Vector Algebra

Scalar and Vector

What are the magnitude/size and direction?

Scalar quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has only magnitude, for example, mass
and electric charge.
Vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has both, magnitude as well as direction
like force and weight. For more examples see the table 1.
Graphically a vector can be presented by an arrow OP (Fig. 1). The tail end point O is called the
origin of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal point or terminus of the vector. The length
of the arrow is the magnitude of the vector OP. Analytically or symbolically a vector can be
presented by a bold letter or a letter with an arrow shown in fig.1 and its magnitude is denoted by
⃗ | or A. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|A OP or OP can be used to identify the vector and |OP⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | or ̅̅̅̅
OP or |OP| represents the
magnitude.

⃗ or A
A
O P

Figure. 1. Representation of vector.

Table 1. Examples of scalar and vector

quantities

Is the rate of change of length vector quantity?

 Multi-Dimensional Vector

Unit vector: A vector which has a magnitude of unit is called a unit vector. It is also known as
Direction Vector. When any vector is divided by its magnitude, provides a unit vector. For instance,
⃗⃗
A
if there is a vector ⃗A and its magnitude is |A
⃗ |, the unit vector û =
⃗⃗ |
.
|A

2D and 3D vector:

Figure 2. Representation a vector in 3D space

1) When a vector has two components

𝐴̂ = 𝐴̂𝑥 + 𝐴̂𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐴̂ = 𝐴𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑗̂, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

⃗ | = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦
And the magnitude |A

2) When a vector has three components

𝐴̂ = 𝐴̂𝑥 + 𝐴̂𝑦 + 𝐴̂𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐴̂ = 𝐴𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑘̂, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖̂ , 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

⃗ | = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧2

And the magnitude |A
 Vector addition and subtraction
Vector addition:

Figure 2. Head-to-Tail Method: The head-to-tail method of graphically adding vectors is illustrated
for the two displacements of the person walking in a city considered in Figure 2. (a) Draw a vector
representing the displacement to the east. (b) Draw a vector representing the displacement to the
north. The tail of this vector should originate from the head of the first, east-pointing vector. (c)
Draw a line from the tail of the east-pointing vector to the head of the north-pointing vector to form
the sum or resultant vector D. The length of the arrow D is proportional to the vector’s magnitude
and is measured to be 10.3 units. Its direction, described as the angle with respect to the east (or
horizontal axis) θ is measured with a protractor to be 29.10.

Vector Subtraction

Vector subtraction is a straightforward extension of vector addition. To define subtraction (say we

want to subtract B from A, then write C = A – B. Graphically the negative of any vector has the
same magnitude but the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The negative of a vector is just another vector of the same magnitude but pointing in the
opposite direction. So, B is the negative of –B; it has the same length but opposite direction.

A – B = A + (-B)

This is analogous to the subtraction of scalars (where, for example, 5 – 2 = 5 + (–2)).

Problem:

Given that 𝑟̂1 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑟̂2 = 2𝑖 − 4𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟̂3 = −𝑖 + 2𝑗 +

2𝑘. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎) 𝑟̂3 𝑏) 𝑟̂1 + 𝑟̂2 + 𝑟̂3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐) 2𝑟̂1 + 3𝑟̂2 + 5𝑟̂3
 Scalar and vector products and their significance
Scalar Product:

When the product of two vectors provides scalar quantity is known as scalar product or dot
product of two vectors [A dot product conceptually is the projection that one vector has over
another. This is why it is a scalar, it only tells the length of the projection].

A A
B
θ
B
Look at the following example.

|A| Cos θ is the projection (horizontal component) of A on B

Significance:
- If the dot product is unit, then the vectors are in parallel & both vectors are unit vectors.
- If the dot product is 0, then either the length of one or both is 0, or the angle between them
is 90 degrees
- Dot product is mainly used to determine the angle between two vectors or to understand
how much parallel the vectors are.
- When the scalar projection is negative, it means that the two vectors are heading in
opposite directions
- The angle has a range of 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Cross product:
When the product of two vectors yields another vector is known as vector product or cross product.
[To make a ‘cross over’ between two vectors, it needs a minimum angle which could maximize to
90 degree and the projection for a cross over, perpendicular or sin component is needed.]

⃗
𝐶 = 𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ | = |𝐴||𝐵
𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 |𝐶 | = |𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 Right hand rule for resultant vector direction

Cyclic method (clockwise-CW

or counter clockwise-CCW
 𝐶 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂) =?

OR

Significance:
- If A = B (for all components), and A & B are parallel then A × B = 0.
- The cross product determines the area under two vectors with a direction perpendicular to
it, which becomes a third vector.
- Force, Angular momentum, torque etc. different physical quantities are measured using
cross product.
- The angle has a range of 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Problem
A = 3i - j + 2k, B = 2i + j - k and C = i – 2j + 2k
Find out 1) A × B =? and 2) (A × B) × C =?
1) -i + 7j + 5k and 2) 24i +7j – 5k

Rules of Vector Algebra

Some definitions:
1. Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
2. If a vector ‘A’ has same magnitude to another vector but opposite direction, then the second
vector can be expressed as ‘-A’.
3. The sum or resultant C of two vectors A and B is a vector and is expressed as C=A+B.
4. If A and B vector are of same magnitude and opposite in directions,
then A-B = A+(-B) = 0 and it is defined as a null vector.
5. The product of a vector A by a scalar quantity m is a vector mA with a magnitude of |m|
times the magnitude of A. The sing of m is effective for mA. If m=0, then mA = 0 and mA
is a null vector.

Laws of vector Algebra:

Addition and multiplication:
1. A+B = B+A, commutative law for addition.
 2. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C, associative law for addition.
3. mA = Am, commutative law for multiplication.
4. m(nA) = n(mA), associative law for multiplication.
5. (m+n)A = mA + nA, distributive law.
6. m(A+B) = mA + mB, distributive law.
Dot product:
7. A.B = B.A, commutative law for dot product.
8. A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C, distributive law.
9. m(A.B) = (mA).B = A.(mB) = (A,B)m, where m is a scalar.
10. If A.B = 0 and A and B are not null vector. Then A and B are perpendicular.
Cross product:
11. A × B = -B × A, (commutative law is not valid here).
12. A × (B × C) = A × B + A × C, distributive law.
13. m(A × B) = (mA) × B = A × (mB) = (A × B)m, where m is scalar.
14. The magnitude of A × B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.
15. If A × B = 0, and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.
Triple products:
16. (A.B) C ≠ A (B.C)
17. A. (B × C) = B. (C × A) = C. (A × B) = volume of a parallelepiped of sides of A, B and C,
is called scalar triple product or box product & denoted by [ABC].
18. A × (B x C) ≠ (A × B) × C, (called vector triple product & associative law is not valid here).
19. A × (B × C) = (A.C)B – (A.B)C
20. (A × B) × C = (A.C)B – (B.C)A

Problems:

1. Prove that the magnitude of a vector A is √𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 𝐴23

Figure 1. Representation a vector in 3D space.

2. Find a parallel unit vector of the resultant vector of 𝒓𝟏 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 5𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝒓𝟐 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘
 3. Find out a vector and its magnitude which follows a straight line.
4. Calculate the work done by a moving object along a straight line from p (3, 2, -1) to q (2,
-1, 4) in a force field of F = 4i - 3j + 2k.
5. Determine the angle of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 which makes the vector r with the positive direction of
3D cartesian coordinate axes and show that

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1.

6. If A = 3i – j + 2k, B = 2i + j - k and C = i - 2j + 2k, find a) (A × B) × C, b) A × (B × C) and

find the difference of the resultant vectors.
7. Find the area of a triangle having the vertices at p (1, 3, 2), q (2, -1, 1) and r (-1, 2, 3).
8. Prove that A.(B × C) = B.(C × A) = C.(A × B).
9. Prove that A × (B × C) = B(A.C) -C(A.B).
10. Prove that (A × B) × C = B(A.C) – A(B.C).

Vector Differentiation
Could you differentiate: x, x2, x3, x4

If limit exists. Since dR/du is itself a vector and its 2nd order derivative is d2R/du2 (max order?) and
so on until the u remains continuous or differentiable or limit exists.
 Discontinuous

y = mx, m = y/x or Δm = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1) = Δy/Δx = slope,

So, if Δx tends to zero, dy/dx = ? if y2 – y1 = 0, m or Δm is zero and ? if x2 – x1 =0, then ?
Show the direction of the vector. Can you describe the continuity & discontinuity?

2D & 3D Space curves. If in a particular R(u) is the position vector r(u) joining the origin O of a
coordinate system and any point (x,y,z), then
r(u) = x(u)i + y(u)j + z(u)k , let x = x(u), y = y(u) and z = z(u)

Δr
Then Δr/Δu = (r(u+Δu)-r(u))/(Δu) and it’s a vector in the direction of Δr. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚Δu→0 Δu =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑑𝑢 𝑗 + 𝑑𝑢 𝑘. If u is ‘t’ then, dr/du =dr/dt =
𝑑𝑢
velocity and you can find out acceleration?
If A, B, C are differentiable vector functions of a scalar u and ɸ is a differentiable scalar function of
u then,
𝑑 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
(𝐴 + 𝐵) = + 𝑑𝑢 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑑 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐴
(𝐴. 𝐵) = 𝐴. + . 𝐵 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐴
(𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝐴 × + × 𝐵 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝐴 𝑑ɸ
(ɸ𝐴) = ɸ + 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐴
(𝐴. 𝐵 × 𝐶) = 𝐴. 𝐵 × + 𝐴. ×𝐶+ . 𝐵 × 𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐴
(𝐴 × 𝐵 × 𝐶) = 𝐴 × (𝐵 × ) + 𝐴 × ( × 𝐶) + × (𝐵 × 𝐶) … … … … … … (6)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

Partial derivatives of vectors

If a vector is a function of more than one variable, then it has partial derivatives. For example if A
=A (x,y,z) then

𝜕𝐴 A(x + Δx, y, z) − A(x, y, z)

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚Δx→0
𝜕𝑥 Δx
𝜕𝐴 A(x, y + Δy, z) − A(x, y, z)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚Δy→0
𝜕𝑦 Δy
𝜕𝐴 A(x, y, z + Δz) − A(x, y, z)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚Δz→0
𝜕𝑧 Δz

𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕 𝜕𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴
2
= ( ), =? =?
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕 𝜕𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴
= ( ), =? =?
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥
𝜕2
(𝐴. 𝐵) = ??
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

Problem 1: Say R = (Sint) i + (Cost) j + (t) k. Find out a) dR/dt and b) |d2R/dt2|
𝜕3
Problem 2: If P(x,y,z) = xy2z and A = xz i + xy2 j + yz2 k, find (𝑃𝐴) 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (2, −1,1).
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧

[ans: 4i+2j]
Problem 3. Say R = (Sint) i + (Cost) j + (t) k. Find out a) dR/dt and b) |d2R/dt2|
𝜕3
Problem 4. If P(x,y,z) = xy2z and A = xz i - xy2 j + yz2 k, find (𝑃𝐴) 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (2, −1,1).
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧

Problem 5. Let your friend walks along curved path and the parametric equations are x=e-t,
y=2cos3t, and z=2sin3t, where t is time.
a) Find out the velocity and acceleration of your friend for any time.
b) Find out the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration at t=0.
Problem 4. a) Find out the unit tangent vector to any point on the curve x=t2+1, y=4t-3, z=2t2-6t.
b) Determine the unit tangent at the point where t=2.
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
Problem 6. Show that 𝐴. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 .

Gradient, Divergence and Curl

Gradient (meaning): Rate of change in a direction or directional derivative. i.e., the degree of
inclination, or the rate of ascent or descent in a highway, railroad and surface etc.
In physics, the rate of change with respect to distance of a variable quantity. For example: Change
pf temperature or pressure in the direction of maximum change. In mathematics, gradient is
another word for "slope". The higher the gradient of a graph at a point, the steeper the line is at that
point. A negative gradient means that the line slopes downwards. The slope or gradient of a line is
a number that describes both the direction and the steepness of the line. The direction of the line is
either increasing or decreasing along horizontal or vertical depending on the case.
Mostly, the application of gradient is contextual. For example, color gradient (in computer
graphics), steeper road and mountains (need to consider for road or building construction).
Significance: Require to determining the location of change (least/ highest change).

Del operator (∇): It is an operator commonly used in vector calculus to find derivatives in higher
dimensions. When applied to a function of one independent variable, it provides the derivative. For
multidimensional scalar functions, it gives the gradient. Mathematically,

Component/magnitude of ∇ϕ (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ϕ) along a unit vector a is ∇ϕ. 𝐚 [dot product] and

known as directional derivation of ϕ in the direction of a. Physically, this is the change of
ϕ at a point (x, y, z) in the direction of a.
Problem: Show that ∇ (A + B) = ∇A + ∇B,
where A abd B are differentialble scalar function of x, y and z

Solution:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ (𝐴 + 𝐵) = (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘) (𝐴 + 𝐵)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (𝜕𝑥 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑘) =?

Divergence (the process or state of diverging, or separating or changing into something different):
the scalar product of the operator del and a given vector, which gives a measure of the quantity of
flux emanating from any point of the vector field or the rate of loss of mass, heat, etc., from it.
More technically, the divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector
field from an infinitesimal volume around a given point. # For example, while air is heated in a
region, it expands in all directions, and thus the velocity field points outward from that region.
Convergence generally means coming together, while divergence generally means moving apart
In social context: divergence means changing into something different, or having a difference of
opinion. # Example, when a couple split up and move away from one another. # Example, when a
teenager becomes an adult and then community divergence happens. You can talk about business
and economic divergence (In the world of finance and trading, convergence and divergence are
terms used to describe the directional relationship of two trends, prices, or indicators.) or political
divergence (different opinions or activities of various political parties on the same issue).

Curl and its significance:

Curl of F: If F(x,y,z) = P(x,y,z)i + Q(x,y,z)j + R(x,y,z)k is a vector field in 3D space and then the
curl of F is expressed by curl(F) = (∇×F). This is a formula for the curl of a vector field. Recall
that ∇ is the vector differential operator and written by

Therefore, the curl of vector is simply the vector/cross product of del operator and the considered
vector or vector field.
Let F be a vector field in 3D. If curl(F) = 0 at a point P (x,y,z) then F is said to be irrotational at P.

Problem: If A = x2y i – 2xz j + 2yz k, Find the Curl of Curl A =∇× (∇×A)
(2x+2)j

Formulas & Problems: Grad, div and curl

1. ∇(𝜙 + 𝜓) = ∇𝜙 + ∇𝜓 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝜙 + 𝜓) = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝜙) + 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝜓)

2. ∇. (𝐴 + 𝐵) = ∇. A + ∇. B or div (𝐴 + 𝐵) = div A + 𝑑𝑖𝑣 B
3. ∇ × (𝐴 + 𝐵) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B or curl (𝐴 + 𝐵) = curl A + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 B
4. ∇. (𝜙𝐴) = (∇𝜙). A + 𝜙(∇. A)
5. ∇ × (𝜙𝐴) = (∇𝜙) × A + 𝜙(∇ × A)
6. ∇. (𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝐵. (∇ × A) − A. (∇ × B)
7. ∇ × (𝐴 × 𝐵) = (𝐵. ∇)𝐴 − B. (∇. A) − (A. ∇)B + A(∇. B)
8. ∇(A. B) = (𝐵. ∇)A + (𝐴. ∇)B + B × (∇ × A) + 𝐴 × (∇ × B)
𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
9. ∇. (∇𝜙) ≡ ∇2 𝜙 ≡ + + , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 + + 𝑖𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
10. ∇ × (∇𝜙) = 0. The curl of the gradient of 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
11. ∇. (∇ × A) = 0. The divergence of the curl of A is zero.
12. ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇. (∇. A) − ∇2 A .

Problems-1. If 𝜙 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 , find ∇𝜙 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 at the point (1,-2,-1).

1
Problem-2. Find ∇𝜙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎) 𝜙 = ln|𝒓| , 𝑏) 𝜙 = 𝑟 .

Problem-3. Show that ∇𝒓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝒓

Problem-4. Find the directional derivative of 𝜙 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑧 2 𝑎𝑡 (1, −2, −1) in the direction
2i-j-2k.
1
Problem-5. Prove that ∇2 (𝑟 ) = 0. Laplace’s Equation

Problem-6. Show that ∇. (𝐴 + 𝐵) = ∇. A + ∇. B

Problem-7. Show that ∇. (𝜙𝐴) = (∇𝜙). A + 𝜙(∇. A)
Problem-8. If A = xz3i – 2x2yz j +2yz4k, Find the ∇ × 𝐴 (or curl A) at point (1,-1,1).
Problem-9. ∇ × (𝐴 + 𝐵) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B or curl (𝐴 + 𝐵) = curl A + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 B.
Problem-10. ∇ × (𝜙𝐴) = (∇𝜙) × A + 𝜙(∇ × A).

𝜕 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝐴1
(∅𝐴1) = (𝐴1) + ∅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥