commutator segments & carbon brushes) apart from
the coils must be used.

2.1.1 Understanding what happens to a single coil

Look at figure 2(a) where stator poles are marked as N and S and the armature has a single coil 2 − 2′ .
Suppose the coil is moving with speed n. Let us consider the instant when coil side 1 is under the influence
of north pole and the coil side 1′ under south pole. A simplified representation of the coil is shown in figure
2(b). By applying Fleming’s right hand rule, the polarity of the induced voltage in 1 and 1′ are found out

4
 n

n
n

f1 _
v _
b 1’
N 1 1’ S

X
+
1 + s1
v

(b) Simplifie reprsentation of the coil

with terminals 1 and 1’
(a) Actual coil 1−1’ or terminals s1 and f1

Figure 2: Armature having a single coil

to be • and X respectively. The magnitude of the voltage is 2T bLv where, coil 1-1′ is a multi turn coil of
turns = T , v = πDn is the linear velocity of the conductors and b is the flux density at position where
coil side 1 exists. Whichever coil side comes under north pole will have +ve polarity. Since at the instant
considered 1 is under north pole, 1 is shown with positive polarity as shown in figure 2(b). Every coil has
a start and finish terminals. So alternatively the coil terminals may be marked as s1 and f1 as shown.

2.1.2 Understanding what happens when armature has multiple coils

Assume that the armature has six coils named as 1 − 1′ , 2 − 2′ , 3 − 3′ , 4 − 4′ , 5 − 5′ and 6 − 6′ as shown in
figure 3 In the simplified representation, the polarities of the induced voltages are shown noting that the
coil sides 1,2,3, 4′ , 5′ and 6′ are under north pole, hence should be assigned +ve polarity and remaining
terminals should be assigned -ve polarity as they are under south pole. Now assume that all the 6 coils are
connected in series and the armature circuit is closed. It may be noted that net emf acting in the closed
armature circuit is zero, hence no circulating current should exist in armature.

2.1.3 What happens at other times?

In general a large number of armature coils are used and the armature is in motion. Therefore, if we take
a snap shot of the armature at any arbitrary time, we would expect half of the coil sides will be under
the north pole and remaining half will be under south pole. So distribution of emfs and their polarities
in space will remain unchanged. However, positions of the coils will change as armature is rotating.
Stationary observers at positions A1 and A2 will always conclude -ve polarity at A1 and +ve polarity at
A2, no matter which junctions are passing through A1 and A2. Thus to get unidirectional DC voltage from

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 n
n
3 4
X A2
X
3’ 4
6’ 1’
3 _ _
4 ’
+ +
N S 2’ _ _ 5
2 5’ 2’

X
X
5

+ + 5 ’
4’ 2 _ _
3’
X + +
X 1’ 6
1 6
1 6’
A1
(b) Polarity distribution of emfs
will remain same at all times
(a) Actual armature with 6 coils independent of the fact which
3−coils are on left or which 3−coils are on right

Figure 3: Armature having a six coil

the armature, we should try to tap the voltage from the junctions which are passing through positions A1
and A2.

2.1.4 Commutator segments & brush arrangement

Six commutator segments (copper segments), each insulated from each other by a strip of mica insulation
are inserted on the shaft. Note that a slip ring is a continuous copper ring while commutator is a collection
of segmented copper segments. Each commutator segment has its own electrical identity. Commutator is
shown in figure 4(a). Two fixed carbon brushes A1 and A2 are held in correct positions in space and they
will come in contact with different commutator segments as time passes. As told earlier, all the armature
coils are connected in series and closed. Each junction of the series connected coils are terminated on
commutator segments as shown 4(b). If you look carefully, armature circuit is divided into two parallel
paths between the brushes A1 and A2. The number of parallel paths (denoted by a), could be different
depending upon how the armature winding is wound i.e., lap or wave winding.

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 n
copper strip Each junction is
(commutator segment) terminated on a 3’ 4
commutator segment
3 _ _
4 ’
+ +
mica strip 2’ _ _ 5
A2
A1 insulating
the segments A2
Stationary carbon brush
A1
which will come in contact + + 5 ’
with different commutator segments 2 _ _
as rotor rotates Commutator segments
inserted into shaft and rotate + +
along with shaft 1’ 6
1 6’
(a) Moving Commutator segments (b) Armature coils alongwith
and Fixed brushes commutator segments & brushes

Figure 4: Armature showing commutator, brushes & armature terminals

Thus brushes will get connected to those junctions which come in positions A1 and A2. We now
understand how DC voltage is available across A1 and A2. Globally we can represent a DC machine
schematically in terms of field coil with terminals F1 & F2 and armature coils with terminals A1 & A2 as
shown in figure 5
A1
+
n
F1 F2
G

If _
+ DC supply _
A2

Figure 5: Schematic representation of DC machine

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3 D.C machine Armature Winding
Armature winding of a D.C machine is always closed and of double layer type. Closed winding essentially
means that all the coils are connected in series forming a closed circuit. The junctions of the consecutive
coils are terminated on copper bars called commutator segments. Each commutator segment is insulated
from the adjacent segments by mica insulation. For reasonable understanding of armature winding, let us
first get acquainted with the following terminologies.

• A coil has two coil sides occupying two distinct specified slots. Generally two maximize induced
voltage in a coil, the spacing between them should be close to 180o electrical. This essentially means
if at a given time one coil side is under the center of the north pole, the other coil side should be
under the center of the south pole.

• Coil span is nothing but the spacing between the two coil sides of a coil. The spacing is expressed
in terms of number of slots between the sides. If S be the total number of slots and P be the total
number of poles then coil span is S/P . For 20 slots, 4 pole winding, coil span is 5. Let the slots be
numbered serially as 1, 2, · · · , 20. If one coil side is placed in slot number 3, the other coil side of the
coil must occupy slot number 8 (= 3 + 5).

• A Double layer winding means that each slot will house two coil sides obviously belonging to two
different coils). Physically one coil side is placed in the lower portion of the slot while the other is
placed above it. It is because of this reason such an arrangement of the winding is called a double
layer winding. In the n th slot, coil side in the upper deck is numbered as n and the coil side in the
lower deck is numbered as n′ . In the 5th slot upper coil side is numbered as 5 and the lower coil side
is numbered 5′ . In the winding diagram, upper coil side is shown with firm line while the lower coil
side is shown with dashed line.
Remembering that a coil has two coil sides, for a double layer winding total number of coils must be
equal to the total number of slots.

• Numbering a coil: A coil is so shaped, that when it is placed in appropriate slots, one coil side
will be in the upper deck and the other side will be in the lower deck. Suppose S = 20 and P = 4,
then coil span is 5. Let the upper coil side of this coil be placed in slot number 6, the other coil side
must be in the lower deck of slot number 11. The coil should now be identified as (5 − 11′). In other
words coil sides of a coil are numbered depending on the slot numbers in which these are placed. A
typical single turn and multi turn coils are shown in figure 6

• On a Commutator segment two coil sides (belonging to two different coils) terminate. 2S being
the total number of coil sides, number of commutator segments must be equal to S, number of slots.
Commutator segments can also be numbered as 1, 2, · · · , 20 in order to identify them clearly.

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 One
coil side
Multi
Single turn turn Other
coil coil side
coil

5 11’ 5 11’
Figure 6: Single turn & Multi turn coil.

• Commutator pitch: As told earlier, the free ends of the coil sides of a coil (say, 6 − 11′ ) are to be
terminated on to two specific commutator segments. The separation of coil sides of a coil in terms of
number of commutator segments is called the commutator pitch, yc . In fact the value of yc decides
the types of winding(lap or wave) which will result. For example, in case of lap winding yc = 1.

3.1 Armature winding : General procedure

1. Type of winding (lap or wave), total number of slots S and total number of poles P will be given.

2. Calculate coil span (≈ S/P ).

2(S±1)
3. Calculate commutator pitch yc . For lap winding yc = ±1 and for wave winding yc = P
.

4. We have to complete the windings showing the positions of coil sides in slots, interconnection of the
coils through commutator segments using appropriate numbering of slots, coil sides and commutator
segments.

5. Finally to decide and place the stationary brushes on the correct commutator segments.

3.2 Developed diagram

Instead of dealing with circular disposition of the slots an the commutator segments, it is always ad-
vantageous to work with the developed diagram of the armature slots and the commutator segments as
elaborated in figure 7. In the figure 7, actual armature with 8 slots and 8 commutator segments are shown.
Imagine the structure to be cut radially along the line XX ′ O and unfolded along the directions shown

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 Actual armature showing
slots & commutator segments
3 X Developed diagram showing slots X

2 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

X’ X’

Unfold 1 O 5
X’ X’ X’
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X 8 6 O O
Unfold 7 Developed diagram showing commutator segments.

Figure 7: Actual and developed diagram of armature and commutator segments.

to make it straight. It will result into straight and rectangular disposition of the slots and commutator
segments.

4 Lap winding
Suppose we want to make a lap winding for a P = 4 pole D.C machine having a total number slots S = 16.
So coil span is 16/4 = 4. Commutator pitch of a progressive lap winding is yc = +1. In figure 7 only the
slots and commutator segments are shown in which it is very difficult to show the coil sides and hence coil
connections. To view the coil sides / coils, we must look below from above the slots as depicted in figure
8. Once we number the slots, the numbering of the coil sides get fixed and written. The upper coil side
present in slot number 1 is shown by firm line and named 1 while lower coil side is shown by a dashed line
(just beside the upper coil side) and named as 1′ .
Let us now see how coils can be drawn with proper termination on the commutator segments. Since
the coil span is 4, the first coil has sides 1 and 5′ and the identification of the coil can be expressed as
(1 − 5′ ). Let us terminate coil side 1 on commutator segment 1. The question now is where to terminate
coil side 5′ ? Since the commutator pitch yc is +1, 5′ to be terminated on commutator segment 2 (= yc + 1).
In D.C armature winding all coils are to be connected in series. So naturally next coil (2 − 6′) should start
from commutator segment 2 and the coil side 6′ terminated on segment 3 as shown in figure 9. It may be
noted that in a lap winding there exist a single coil between any two consecutive commutator segments.
It can be seen that the second coil 2 − 6′ is in the lap of the first coil 1 − 5′ , hence the winding is
called lap winding. The winding proceeds from left to right due to our assumption that yc = +1. Such a
winding is called progressive simplex lap winding. It can be easily shown that if yc is chosen to be -1, the
winding would have proceeded from right to left giving rise to a retrogressive lap winding. One can make
first a winding table and then go for actual winding. By now it is clear that to go ahead with winding,

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 Figure 8: Developed diagram of the armature showing slots, coil sides & commutator segments.

two informations are essential; namely the number of coil sides of a coil and the number of commutator
segments where the free ends of the coil sides will be terminated. In a winding table (look at figure 10)
these two informations are furnished.
The complete progressive lap winding is shown in figure 11. To fix up the position of the brushes, let
us assume the instant when slots 1,2,3 and 4 are under the influence of the north pole which obviously
means slots 5 to 8 are under south pole, slots 9 to 12 are under north pole and slots 13 to 16 under south
pole. The poles are shown with shaded areas above the active lengths (coil sides) of the coils. Considering
generator mode of action and direction of motion from left to right (i.e, in clockwise direction of rotation
of the actual cylindrical armature), we can apply right hand rule to show the directions of emf in each coil
side by arrows as shown in figure 11. EMF directions are also shown in the simplified coil connections of
figure 10. The emfs in the first four coils (1 − 5′ , 2 − 6′ , 3 − 7′ and 4 − 8′ ) are in the clockwise directions
with 8′ +ve and 1 -ve. In the same way, 5 is +ve, 12′ is -ve; 16′ is +ve and 9 is -ve; 13 is +ve and 4′ is -ve.
Therefore, two +ve brushes may be placed on the commutator segment numbers 5 and 13. Two number of
-ve brushes may be placed on commutator segment numbers 1 and 9. Two armature terminals A2 and A1
are brought out after shorting the +ve brushes together and the -ve brushes together respectively. Thus
in the armature 4 parallel paths exist across A2 and A1 . Careful look at the winding shows that physical
positions of the brushes are just below the center of the poles. Also worthwhile to note that the separation
between the consecutive +ve and the -ve brushes is one pole pitch (16/4 = 4) in terms of commutator
segments.
In fact for a P polar machine using lap winding, number of parallel paths a = P . Will it be advisable
to put only a pair of brushes in the armature? After all a pair of brushes will divide the armature into two
parallel paths.

Let, the total number of slots = S

11
 Figure 9: Starting a Lap winding.

the total number of poles = P

∴ total no. of commutator segments = S
total no. of coils = S ∵ double layer winding
No. of coils between two consecutive commutator segments = 1 ∵ simplex lap winding
Number of commutator segments between consecutive +ve & -ve brushes = S/P
∴ Number of coils between the +ve & -ve brushes = S/P

If only a pair of brushes are placed, then armature will be divided in to two parallel paths consisting
of S/P coils in one path and (P − 1)S/P coils in the other path. So current distribution in the paths will
be unequal although emf will be same. A little consideration shows another pair of brushes can be put
(figure 11) producing4 identical parallel paths. Therefore, in a lap winding number of brushes must always
be equal to the number of poles.Lap winding is adopted for low voltage, high current D.C Machines.

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 Figure 10: Winding table and coil connections.

4.1 Simplified lap winding diagram for P=2 and for P=4
The simplified lap winding diagrams in figures 12 and 13 for P=2 and for P=4 respectively. The figures
are self explanatory and try to understand the logic behind making this diagrams possible.

13
 Figure 11: Complete simplex progressive lap winding.

5 Wave winding
In this winding the coil sides of a coil is not terminated in adjacent commutator segments, i.e., yc 6= 1.
Instead yc is selected to be closely equal to two pole pitch in terms of commutator segments. Mathematically
yc ≈ 2S/P . Let us attempt to make a wave winding with the specifications S = 16 and P = 4. Obviously,
coil span is 4 and yc = 8. The first coil is (1 − 5′ ) and is terminated on commutator segments 1 and 9.
The second coil (9 − 13′ ) to be connected in series with the first and to be terminated on commutator
segments 9 and 1(i.e., 17′ ). Thus we find the winding gets closed just after traversing only two coils and
it is not possible to carry on with the winding. Our inability to complete the wave winding will persist if
2S remains a multiple of P. It is because of this reason expression for commutator pitch yc , is modified to
yc = 2(S ± 1)/P . In other words, number of slots, should be such that 2(S ± 1) should be multiple of P.
It can be shown that if +ve sign is taken the result will be a progressive wave winding and if -ve sign is
taken the result will be retrogressive wave winding.

5.1 An example
We have seen that for 4-pole wave winding, choice of S = 16 is no good. Let us choose number of slots to
be 17 and proceed as follows:

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 + + _ +
Simplex Lap winding + + Simplex Lap winding +
s8 f8 s9 Number of poles =4 + +
Number of poles =P = 2 _ f7 f9 _ _ f8 s9
s8 f9
Number of coils = 16 + s10 + Number of coils = 16 f7
s7 s10 +
Each coil is marked as s and f. f10 Each coil is marked as s and f. + s7
f6 f10
_ B1 s11
A snap shot of of the armature f6
A snap shot of of the armature _ B1 s11
s6 + A1 f11 when coil sides s1 to s4 is _ +
when coil sides s1 to s8 is + s6 + f11
under south pole. + f5
under south pole. + +
s12 f5
Then coilsides f1 to f4 must be A1 s12
Then coilsides f1 to f8 must be _ A2 _
_ s5 under north pole. B2
under north pole. f12 s5 _ _ f12 _
+ _
f4 s13 Let direction of rotation be such _
Let direction of rotation be such + f4 s13
that s1 to s4 has +ve polarity of _ B4
that s1 to s8 has +ve polarity of
_ f13 induced voltage.
induced voltage. s4 A2 s4 f13
_ _ Coil sides s9 to s16 must be under + +
Coil sides s9 to s16 must be under f3 s14 + f3
B2 north pole. + s14 _
north pole. + _ B3
s3 f14 Polarity of the induced f14
Polarity of the induced s3
f2 s15 voltage of coils 9 to 16 + s15
voltage of coils 9 to 16 _ _ f2 +
f15 can be ascertained as shown. f15
can be ascertained as shown. s2
s16 + s2
+ f1 f16 _ f1 f16 s16
s1 + s1 _
_ + _ + +
+ _ _ _ _
+

Figure 12: Simplified lap winding for P=2. Figure 13: Simplified lap winding for P=4.

No. of poles, P = 4
No. of slots, S = 17
Winding pitch, yc = 2(S + 1)/P choosing +1 for progressive winding
∴ yc = 2(17 + 1)/4 = 9
Coil span = S/P ≈ 4
Once coil span and the commutator pitch yc are calculated, winding table, shown in figure??(a) can be
quickly filled up. Series connection of all the coils are also shown figure14(b). Directions of induced emfs
are shown after assuming slots 1 to 4 and 9 to 12 to be under north pole; slots 5 to 8 and 13 to 16 to
be under south pole. Since S/P is not an integer slot 17 has been assumed to be in the neutral zone. It
is interesting to note that polarity of the induced emf reverses after nearly half of coils are traversed. So
number of armature circuit parallel paths are two only.
In figure ?? are shown only two coils to explain how winding proceeds. Important thing to be noted
from this figure is that the first coil (1 − 5′ ) starts from commutator segment one and ends on commutator
segment 10, where from the second coil (10 − 14′ starts and finally gets terminated on commutator segment
2. In other words between any two consecutive commutator segments 2 coils are present. This statement
can be generalized as: for a P polar simplex wave winding, between any two consecutive commutator
segments P/2 coils will be present. A look at those two coils suggest that the winding progresses like a
wave - hence the name wave winding. Figure 15 shows the completed wave winding where the directions
of induced emfs in the coil sides are also shown.

15
 Figure 14: Wave winding table and coil connections.

That the number of parallel paths in a simplex wave winding is always 2 can be established mathemat-
ically as follows.

Let, the total number of slots = S

the total number of poles = P
∴ total no. of commutator segments = S
total no. of coils = S ∵ double layer winding
No. of coils between two consecutive commutator segments = P/2 ∵ simplex wave winding
Number of commutator segments between consecutive +ve & -ve brushes = S/P
∴ Number of coils between the +ve & -ve brushes = (S/P ) × (P/2)
= S/2

Thus, a pair of brush divides the armature into two parallel paths. From the direction of emfs -ve
brush can be placed on commutator segment 9 and the +ve brush can positioned touching commutator
segments 13 and 14. In a wave winding since number of parallel paths are 2, theoretically a pair of brushes
is sufficient for armature independent of the number of poles of the machine. However for relatively large

16
 Figure 15: Starting a simplex progressive wave winding.

armature current one can put additional brushes such that total number of brushes are equal to P thereby
reducing the size of the brushes. For the 4 polar winding that we are considering, additional +ve brush
can be placed over commutator segments 4 & 5 and another -ve brush can be placed over commutator
segments 17 & 1 as shown with dotted boxes in figure 16.

17
 Figure 16: Complete simplex progressive wave winding.

6 Answer the following

1. What is the difference between a single turn coil and a multi turn coil?
2. What type of insulation is used between two consecutive commutator segments?
3. Clearly identify which of the following items are rotating and which of them are stationary.
(a) Field coil, (b) armature, (c) commutator segments and (d) carbon brushes.
4. For 6 polar D.C machine armature has 36 number of slots and the type of winding is a double layer
simplex lap winding.
(a) How many coils are present?
(b) What is the coil span in terms of number of slots?
(c) If each coil has 4 turns, then what is the total number of armature conductors present?
(d) How many parallel paths will be their in the armature?
(e) Altogether how many brushes will be their?
5. For 4 pole d.c machine armature winding with a double layer progressive simplex wave winding with
23 number of slots answer the following:

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(a) How many coils are present?
(b) What is the coil span in terms of number of slots?
(c) What is commutator pitch in terms of commutator segments?
(d) How many coils are there between two consecutive commutator segments?
(e) How many parallel paths are present?

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