The Manager

Dr. Ansir A Rajput, Dr. Fuwad Bahsir Awan, Ms. Rabia Habib
Table of Contents

Module 1 -THEORY
Chapter 1- The Dynamics of Managerial World
Chapter 2- Management: A Glimpse into Time
Chapter 3-Art of Planning
Chapter 4-Organizing for Success
Chapter 5-Leading the Way
Chapter 6- Monitoring and Controlling
Chapter 7- Sustainable Management

Module 2-ACTION BASED LEARNING

Chapter 8-Improve Decision Making
Chapter 9-Learn Effective Communication
Chapter 10- Key Critical Thinking Skills
Chapter 11-Science of Managing Time
Chapter 12- How to Deal with Stress
Chapter 13- Workplace Spirituality
Module 1
Theory
 Chapter 1
The Dynamics of Managerial World

Let us start this chapter by defining Manager. 

Manager 

There are hundreds of definitions of a manager around but the simplest one is 

A person who is in charge of a certain group of tasks or a certain

section of a firm and he/she often has staff, that is,
a person fora group of people who reports to him or her.

                                                        
Dr. Ansir A Rajput

A manager is who gets things done a given situation

Dr. Fuad Bashir Awan

A manager is a person who performs one or some or all tasks to achieve the organizational goal, he is
further an individual who shapes the culture of an organization. He also performs administrative and
leadership roles and is responsible to locate raw talent and then to transform it into a useful
workforce, provide the necessary support and monitor and give feedback to his subordinates and
coordinate with superiors and managers with the department or outside the department. His core job is
to understand the mission and goal of the organization and communicate downward to the last of the
employees in an organization. In other words, a manager has subordinate(s) who are under his/her
direct supervision. The manager is responsible to complete the tasks and meet the deadlines by
assigning/dividing these tasks to his/her subordinates. For example, the Manager of a restaurant is
assigned the tasks to assist the patrons, supervise the hosts and unusual situations and coordinate and
liaison with other managers. So, the manger is the part of the management of an organization and the
management of any organization is responsible to meet the desired goals and objectives.  

Let us define the management here as well.

It is the art and science of engaging with an organization's human

talent and its resources to accomplish desired goals and objectives
effectively and efficiently.

Another common definition of the discipline of the management is 

Management is a set of activities for the resources of an

organization to achieve organizational goals
effectively and efficiently. 
 
WHAT MANAGERS DO

The manager is a person who performs all tasks and activities to achieve organizational goals. He is
the person who sets and communicates the purpose of the organization, shapes its culture and
performs both the administrative and leadership roles, builds the system and best practices to make
the organization system driven by systems rather than personalities. Managers shape the culture of
their teams and workplaces in countless ways. They have to play both the administrative and
leadership role and require a diverse skill set to be successful but what exactly does a manager do?
Let's look at the fundamentals of the job and why it's critical to success in today’s organizations and
why it continues to be a viable career option.

THE MANAGER’S ROLE INSIDE THE ORGANIZATION

Organizations have different hierarchies of roles & titles. The organizational chart or the structure of
the company and the relationships of the jobs and responsibilities, from the top to down, may include
CEO, Chairman, Director, Vice President, and then the Manager. Each of these people performs
separate and critical functions, enabling the organization to progress to meet its obligations and make
a profit.

The higher you climb in the organization’s ranks, the further away you move from the day-to-day
operations and routine work of the firm’s operations. While the CEO and vice presidents focus more
of their efforts on issues of the strategy, investment, overall coordination, the managers are directly
involved with the individuals serving customers, producing and selling the firm’s goods or services,
and providing internal support to other groups.

Additionally, the manager acts as a bridge from senior management for translating higher-level
strategies and goals into workable plans that drive the business. In that position, the manager is
accountable to senior executives for performance and to front-line employees for guidance,
motivation, and support. It is common for managers to feel as if they are pulled between the demands
of top leaders and the needs of the individuals performing the work of the firm. 

THE WORK OF THE MANAGER

Have you ever witnessed the "plate spinner" at the circus? This performer places a breakable dinner
plate on a stick and starts it spinning. The entertainer repeats this task a dozen or more times, then
runs around striving to keep all of the plates spinning without letting any to crash on the floor. On
many occasions, the role of the manager feels a great deal like this plate spinner. The manager’s
functions are many and varied, including:

1. Hiring and staffing.

2. Training new employees.
3. Coaching and development of existing employees.
4. Dealing with performance problems and terminations.
 5. Supporting problem resolution, decision making, and conducting timely performance
evaluations.
6. Translating corporate goals into functional and individual goals.
7. Monitoring performance and initiating action to strengthen results.
8. Monitoring and controlling expenses and budgets.
9. Tracking and reporting scorecard results to senior management.
10. Planning and goal-setting for future periods.

The daily work of the manager is filled with one-on-one or group interactions focused on operations.
Many managers use early mornings or later evenings to complete their reports, catch up on email, and
update their task lists. There is never a dull moment, much less time for quiet contemplation, in the
lives of most managers. 
 

Types of Managers

Usually, an organization is organized into a formal structure, based on various functions it performs
including Administration, Finance, Marketing, MIS, HR, R&D, Sales, CRM, Quality Control,
Operations, etc. Each of the functional areas has different levels of managers. Each level of a
manager’s function has well-defined goals and objectives with clear guidelines and procedures. The
manager is a formal position in an organization and most of the time he/she performs his/her job is
based on the charter of authority provided to him/her, however at times, a manager has to use explicit
authority based on “rule of thumb”.   

Though the nomenclature of organization may vary yet there are 3 types of managers, that is, general,
functional, and frontline managers. General Manager is responsible for the overall performance of an
organization; the Middle Manager leads a particular function or a subunit within a function. The front
line or line manager is the last leg of the organization with staff reporting to him/her. 

                    
ROLES OF A MANAGER

A manager usually performs a wide variety of tasks and also have different roles to play. According to
management guru, Henry Mintzberg’s, the managerial role can be clustered around three core
management roles and these are 

Interpersonal Roles  

Managers are required to interact with a reasonable number of people in a day and these individuals
are not just subordinates but co-workers, upper management, customers, vendors, etc. Similarly, the
manager at times is the key person to resolve conflict and help others to be the bridge of broken
communication between two individuals and two or more departments.

Similarly, managers have to take clients and customers to dinner, meet with business prospects and
partners, conduct performance interviews, and form alliances, friendships, and personal relationships
with many others. It is observed that such interactions are the key source to get managerial insights
which are most of the time is the key to the success of a business. In Mintzberg’s study, chief
executives spent 12% of their contact time on ceremonial duties; 17% of their incoming mail dealt
with acknowledgments and requests related to their status. One example is a company’s president who
is requested for free merchandise for a handicapped schoolchild.

Leader Role 

Managers are also responsible for the work of their respective subordinates hence; a manager is seen
in a leadership role. Formal authority vests them with great potential power. Popular management
literature has had little to say about the liaison role until recently. This role, in which managers
establish and maintain contacts outside the vertical chain of command, becomes especially important
in view of the finding of virtually every study of managerial work that managers spend as much time
with peers and other people outside of their units as they do with their subordinates. Surprisingly, they
spend little time with their superiors. In Rosemary Stewart’s study, 160 British middle and top
managers spent 47% of their time with peers, 41% of their time with people inside their unit, and only
12% of their time with superiors. Guest’s (1956) study of U.S. manufacturing supervisors revealed
similar findings.

Informational roles

Managers are required to gather, collate, analyze, store, and disseminate many kinds of information.
In doing so, they become information resource centers, often storing huge amounts of information in
their heads, moving quickly from the role of gatherer to the role of disseminator in minutes. Although
many business organizations install large, expensive management information systems to perform
many of those functions, nothing can match the speed and intuitive power of a well-trained manager’s
brain for information processing. Not surprisingly, most managers prefer it that way. As monitors,
managers are constantly scanning the environment for information, talking with liaison contacts and
subordinates, and receiving unsolicited information, much of it as a result of their network of personal
contacts. A good portion of this information arrives in verbal form, often as gossip, hearsay, and
speculation. In the disseminator role, managers pass privileged information directly to subordinates,
who might otherwise have no access to it. 
Managers must not only decide who should receive such information, but how much of it, how often,
and in what form. Increasingly, managers are being asked to decide whether subordinates, peers,
customers, business partners, and others should have direct access to information 24 hours a day
without having to contact the manager directly. In the spokesperson role, managers send information
to people outside of their organizations: an executive makes a speech to lobby for an organizational
cause. 

Decisional Maker Roles

Ultimately, managers are charged with the responsibility of making decisions on behalf of both the
organization and the stakeholders with an interest in it. A manager finds himself/herself at a
crossroads to a choice that is, decision, between organization interests, other stakeholder’s interests
including consumer, and policymakers all the time. Hence, a manager has to assume the rule of
decision-makers which without having the competence to make the decision is a big challenge. 
Essential Skills of the Manager

Before we discuss it is important to differentiate between ability, skill, and competency. There are a
few hard and soft skills a manager should have to perform now. Let us first define what are Skills,
Abilities, Knowledge, and Competencies… What’s the difference?

The terms ‘skills, abilities, knowledge, and competencies’ are often used interchangeably and creates
confusion and therefore, it is essential to define and develop an understanding of these terms. 

Ability

The best way to explain what ability is to say that, it is an innate quality that one ‘does’ or ‘does not’
possess, however, an ability is usually not something that can be learned or developed unless it is
there to begin with. Simply, abilities are the qualities needed to perform certain behaviors and whether
someone is able or not is dependent on their pre-existing qualities.

However, it must be made clear that a person can be extremely able, but then do not use his/her
ability. Likewise, someone can have very little ability to organize themselves but can work very hard,
with the little ability that they have, and maintain some level of organization. In short, ability, when
put into practice, is called skills and this is what is needed from a manager rather than simple abilities
with no practice. 

Skill

It is something learned through experience. It is used to carry out complex activities or job functions
to achieve pre-determined results. A skill must be developed and it can be improved with practice. A
skill can be developed through training or learning. 

Knowledge

Knowledge is referred to as the level of education, experience, or training that an individual must
have at a minimum to be considered qualified for a role. For example, an applicant must have 5 years
of experience in a similar role. Knowledge can be further described as the theoretical or practical
understanding of a subject, or the ability to apply the information to different situations. Usually, the
knowledge is associated with academic qualification.  

Competence

Competence is defined as the combination of related abilities, knowledge, and skills that enable a
person to act effectively in a job or situation. In other words, it is described as ways that are
observable, measurable, and based on performance. The abilities, knowledge, and skills required for
someone to be termed ‘competent’ will be dependent on, what he/she is being measured against, and
the method of evaluation. For example, competent on the job in general and competent on a specific
function are two different things. 

There are various definitions of competency but most of them refer to competence. Hogg (1993)
defined competency as ‘competencies are the characteristics of a manager that lead to the
demonstration of skills and abilities, which result in effective performance within an occupational
area. Competency also embodies the capacity to transfer skills and abilities from one area to another.’
An analysis of the definition reveals: 

Competencies are the characteristics of a manager. This goes along with our promise that competency
is a characteristic of a person. Competencies lead to the demonstration of skills and abilities.
Therefore, competency must be demonstrated and hence must be observable. It must not be inferred
or extrapolated. Competencies must lead to effective performance. This means that the performance
of a person with competency must be significantly better than that of a person without it. Competency
thus refers to behavior, differentiating success from merely doing the job. Competency also embodies
the capacity to transfer skills and abilities from one area to another. A salesperson may be able to
deliver his sales pitch flawlessly but may be tongue-tied.

The driving test analogy is useful to understand learning and development at three separate levels. 

1. Knowledge—reading (one understands the meaning of driving a car) 

2. Skill—practicing (one is shown how to drive a car and is allowed to practice in a non-traffic
area) 
3. Competence—applying (one exhibits an ability to drive in traffic)

Hard Skill and soft Skills 

  

In today's world, employers look for both hard and soft skills. Hard skills are specific, teachable
abilities that can be defined and measured, such as typing, writing, math, reading, and the ability to
use software programs. Soft skills, on the other hand, are less tangible and harder to quantify, such as
getting along with others, managing your time, creative thinking, and the ability to lead. While soft
skills are less measurable (and less commonly taught), they’re just as vital for career success; some
may argue they’re even more important than the hard skills you bring to the table. 

Talented people with poor soft skills get fired every day.

Soft Skills 
 
These skills are often referred to as, “people skills” or “interpersonal skills”, and include things like
how well you get along with your colleagues, how well you communicate with others, and of course,
how you lead. We define soft skills as abilities not unique to any job. Soft skills relate to your
attitudes. Intuitions and based on your emotional intelligence and social quotient.

Soft skills fall under all five of Sun Tzu's virtues, humaneness, trustworthiness, courage, and
discipline, including, intelligence. Soft skills use a different type of intelligence to hard skills,
“emotional intelligence.”

For examples
1. Interpersonal Skills and Communication Skills 
2. Collaboration and Team Work 
 3. Flexibility and Motivation 
4. Adaptability and Patience
5. Professionalism 
6. Honesty and integrity
7. Strong work ethic
8. Emotional intelligence
9. Self-motivated
10. High energy/positive attitude

Why Are Soft Skills Important?

Soft skills are the key differentiation between a successful and unsuccessful Manger. Every task now
a day requires some interaction with others, whether they are colleagues or customers, so soft skills
will be important to most employers. Here are some examples of the difference made by soft skills:

A Finance Manager is required to have an extensive repertoire of hard skills, especially the ability to
run analysis and manage funds, but if a Finance Manager who does not have the soft skills of
emotional intelligence, trustworthiness, and approachability, is not likely to be very highly regarded
by superiors, colleagues, subordinates, and clients. A salesperson, who may have an unrivalled and
exhaustive knowledge of his area or market, but find it difficult to close a deal and retain their clients
if they lack interpersonal skills and negotiation.
  
A customer services Manager with superior organizational skills will only do well if he/she is also
able to interact professionally with customers, and have empathy and listening skills. Soft skills are
not just important when facing external customers and clients. They are equally important when it
comes to interacting with colleagues, staff, and superiors. A productive and healthy work environment
depends on soft skills. After all, the workplace is an interpersonal space where relationships must be
built and fostered, perspectives must be exchanged and, occasionally, conflicts must be resolved.

https://www.goskills.com/Soft-Skills/Articles/Skills-gap
 

Let us discuss some of the skills here 

 Communication

It is one of the most important soft skills. Better communicators can adjust their tone and style
according to their audience, comprehend and act efficiently on instructions, and explain complex
issues to colleagues and clients alike. A key, often forgotten, communication skill is listening.
Whether you are dealing with a customer complaint or working with your colleagues, good listening
skills will help you learn and respond correctly to the circumstance you have been presented with
equally as important are your verbal and non-verbal skills. Verbal skills are key to fostering
relationships that are collaborative and respectful, and, ultimately, productive. This also applies to
your written communication.

 Self-Motivation
Having a positive attitude and the initiative to work without supervision is a vital soft skill for any
manager. Not only does this attitude demonstrate reliability and commitment, but it also shows that
one can fit efficiently into an organizational structure. 

 Right Attitude 

The attitude simply defined as a way of thinking, feeling, belief, or opinion of approval or disapproval
towards something. Behaviour is an action or reaction that occurs in response to an event or internal
stimuli (i.e., thought). Hence the right attitude will bring the right actions and being positive will bring
positive behavior. 

 Leadership

It is a soft skill you can show even if you’re not directly managing others. Those with strong
leadership skills will have the ability to inspire others and lead teams to success. 

 Responsibility

Responsibility is a seldom talked-about but highly valued soft skill. If a manager fails to take
responsibility for his/her work, he/she will be less productive and less successful overall. To
demonstrate a high level of responsibility, a manager must demonstrate, Trustworthiness, Discipline,
Motivation, Conscientiousness, and Accountability. In short, taking responsibility means taking
ownership of not only your goals but also the wider company goals. This will mean taking the
initiative to make improvements, accepting responsibility for any failures, and caring about working
your way to success.

 Teamwork

Like leadership, good teamwork involves a combination of other soft skills. Working in a team
towards a common goal requires the intuition and interpersonal acumen to know when to be a leader
and when to be a listener. Good team players are perceptive, as well as receptive to the needs and
responsibilities of others.

 Decisiveness

Decisiveness is characterized by the ability to make quick and effective decisions. It does not mean
recklessness or impulsiveness. Decisiveness combines several different abilities and these are, ability
to put things into perspective, weigh up the options, conducting research, and anticipate
consequences. 

 Ability to Work under Pressure and Time Management

Many jobs come with demanding deadlines and, sometimes, high stakes. Recruiters prize candidates
who show a decisive attitude, an unfaltering ability to think clearly, and a capacity to
compartmentalize and set stress aside.
  Time management 

It is closely related to the ability to work under pressure, as well as within tight deadlines. Employees
who manage their time well can efficiently priorities tasks and organize their diaries while adopting
an attitude that allows them to take on new tasks and deadlines.

 Flexibility

Flexibility is an important soft skill since it demonstrates an ability and willingness to embrace new
tasks and new challenges calmly and without fuss. Flexible employees are willing to help out where
needed, take on extra responsibilities, and can adapt quickly when plans change.
Employers are looking for candidates who can show a willing and upbeat attitude, and who are
unfazed by the change.

 Negotiation and Conflict Resolution

This is another of those soft skills which employers look for in potential leaders. To be an adept
negotiator is to know how to be persuasive and exert influence, while sensitively seeking a solution
which will benefit all parties. Similarly, conflict resolution depends on strong interpersonal skills and
the ability to establish a rapport with colleagues and clients alike.
 

Hard Skills

Hard skills are teachable abilities or skill sets that are easily measurable. We define hard skills as the
technical abilities that fit the job. Normally, you can acquire hard skills in the classroom, in an online
course, through books and other materials, or on the job. 
 
Hard skills are learned abilities acquired and enhanced through practice, repetition, and education.
Hard skills are important because they increase employee productivity and efficiency and
subsequently improve employee satisfaction. However, hard skills alone don't translate into business
success as employees also need to employ other skills, such as soft skills, that contribute to customer
satisfaction. Hard skills are also known as technical skills, which means they are teachable.
 
Your use of these very skills is what most likely helped you to become a manager, without even
knowing it.
 
According to PayScale, these are the top three hard skills, most recent grads are lacking.

 Writing proficiency

Writing proficiency stole first place, with 44 percent of hiring managers saying recent grads are sorely
lacking good writing skills. Regardless of whether or not you studied English or journalism, today,
hiring managers like people who write well, as more and more communication takes place online via
emails, Slack, and Google Docs.

 Data Analysis
From the ubiquitous Excel to Python and Tableau, data analysis is paramount in virtually every
industry. Companies need skilled employees, who can organize and analyze data to give them
meaningful insight on their sales, clients, finances, and virtually anything else that can be measured. 

Each job requires a certain set of hard skills, for example, engineering needs to have CAD designing
skills. Hard skills are usually specific to a job and here is the list of some of the skills for different
jobs. Out of Sun Tzu's five virtues, hard skills fall under the virtue of intelligence, for these skills
primarily use your mental capacity.

Types of hard skills or Business graduates are 

1. General Management 

1. Economic analysis
2. Strategic planning
3. AI and Data Analysis
4. Proficiency in a Foreign Language
5. Speed Typing
6. Licensing
 
2. Sales & Marketing

1. SEO/SEM marketing
2. Marketing
3. Social media
4. Outreach
5. Inside sales
6. Outbound calling
7. Strategy
8. Forecasting
9. CRM

4. Accounting & Finance

1. Mathematics
2. Bookkeeping
3. IT
4. Quick books
5. GAAP
6. Analytics
7. Auditing
8. Cash flow management
9. Microsoft Office
10. Risk Analysis

5. Project Management
1. Agile methodologies, such as Scrum
2. Project management software, such as Trello and Zoho
Let us talk about some of the hard skills here. 

 Planning Skills

Planning is the ability to think setting goals and manage activities to achieve the set goals. In order
words, planning is a roadmap that guides one on how to complete tasks to achieve the set goals. There
are different types of plans and require a different set of skills to achieve these targets. 

 Organizing Skills 

It refers to one’s ability to stay focused on different tasks and activities and use time, energy, strength,
mental capacity, physical space, and other resources, etc. effectively and efficiently to achieve the
desired outcome.

 Decision Making Skills

Decision making is a core skill that every manager will need to use at some stage in their career.

 Problem Solving Skills

This is the key hard skill of a manager and it will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. Decision
making is a system or process-based approach nowadays and it is the key managerial skill to be an
effective manger.

Solve the problem or leave the problem. Do not live with the problem.

Dr. Arshad Hassan 

It does not just require analytical, creative, and critical skills, but a particular mindset; those who can
approach a problem with a cool and level head will often reach a solution more efficiently than those
who cannot. This is a soft skill which can often rely on strong teamwork, too. Problems need not
always be solved alone. The ability to know who can help you reach a solution, and how they can do
it, can be of great advantage.

 Critical Thinking Skills  

Strive to understand where and how your projects fit into the bigger picture to enhance your
effectiveness. Review priorities in light of larger goals. Translate this understanding into meaningful
goals and objectives for your team members. 
  
 Technical Skills 

These skills are acquired through formal training and these skills are based on function one wishes to
perform such modelling and automation, strategy formation, Planning, etc. 

 
Management: A Balance of Effectiveness and Efficiency 
Balancing Effectiveness and Efficiency

Effectiveness: 

It entails promptly achieving a stated organizational objective given the reality of limited resources,
effectiveness alone is not enough.

Efficiency: 

It entails balancing the number of resources used to achieve an objective against what actually
accomplished. The more favourable the ratio of benefits to costs, the greater the efficiency.
Productivity improvement (a favourable ratio between inputs and output) is the constant struggle to
balance effectiveness and efficiency.
  

  

Making the Most of Limited Resources

We live in a world of scarcity. There is a lopsided use of resources. Our planet is becoming
increasingly crowded. Approximately 83% of the world’s population in the year 2020 will live in poor
and less-developed countries. Managers are responsible for the efficient and effective use of the basic
factors of production–land, labour, and capital.

Purpose and Goal 

Organizational purpose gives your business the reason for existence. It serves as a guiding force upon
which every other decision is rooted. Organization purpose sets the tone for whom your business
exists to serve. An organization with a clear purpose or mission is one that is easy to understand and
manage. A common purpose unifies employees and helps them understand the organization’s
direction. Any employee working at the NASA Space Centre in the 1960s knew that that
organization’s common purpose was to put a man on the moon. Included with the common purpose
would be the business and company strategy, mission statement, company values, and the
organization’s short- and long-term objectives. The role of communicating all of these components
most likely falls to managers through the company. Some of the purposes are, People, planet, and
profit. 

https://sheilamargolis.com/core-culture-and-five-ps/the-five-ps-and-organizational-alignment/
purpose/

Goal and why these are important 

https://sheilamargolis.com/core-culture-and-five-ps/the-five-ps-and-organizational-alignment/
purpose/

Chapter 2
Management: A
Glimpse into Time
How to Become a Manager? 
To build a strong understanding on how to become a Manager and master the art and science of
management, it is essential to understand the historical perspective of Management and similarly look
at what is being practiced today and how the management of future will look like. At the same time, it
is essential to under management of the past. By this we mean let us look at the theories of
Management.

Lessons from the Past

After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions: Describe management in the
ancient world. How did the Italian Renaissance affect the progression of management theory? How
did the Industrial Revolution affect the progression of management theory? How did Frederick
Winslow Taylor influence management theory, and how did efficiency in management affect current
management theory? How do bureaucratic and administrative management complement scientific
management? How did Elton Mayo influence management theory, and how did the human relations
movement affect current management theory? How did contingency and systems management
transform management thought? 

Most of us get confused about history and its importance and here is our take to build a strong case to
read and understand the history of management.
 
What is Theory and why study theories
The first definition of a theory, 

“A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking about a

phenomenon, or the results of such thinking.”

The process of contemplative and rational thinking often is associated with such processes as an
observational study, research. Theories may either be scientific or other than scientific (or scientific to
less extent). Depending on the context, the results might, for example, include generalized
explanations of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use, it has
taken on several related meanings. In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a
well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a consistent with the scientific method, and
fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that
scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for, or empirically contradict ("falsify") it.
Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,

Short Definition of a Theory 

It is an explanation or developing an understanding of process, system or complexity. 

As our understanding grows with time, our theories change, and hence theories evolve but those
theories that remain the same over the period are called universal theories or laws. Framework and
build based on theories to further develop a strong understand and tools to solve difficult managerial
and non-managerial issues. 

Why one should learn theory 

A theory is a background for your further studying. You could learn how to do something in practice,
but if you know how it works theoretically, your skills will be stronger. For example, you could learn
how to drive a car in practice without taking any theoretical classes, but if the car suddenly stops, you
will not be able to find the problem, fix it and drive again, because you have no idea how it works.

Certainly, studying theory will not give you answers to all your questions, but it helps to solve the
problem much faster and effectively. The theory makes your view wider and your skills improved.
Although, there are methods according to which it is not necessary to learn the theory first. It could be
practical skills you get and then you will learn theory, it works too. Anyway, it doesn’t mean that
theoretical knowledge isn’t needed/important. It is just one more way for you to choose.

The theory is about understanding the events happening in our society and nature with a certain
pattern. Mostly it’s about finding the cause and solve the problem and to avoid the same, over and
over again when it is an adverse situation for human survival. Physics theory will help to understand
the pattern of the universe and eventually make humans travel to other galaxies. The theory of cancer
growth will help find the method to eradicate it. Conspiracy theory will help understanding why
certain events are happening in the world repeatedly that doesn't make sense whereas official theory is
announced so that such disasters don't happen again.

It's about finding patterns behind the unknowns wherever and whenever it happens and solve the
mystery and become in control over it instead of becoming victims of it.

Why Educators Need to Know Learning the Theory

Let us learn about theories of learning to understand how theories work before we take on theories of
management this is the second in a three-part series about Learning.

Theories of Learning

 Objectivist Theories

It views knowledge, existing as an entity ‘outside’ the mind of the individual. It is transmitted to the
learner without any interpretation or contextualization by the learner. Learning is reinforced in
memory through drill and practice. 
  Constructivist Theories

The constructivist perspective took the cognitivist principles one step further by asserting that
individuals construct knowledge from within, by engaging in problem-solving, experiential, and/or
social learning experiences. Constructivism puts learners in the centre of the learning process and
suggests that learners contribute to knowledge construction by activating prior knowledge and
personal experiences. Learning is viewed as adapting one’s mental models to new experiences and
knowledge. Several theorists that were part of the constructivist movement include John Dewy, Maria
Montessori, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner.

 Connectivism Theory
 
The very new learning theory, connectivism, developed by Stephen Downes and George Siemens is a
response to society’s connectedness within a network of digital infrastructure. The connected
approach views the student as the driver of learning; where the learner connects with and builds
knowledge via connections [nodes] made within a network. Nodes can be resources or people.
Connectivism is “driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations.
New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important
and unimportant information is vital” (Siemens, 2004). Connectivism is the theory behind massive
open online courses, MOOCs. But MOOCs with a ‘c’ for cMOOC, which incorporates the
connectivist theory, in contrast to xMOOCs offered through higher education platforms such as edX
and Coursera that offer MOOCs that follow more of the objectivist, and some the constructivist
approach.

Conflict in Theories
  
Constructivists and objectivists have different views on the conditions that contribute to learning, but
of most significance is the difference in viewpoints of how (and where) learning happens—one view
is that knowledge is transmitted whereas the other is, knowledge is constructed from within. The
conflict between the two theories is ongoing. However, the root of the differences between the
theories of constructivist, objectivist, and connectivism, is best described as a difference in
epistemology—the nature, scope, and development of human knowledge.

Why Learn Management theories 

One of the reasons why managers should be interested in learning management theories is because it
helps in maximizing their productivity. Ideally, the theories teach leaders how to make the most of the
human assets at their disposal.

                    

A journey of Theories and approaches

  
The Origin of Management Theory
With the start of the industrial revolution, a great debate sparked about management theory. It’s a key
turning point in the history of management. These are six of the leading theories that appeared after
this event.
Every country undergoes industrialization. It occurred in the United Kingdom in the mid-19th
century. British people who immigrated to Australia then brought their knowledge with them. This
sparked a similar industrial revolution in Australia.

Why is this relevant to modern management?

The industrial revolution allowed companies to grow far larger than ever before. Management no
longer involved overseeing a few dozens of employees directly, massive corporations with hundreds
or thousands of employees sprouted up from this era. It’s a key turning point in the history of
management that led to many of the theories that we use today.

The industrial revolution led to the creation of several different concepts of management. Many came
about in the years that followed. Though these concepts evolve log ago, they’re still relevant in the
modern age. Let’s dive into the history of management and look at the six theories. These all form the
basis of modern management theory.

Frederick Winslow Taylor – Scientific Management Theory

Frederick Winslow Taylor was one of the earliest proponents of management theory. A mechanical
engineer, he authored "The Principles of Scientific Management in 1909".

At its most basic, his theory proposed for the simplification of jobs. By keeping things simple, he
argued, productivity would improve. He also argued that managers and employees must work
together. This was a new idea in the history of management. In the early-20th century, most
companies still operated like dictatorships. The manager assigned the work, and the employee did it.

This was especially the case in the factories that rose out of the industrial revolution. Managers had
almost no contact with employees. Instead, they issued orders and expected employees to get on with
the work. There was no standardization or science behind it. This, Taylor argued, led to unproductive
workers.

He espoused fair pay for a fair day’s work. This mantra focused on employee productivity. If one
worker produced less than another, they did not deserve equal pay. Taylor argued for the creation of
scientific methods. These would make production as efficient as possible. This gave more
responsibility to employees. They all had the same methods available, so the less productive had
nothing to hide behind.

Taylor also created four principles of management as part of his work. These are:

1. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way to complete a task.
2. Monitor employees to determine performance. This involves offering guidance to those that
aren’t as efficient as needed.
3. Assign employees to work that suits their skills and motivation levels. Then, coach them to
reach maximum efficiency.
4. Managers must focus on planning and professional improvement. Employees must focus on
the tasks given to them.
Some of these principles haven’t survived the test of time. The fourth, in particular, offers no way for
employees to improve professionally. Yet, they do tackle common problems in the modern
workplace. Most managers search for more efficient processes. Monitoring employee performance is
a common practice. Still, these were different concepts of management than those practiced at the
time.

Henri Fayol – Administrative Management Theory

Also active during the same time as Taylor was Henri Fayol. Having started his career at a French
mining company at the age of 19, Fayol rose up the ranks. In time, he became the company’s director,
managing over 1,000 people.

Henri Fayol went 10 better than Taylor when he published Administration Industrielle et Générale. He
created 14 principles of management. However, most of these focused on the administrative side of
management. We’ve covered his principles in depth on our blog. Fayol developed his 14 principles
while working in his directorship. As a result, they came from the direct experience of a man who had
been there and done it all.

He argued that many managers didn’t interact well with their employees. In this, he agreed with
Taylor. But Fayol’s principles focused less on science instead, he looked at how to create an efficient
company structure. He argued for employee's specialization and a focus on organizational interests.
Fayol also believed that all employees should only have one direct manager.

Fayol’s book became one of the key leadership tools in the history of management. Even today, his 14
principles of management agree with most modern organization’s aims.

Max Weber – Bureaucratic Management Theory

One of the earliest examples of evolution in the history of management, Max Weber built on Taylor’s
theory. He argued for similar principles. Weber believed that all managers must build chains of
command. He also argued for standardization.

Weber and Taylor differed in a key area. Weber realized that Taylor’s scientific theory did not
account for emotions. He argued that the rise of technology could lead to toxic workplace culture. He
differs from many management theorists because of his focus on the negatives. Too much change can
affect morale.

Weber’s bureaucratic theory argues for the following:

1. Detailed record-keeping at all levels of an organization.
2. Employees must have clear job roles so they maintain their focus.
3. All organizations should have clear hierarchies.
4. The standardization of common procedures.
5. Organizations must only hire employees who are fit for the job in question.

With this last point, Weber touched on an important aspect of modern business. Hiring for fit, he
believed, involved searching for employees with the correct skills. We now know much more about
hiring practices. Hiring based on skill alone does not account for a company’s culture. If a new
employee’s personality does not fit your culture, they rarely succeed. As such, modern management
theory has taken Weber’s ideas a step further. Still, his work created another important stepping stone
to today’s management principles.
Professor Elton Mayo – Human Relations Management Theory

Despite their importance, the previous concepts of management didn’t account for people.
Specifically, they all held firm that money was the main influencer of employee performance.
Elton Mayo’s Studies added a new wrinkle. For five years, Mayo studied employees at Chicago’s
Western Electric Hawthorne Works. He placed his focus on workplace conditions, and how they
affected productivity. His study found that relationships work as a key motivator for employees.
When working as part of a team, people become more productive. The improvement was so marked
that it became known as “The Hawthorne Effect”. Mayo’s work laid the foundations for the focus on
teamwork that today’s management theories have.

He was the first to prove that the right people in the right teams leads to higher productivity. His work
led to the foundation of the Human Relations Management Theory. Other theorists adopted his
research. They used it to look for ways to create high-performing teams. These efforts still had the
same aims of previous theories. They aimed for greater efficiency and better results but Mayo’s work
emphasized the importance of the human factor. As a result, the Hawthorne Studies are a major
benchmark in the history of management.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy – General System Theory

A biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanffy wasn’t a management theorist. His general theory related more
to biology than management, even so, his work in the 1940s proved instrumental in the history of
management. He argued that all systems are the sums of their parts. In biology, you can look at your
own body for an example of this. Your organs, muscles, and bones all combine, along with everything
else in your body, to make a whole. One organ or muscle on its own is not productive. But the right
combination leads to an efficient body. You may already see how this applies to management theory.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s General System has relevance in the workplace too.

Most organizations contain several departments. Each of these departments has people, all of whom
have their jobs, and if one department doesn’t carry its weight, the organization suffers. In some
cases, even one person failing to do his job properly can have widespread ramifications. Beyond this,
he also argued that each element in a system reacts to its environment but outside influences can
affect how a system operates. You could argue that this relates to toxicity in the workplace. It also
places an emphasis on how personal issues can affect an employee’s motivation levels. Though a
biological theory at first, general system theory applies to so much more yet, it’s at the root of many
modern managerial theories.

Douglas McGregor – X & Y Management Theory

In 1960, Douglas McGregor built on the teamwork-related ideas in the Hawthorne Studies. He
published The Human Side of Enterprise to make his points. In that book, McGregor presents two
types of management: Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X relates to authoritarianism. Such managers take a negative view of their employers. They
assume their people have no motivation and won’t work well unless pushed. This leads to the leader
taking too much control, often micromanaging projects. In such an organization, productivity plays a
huge role. If an employee doesn’t reach a certain “quota”, they don’t receive their rewards. It also
assumes that employees have no ambition of their own. Theory X managers believe they must drag
employees along to get results.
Theory Y is built more directly from Mayo’s studies. Such managers take a much more positive
approach to their people. They believe that teamwork leads to better results. Furthermore, Theory Y
managers encourage professional development and give employees more responsibilities. They want
to see initiative, which builds a positive workplace culture. McGregor argued that Theory Y is the
better choice of the two. Modern management bears his claims out as well. Though authoritarianism
still exists, most don’t see it as the way to develop a healthy organization. Theory Y forms the basis of
most modern management theories.

The Final Word

Each of these theories has its own degree of relevance in modern management, however, they all
makeup important parts of the post-industrial history of management. Even today, others build upon
the ideas presented in these theories. As a result, you could call these six theories the backbone of
modern management.

Here are the key takeaways:

1. Modern management involves looking for more efficient processes.
2. Teamwork plays a crucial role in employee motivation.
3. All parts of an organization must work in harmony to achieve the collective goal.
4. Remember that a great manager can DOUBLE the capacity of their people.

Management’s Three Eras: A Brief History

Organization as a machine – this imagery from our industrial past continues to cast a long shadow
over the way we think about management today. It isn’t the only deeply-held and rarely examined
notion that affects how organizations are run. Managers still assume that stability is the normal state
of affairs and change is the unusual state (a point I particularly challenge at The End of Competitive
Advantage). Organizations still emphasize the exploitation of existing advantages, driving a short-
term orientation that many bemoan. (Short-term thinking has been charged with no less than a chronic
decline in innovation capability by Clayton Christensen who termed it “the Capitalist’s Dilemma.”)
Corporations continue to focus too narrowly on shareholders, with terrible consequences – even at
great companies like IBM.

But even as these old ideas remain in use (and indeed, are still taught), management, as it is practiced
by the most thoughtful executives, evolves. Building on ideas from my colleague Ian MacMillan, I’d
propose that we’ve seen three “ages” of management since the industrial revolution, with each
emphasizing a different theme: execution, expertise, and empathy.

Before the industrial revolution, of course, there wasn’t much “management” at all – meaning, anyone
other than the owner of an enterprise handling tasks such as coordination, planning, controlling,
rewarding, and resource allocation. Beyond a few kinds of organization – the church, the military, a
smattering of large trading, construction, and agricultural endeavours (many unfortunately based on
slave labor) – little existed that we would recognize as managerial practice. Only glimmers of what
was to come showed up in the work of thinkers such as Adam Smith, with his insight that the division
of labor would increase productivity.

With the rise of the industrial revolution, that changed along with the new means of production,
organizations gained scale. To coordinate these larger organizations, owners needed to depend on
others, which economists call “agents” and the rest of us call “managers”. The focus was wholly on
the execution of mass production, and managerial solutions such as specialization of labor,
standardized processes, quality control, workflow planning, and rudimentary accounting were brought
to bear. By the early 1900s, the term “management” was in wide use, and Adam Smith’s ideas came
into their own. Others – such as Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lillian Galbreth, Herbert R.
Townes, and Henry L. Gantt – developed theories that emphasized efficiency, lack of variation,
consistency of production, and predictability. The goal was to optimize the outputs that could be
generated from a specific set of inputs.

It is worth noting that, once they gained that scale, domestically-focused firms enjoyed relatively little
competition. In America, there were few challenges to the titans in the production of steel, petroleum
products, and food. Optimization, therefore, made a lot of sense. It is also worth noting that in this era,
ownership of capital, which permitted acquisition and expansion of means of production (factories
and other systems), was the basis for economic well-being.

Knowledge began accumulating about what worked in organizational management. While schools
dedicated specifically to business had been offering classes throughout the 1800s in Europe, the
economic juggernaut US gained its first institution of higher education in management with the 1881
founding of the Wharton School. A wealthy industrialist, Joseph Wharton aspired to produce “pillars
of the state” whose leadership would extend across the business and public life. Other universities
followed. The establishment of HBR in 1922 was another milestone, marking progress toward the
belief that management was a discipline of growing evidence and evolving theory.

Thus, the seeds were planted for what would become the next major era of management, emphasizing
expertise. The mid-twentieth century was a period of remarkable growth in theories of management
and the guru-industrial complex. Writers such as Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard,
Max Weber, and Chris Argyris imported theories from other fields (sociology and psychology) to
apply to management. Statistical and mathematical insights were imported (often from military uses)
forming the basis of the field that would subsequently be known as operations management. Later
attempts to bring science into management included the development of the theory of constraints,
management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma, the “waterfall” method of software
development, and the like. Peter Drucker, one of the first management specialists to achieve guru
status, was representative of this era. His book Concept of the Corporation, published in 1946, was a
direct response to Alfred P. Sloan’s challenge as chairman of General Motors: attempting to get a
handle on what managing a far-flung, complex organization was all about.

But something new was starting to creep into the world of organization-as-machine. This was the rise
of what Drucker famously dubbed “knowledge work.” He saw that value created wasn’t created
simply by having workers produce goods or execute tasks; the value was also created by workers’ use
of information. As knowledge work grew as a proportion of the US economy, the new reality of
managing knowledge and knowledge workers challenged all that organizations knew about the proper
relationship between manager and subordinate. When all the value in an organization walks out the
door each evening, a different managerial contract than the command-and-control mindset prevalent
in execution type work is required. Thus, new theories of management arose that put far more
emphasis on motivation and engagement of workers. Douglas McGregor’s “Theory Y” is
representative of the genre. The idea of what executives do changed from a concept of control and
authority to a more participative coaching role. As organizational theorists began to explore these
ideas (most recently with efforts to understand the “emotional intelligence” factor in management, led
by writers such as Daniel Goleman), the emphasis of management was shifting once more.

Today, we are in another fundamental rethinking of what organizations are and for what purpose they
exist. If organizations existed in the execution era to create scale and in the expertise era to provide
advanced services, today many are looking to organizations to create complete and meaningful
experiences. I would argue that management has entered a new era of empathy.
This quest for empathy extends to customers, certainly, but also changes the nature of the employment
contract, and the value proposition for new employees. We are also grappling with widespread
dissatisfaction with the institutions that have been built to date, many of which were designed for the
business-as-machine era. They are seen as promoting inequality, pursuing profit at the expense of
employees and customers, and being run for the benefit of owners of capital, rather than for a broader
set of stakeholders. At this level, too, the challenge to management is to act with greater empathy.

Others have sensed that we are ready for a new era of business thinking and practice. From my
perspective, this would mean figuring out what management looks like when work is done through
networks rather than through lines of command, when “work” itself is tinged with emotions, and
when individual managers are responsible for creating communities for those who work with them. If
what is demanded of managers today is empathy (more than execution, more than expertise), then we
must ask: what new roles and organizational structures make sense, and how should performance
management be approached? What does it take for a leader to function as a “pillar” and how should
the next generation of managers be taught? All the questions about management are back on the table
– and we can’t find the answers soon enough.

This post is part of a series of perspectives by leading thinkers participating in the Sixth Annual
Global Drucker Forum, November 13-14 in Vienna. For more information, see the conference
homepage.

The Evolution of Management

However, if we’re really honest, much of what we practice today is due to the consulting industry
playing on executives’ fears and aspirations by selling products and services that cause more
problems than solutions, and our human weakness of always looking for a quick fix … even to very
complex issues. It’s time to rethink Management but before we do that, let’s take a look in the rear-
view mirror and see how we got to where we are today:

1910s-1940s: Management as Science

Management as Science was developed in the early 20th century and focused on increasing
productivity and efficiency through standardization, division of labor, centop-downion, and hierarchy.
A very ‘top down’ management with strict control over people and processes dominated across
industries.

1950s-1960s: Functional Organisations

Due to growing and more complex organizations, the 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of
functional organizations and the Human Resource (HR) movement. Managers began to understand the
human factor in production and productivity and tools such as goal setting, performance reviews, and
job descriptions were born.

1970s Strategic Planning

In the 1970’s we changed our focus from measuring function to resource allocation and tools like
Strategic Planning (GE), Growth-Share Matrix (BCG), and SWOT were used to formalize strategic
planning processes. After several decades of ‘best practice’ and ‘one size fits all’ solutions, academics
began to developing contingency theories.
1980s Competitive Advantage

As the business environment grew increasingly competitive and connected, and with a blooming
management consultancy industry, Competitive Advantage became a priority for organizations in the
1980’s. Tools like Total Quality Management (TQM), Six Sigma and Lean were used to measure
processes and improve productivity. Employees were more involved by collecting data, but decisions
were still made at the top, and goals were used to manage people and maintain control.

1990s Process Optimisation

Benchmarking and business process reengineering became popular in the 1990’s, and by the middle
of the decade, 60% of Fortune 500 companies claimed to have plans for or have already initiated such
projects. TQM, Six Sigma and Lean remained popular and a more holistic, organization-wide
approach and strategy implementation took the stage with tools such as Strategy Maps and Balanced
Scorecards.

2000s: Big Data

Largely driven by the consulting industry under the banner of Big Data, organizations in the 2000s
started to focus on using technology for growth and value creation. Meanwhile, the oversaturation of
existing market space drove to concepts such as the Blue Ocean Strategy and Value Innovation.

It’s in 2013. Globalization, advances in technology, and increased diversity have put organizational
challenges into hyperdrive. Despite the inspirational stories we read about companies like Zappos,
Innocent Drinks, and Google, the truth is that most of us are using out-dated management practices
and failing to get the most out of our people. Not convinced? Consider this: 65% of people are
unhappy at work, only 14% understand their company’s strategy, and 75% are seeking jobs as we
speak. 

Source: https://www.bmmagazine.co.uk/in-business/advice/the-evolution-of-management/

Management Thought in Indo-Pak Subcontinent

As most of us know the Indo-Pak Subcontinent was and is imperialistically controlled and governed.
Rulers have tried to strengthen their rules with diplomacy, political manoeuvring, interstate
bargaining, extending family ties through marriages and however, the strands of imperialism seem
most prevalent along with federalism and communalism. During the time frame of 1000-2000 AD, the
world transitioned from the Arab/Islamic thought dominance to the European/Enlightened thought
dominance and since the second world war, the American thought process is dominating the world.
The concept of management thought as perceived today is very much the western management
thought concept.
 
 To understand what we are discussing here, we must understand the meaning of management and
some of the contexts in which it is used. According to the Oxford dictionary, management is defined
as, the verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare, which derives from the Latin word manus.
The French word mesnagement influenced the development in meaning of the English word
management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Management is defined differently at different times.
 
Management the backbone of organization and administration is the basis of any country in today’s
competitive world. All those civilizations were well organized, we see different types of management
and administration techniques and thought processes used to manage. The concept of management
thought is centuries old and especially in this region, when we look at the Vedas, Hindu Epics,
Smritis, Puranas, Aryans, Burhamanas, Dharmasutras, and Buddhists, give glimpses of the
management thought and managerial skills present in those times and its evolution. The ancient
Mahabharata was a great epic in developing insights into modern management principles.
 
Classical Indian texts such as the Rig Veda, the Mahabharata, and the Upanishads, a collection of
theological and philosophical texts, had much influence on early Indian thinking on politics and
society. Traders who travelled from all parts of the world brought knowledge and this affected the
education system of the subcontinent. He showed excellent management techniques in the military
manoeuvres he conducted against the regional Rajas of the time. He should great leadership skills in
his governance and military endeavours,
 
Many great measures were taken by the rulers in the years to come and the region grew in prosperity
and enlightenment. The main achievement of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish was that they
established a grand empire. In 1286 AD, the region saw the end of the salve dynasty and the start of
the Khaljis era. One of the names that is considered in history as one of the great rulers of India is
Ala-ud-din Khalji.
 
Most of the administrative measures taken by the Khaljis and Tughlaqs regarding the land reform,
taxation, and administration policies were mostly directed towards the Hindu population. This did
create certain animosity towards the system that was placed within the empire. Right after the
Sultanate of Delhi collapsed due to internal feuds, history tells us that so called administrative policies
and managerial concepts were more of imperial decrees, which were biased in nature and do not fit
our definition of management thought and management. One of the major developments in sixteenth-
century world history was the emergence of Muslim's empires in the central Islamic lands that
replaced the fragmented small sultanates or fragmented tribal alliances, which existed after the
Mongol failure and collapse in Islamic central lands.
 
Ottoman Empire, Safavid Uzbeks, and Mughals shared Central Asian heritage. Political trends,
military developments, centralized bureaucratic institutions, culture, and their vision for conquest left
a powerful lingering global influence. This lead to his success in the early 1500s in India and
establishing the Mughal empire in 1526. Mughals came with all that knowledge and heritage, and
always kept their imperial linage in mind all through the 250 years of rule.
 
Though the historians tend to think of them as Indian rulers confined within the Indian geography, yet
the Timuri descendants created a new country for the inhabitants of the subcontinent. The Muslim
community in India was different from the Muslim communities of the other countries in the Middle
East. The Mughal Empire was a generalized form of political organization. Historians always looked
at different aspects of the Empire.
 
Many unconfirmed assumptions were made about the empire, a close and careful reading of the major
document on Mughal government, the A'Yn-i Akbari of Abu al-Fazl, not only revealed the weakness
of the established interpretation but also showed the remarkable congruence between the state Akbar
organized and the patrimonial-bureaucratic empire analyzed by Weber. The Mughals from Shah Jahan
onwards were different in their approach and administration of the empire. British first came to India
in the 1600s and had been trading with the Mughals and other smaller coastal states. With the
weakening of the administration of empire and integration loss also rose opportunities for the foreign
traders.
 
So the East India Company started taking over, slowly but steadily. The Conjuncture of the Mughals
with Europe in the 17th century was the start of the profitable nexus. It is perceived that the decline
for the Mughal Dynasty, started from this. The reign of Mughals had lost its imperialistic powers ever
since the East India Company won the battle of Plassey in 1757, and within seven more years they
were complete master of Eastern India, which influenced the trade of the Central and northern plains
thus affected the small state rulers and Mughal empire.
 
The British used the Mughal Empire for their purposes until the revolt in 1857 and then the whole
country was colonized. The Mughal Empire had its problems, good or bad governance, management,
administration issues, but the new rulers were very different in intent and nature. The British East
India Company ruled with an imperialistic attitude and the imperial mind of the west. The British
India Company had two types of juridical interests.
 
They created new management methods, laws, and administrative tools to smooth line the control and
collection of revenue. For the British, the problem of land management was a problem related to
power, authority, and rule. They were able to continue the musbadari system of the moguls with
enhancements, but could not break the authority of the Mughal nobility. The company’s main concern
was profitability and it managed its affairs very successfully.
 
British went through an industrial revolution and Indian did not, they went through the renaissance
and India did not. The speed of British change and advancement was a lot faster than India’s. This
caused many British to look upon the Indian society as below them, stagnant and not up to par with
the self-conceived imperial status of the British. Muslim rule in India ended with the abolition of the
last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II after the 1857 revolt.
 
This was the second turning point in the history of the East India Company rule of the subcontinent,
the first was the battle of Plassey. British East India Company was under the control of the British
government in England hence, India was made into a colony and the many administrative staff after
this revolt changed gears and became ruthless with the Indian, especially with the Muslims. Many
historical references are found and show how administrative branches of the British Raj, pointed out
Muslims for the maltreatment and injustice that they received as compared to the other sects of Indian.
 
This was primarily because the revolt was formally linked with the last Mughal emperor as he was a
Muslim. Although the Muslims were maltreated and this went on for many years after the revolt, yet
this lead to the Muslim social and political movements in the subcontinent in the second half of the
nineteenth century. The loss of Muslims in the political power was felt in the economic sphere, as the
community that had ruled the Indian continent for centuries as influential and wealthy, was at once
reduced to the poorer class, and subjugated to much embarrassment. 
 
Not only did the British took many provisions after the massacre and mismanagement of the 1857
revolt. This was the first time in the history of the crown that the Queen, had considered the rights of
the people it ruled in the colonies. British realized their vulnerability after the revolt, the Queen's
proclamation of 1858 was a set of preventive measures taken by the government to avert another
incident like the 1857 revolt.
 
This made the British administrator, officers and military took Indian issues seriously. It was not easy
for the British to make the right decisions for the masses. British went towards the Hindu Pundits and
Muslim Maulvis for the interpretation and administration of power and justice. When the company
faced resistance from the freedom of the press, they used the Vernacular Press Act, to stop the masses
from criticizing the British administrative policies.
 
British devised many strategies to justify their control and rule over India. In 1947, Pakistan came into
being as a result of many factors- economic, social, political, cultural, geographical and ideological –
all of which led to the emergence of the two-nation theory of the Muslims vis a vis the Hindu concept
of the one Indian nation. We cannot take the history of a country as an alienated period, rather it
defines our present. There are many other reasons that led to the formation of this country.
 
Discussion

The ancient civilization of the Indian subcontinent also shows managerial skills in managing, water
supplies, and urban growth (Mosse, 1999). Aryans that came to these lands from the north and ruled
the north of India for centuries, managed their resources successfully. We start seeing a primitive
organizational model with the reign of Akbar and the way he established and ran the Mughal Empire.
There was an extreme systemization of administration and a theoretical basis for sovereignty.
Theoretically in the societies of Hindus and Muslims, the sovereign power of the king was used
through his religious persons and officials down to the lower levels for managing the state affairs. The
British were not just an army coming to occupy territory but they were traders with an army and were
good at managing how to manage and change according to the culture. The Imperialistic methods
employed by the ‘Company Bahadur’ to maintain control over the large number of natives, was
interesting. Mughals used a set of close wazirs, noblemen, and kin to the emperor to control the larger
factions of the government. Especially the land revenue collection, mansabdari system, and military.

After the revolt of 1857, the British made India its colony and changed many policies to ensure that it
does not happen again. The policies that were changed are administrative tools with an imperialistic
control agenda. These tools are still used in the bureaucratic arenas of India and Pakistan today, in
some form or another. In short, Imperialism has been a prevalent type of administrative and
managerial method employed by those in power in this region. 

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
313837656_History_of_Management_thought_in_subcontinent  
 
What is Best Practice? 
A best practice is a method or technique that has been generally accepted as superior to any
alternatives because it produces superior results to those achieved by other means.

Best practices are usually the outcomes of knowledge management. Best practices are the reusable
practices of the organization that have been successful in respective functions. 

Examples of Managerial Best Practices 

7 Management Practices That Can Improve Employee 

All companies want to improve employee productivity, but how often do they examine their
management practices as a means of attaining it? Studies consistently show that a disturbingly high
number of non-management employees are disengaged, not working at full productive capacity. The
following are 7 practical suggestions - steps that management can take to improve productivity by
putting employees in a more productive mindset.
1. Design economic incentives so employees at all levels of an organization can benefit
from them. There's a natural tendency for management to focus most heavily on
senior-level economic incentives. While this is completely understandable, it's best
not to neglect substantive incentives for lower-level employees... that is, if you expect
them to be vigorously committed to an enterprise's success. To the argument that this
will be unduly costly, a program has to be carefully structured, of course, additional
payouts reflect clearly defined revenue and/or earnings targets.

2. Constructively provide meaningful feedback regularly. Feedback is a foundational

management skill; the ability to provide regular, helpful feedback to employees in a
manner that encourages, not discourages, is a cornerstone of effective management.
That's not to say feedback is always positive - that wouldn't be management at all -
but that the communication is done thoughtfully... whether the occasion is
encouragement for a job well done, or that course correction is needed.

3. Respect employees as individuals, in addition to the job they do. Respect can be a
simple but powerful motivator, just as its unpleasant twin, lack of respect, has the
opposite effect. When employees feel genuinely respected (always assuming it's
warranted), they're much more likely "to go the extra mile" to help a company
succeed.

4. Be sure management at all levels of an organization receives adequate training.

There's a tendency for companies to invest heavily in "leadership training" while
focusing far less on supervisors and middle managers. I can readily speak from
experience on this one, having received considerably more training and development
opportunities in the latter stages of my career than in the early formative stages, when
I most needed it.

5. Provide support for employees when it's genuinely needed. Valued support can take
many forms: equipment when existing is outdated or inefficient; emotional support in
the face of (occasionally) unfair criticism; flexible support for a reasonable level of
work-life balance. Management support in times of need won't be forgotten; it builds
employee goodwill and loyalty.

6. Don't be emotionally stingy. There's nothing for management to gain by withholding

praise and recognition when it's warranted. A recent employee study indicated that
recognition is often a more powerful motivator than money. While this may well be
less true at senior levels as financial rewards escalate, this post is focused on general
employee productivity...where the broadest gains can be made.
 7. Ensure senior leadership models behavior that makes the rank-and-file proud to be
part of the team. Nothing demoralizes employees more quickly than seeing senior
leaders act in a way they don't respect, and few things energize employees more than
a senior team they admire. Leaders are always being watched and judged; employees
have keen eyes (and are keen data sharers!). When leadership is "walking the talk," it
will be quickly noted - but so will "talking the walk" without actually walking it.

To help boost productivity, employee engagement matters. Ultimately, most employees would much
rather be part of a team they're committed to, not just a member of an organization. Developing and
maintaining a consistent management approach that engenders esprit de corps is a key link in the
productivity process.

Source:  https://online.stmary.edu/mba/resources/8-best-practices-in-business-management

What is Rule of thumb

A broadly accurate guide or principle, based on practice rather than theory.
Chapter 3
Art of Planning
How to Manage – Present
Modern Management is primarily based on 4 functions Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Control.
These will be discussed in the detail in this Chapter.

Modern Management Approaches and Models

Each management theory provides valuable insight into managerial requirements. There is no single
model or theory that will work for every organization. Many modern organizations apply a
combination of theories to materialize management success. Effective management is the backbone of
any business. It is important to consider several factors when deciding which theories are most ideal
for a small business. Often, small businesses are less rigidly hierarchical and must operate with
minimal staff. It is important to select management theories and practices that are sustainable,
especially if business resources are limited.

Management is the act of engaging with an organization’s human

talent and using the physical resources at a manager’s
disposal to accomplish desired goals and objectives
efficiently and effectively.

Or

A manager is a person who delivers in a given situation

Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading, directing, and controlling an

organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or efforts to accomplish a goal. In the for-
profit environment, management is tasked primarily with meeting the needs of a range of
stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products
at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for
employees). Nonprofit management has the added importance of attracting and retaining donors.
Management operates through various functions, such as planning, organizing, staffing,
leading/directing, controlling/monitoring, and motivating.

1. Planning: 
Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next
five years, etc.) and generating plans for action. Short term goals and targets are set to achieve within
a limited period.

2. Organizing and staffing

Implementing a pattern of relationships among workers and making optimum use of the resources
required to enable the successful carrying out of plans and Job analysis, recruitment, and hiring of
people with the necessary skills for appropriate jobs. Providing or facilitating ongoing training, if
necessary, to keep skills updated.

3. Leading/directing/motivating: 
Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it. Motivation is a basic
function of management because, without motivation, employees may feel disconnected from their
work and the organization, which can lead to ineffective performance. If managers do not motivate
their employees, they may not feel their work is contributing to the overall goals of the organization
(which are usually set by top-level management).

4. Controlling/monitoring:
Checking current outcomes against forecasted plans and making adjustments when necessary to
achieve the set goals/ targets.

Planning 
      

Planning is the fundamental management function, which involves deciding beforehand, what is to be
done, when is it to be done, how it is to be done, and who is going to do it. It is an intellectual process
that lays down an organization’s objectives and develops various courses of action, by which the
organization can achieve those objectives. It chalks out exactly, how to attain a specific
goal. Planning is the part of management concerned with creating procedures, rules, and guidelines
for achieving a stated objective. Planning is carried out at both the macro and micro levels. Managers
need to create broad objectives and mission statements as well as look after the day to day running of
the company.

Planning is nothing but thinking before the action takes place

It helps us to foresee the future and decide in advance the way to deal with the situations, which we
are going to encounter in the future. It involves logical thinking and rational decision making.
Planning is concerned with setting objectives, targets, and formulating plans to accomplish them. The
activity helps managers analyze the present condition to identify the ways of attaining the desired
position in the future. It is the both, need of the organization and the responsibility of managers.

“Everything in this world happens twice, once in the creator

mind and then it gets materialized”

Characteristics of Planning

1. Managerial function:
Planning is a first and foremost managerial function that provides the base for other functions of the
management, i.e. organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling, as they are performed within the
periphery of the plans made.

2. Goal-oriented:

It focuses on defining the goals of the organization, identifying alternative courses of action, and
deciding the appropriate action plan, which is to be undertaken for reaching the goals.

3. Pervasive:

It is pervasive in the sense that it is present in all the segments and is required at all levels of the
organization however, the scope of planning varies at different levels and departments.

4. Continuous Process:

Plans are made for a specific term, say for a month, quarter, year, and so on. Once that period is over,
new plans are drawn, considering the organization’s present and future requirements and conditions.
Therefore, it is an ongoing process, as the plans are framed, executed, and followed by another plan.

5. Intellectual Process: 

It is a mental exercise as it involves the application of mind to think, forecast, imagine intelligently
and innovate, etc.

6. Futuristic: 

In the process of planning, we take a sneak peek of the future. It encompasses looking into the future,
to analyze and predict it so that the organization can face future challenges effectively.

7. Decision making: 

Decisions are made regarding the choice of alternative courses of action that can be undertaken to
reach the goal. The alternative chosen should be the best among all, with the least number of the
negative and highest number of positive outcomes.
  

Importance, Benefits, and Drawbacks of Planning

It minimizes risk and uncertainty, by looking ahead into the future. It facilitates the coordination of
activities. Thus, reduces overlapping among activities and eliminates unproductive work. It states in
advance, what should be done in the future, so it provides direction for action. It uncovers and
identifies future opportunities and threats. It sets out standards for controlling. It compares actual
performance with the standard performance and efforts are made to correct the same.

It is time-consuming and requires certain competencies in a manager but not every situation has time
to plan as some situation requires immediate actions. It is further learned; at times it is very difficult
to predict the future and hence planning requires analysing multiple options by building scenarios. 
 
Levels of plans 
We take a look at the different plans and these plans are done at different levels. These plans are
offered at different level s as follows. 

 Strategic Plan

A strategic plan is a high-level overview of the entire business, its vision, objectives, and value. This
plan is the foundational basis of the organization and will command the decisions in the long-term.
The scope of the plan can be two, three, five, or even ten years. Managers at every level will turn to
the strategic plan to guide their decisions. It will also influence the culture within an organization and
how it interacts with customers and the media. Thus, the strategic plan must be forward-looking,
robust but flexible, with a keen focus on accommodating future growth.
A long-term plan is crucial to the ultimate success of the organization. A long-term plan for many
businesses generally extends for four to five years into the future. For other faster-changing industries,
especially technology companies, a long-term plan may only look two or three years into the future.
After that, it becomes too difficult to predict the future with any degree of certainty. Top management
is responsible for the development of the long-term plan. It is up to the CEO to make sure that
changing conditions (both external and internal) are reflected in the organization’s long-term plan.
The larger and more complex the organization, the larger and more complex the long-term plan will
be to include all of the individual departments and functions.

The crucial components of a strategic plan are:

1. Vision

Where does the organization want to be five years from now? How does it want to influence the
world?

These are some of the questions you must ask when you delineate your organization’s vision. It’s
okay if this vision is grandiose and idealistic. If there is any room to wax poetic within a plan, it is
here. Holding ambitions to “make a dent in the Universe” (Apple/Steve Jobs) is acceptable, as is a
more realistic vision to create the most “customer-centric company on Earth” (Amazon).

2. Mission

The mission statement is a more realistic overview of the company’s aim and ambitions. Why does
the company exist? What does it aim to achieve through its existence? A clothing company might
want to “bring high street fashion to the masses”, while a non-profit organization might want to
“eradicate polio”.

Vision statements are future-oriented and describe the desired or ideal state of the organization or
enterprise. Mission statements describe the fundamental purpose of the organization. 

Values are the shared set of beliefs that 

determine the culture of an organization
.
3. Values
“Inspire. Go above & beyond. Innovate. Exude passion. Stay humble. Make it fun”.

These aren’t fragments from a motivational speech, but Fab.com’s values. Like Fab, each
organization has its values. These values will guide managers and influence the kind of employees
you hire. There is no template to follow when jotting down the values. You can write a 1,000-page
essay, or something as simple as Google’s “Don’t be Evil” – it’s all up to you.

As you can see, there are no rules for writing the perfect strategic plan. This is an open-ended, living
document that grows with the organization. You can write whatever you want in it, as long as it
dictates the future of your organization.

For inspiration, just search for the value/mission/vision statement of your favorite companies on
Google. Or, consider taking this course on business planning for average people.

 Tactical Plan

The tactical plan describes the tactics the organization plans to use to achieve the ambitions outlined
in the strategic plan. It is a short-range (i.e. with a scope of less than one year), low-level document
that breaks down the broader mission statements into smaller, actionable chunks. If the strategic plan
is a response to “What?”, the tactical plan responds to “How?”. Creating tactical plans is usually
handled by mid-level managers. The tactical plan is a very flexible document; it can hold anything
and everything required to achieve the organization’s goals. There are some components shared by
most tactical plans:

1. Specific Goals with Fixed Deadlines

Suppose your organization aims to become the largest shoe retailer in the city. The tactical plan will
break down this broad ambition into smaller, actionable goals. The goal(s) should be highly specific
and have fixed deadlines to spur action – expand to two stores within three months, growing at 25%
per quarter, or increase revenues to $1mn within six months, and so on.

2. Budgets

The tactical plan should list budgetary requirements to achieve the aims specified in the strategic plan.
This should include the budget for hiring personnel, marketing, sourcing, manufacturing, and running
the day-to-day operations of the company. Listing the revenue outflow/inflow is also a recommended
practice.
3. Resources

The tactical plan should list all the resources you can muster to achieve the organization’s aims. This
should include human resources, IP, cash resources, etc. Again, being highly specific is encouraged.

4. Marketing, Funding, etc.

Finally, the tactical plan should list the organization’s immediate marketing, sourcing, funding,
manufacturing, retailing, and PR strategy. Their scope should be aligned with the goals outlined
above.
  Operational Plan

The operational plan describes the day to day running of the company. The operational plan charts out
a roadmap to achieve the tactical goals within a realistic timeframe. This plan is highly specific with
an emphasis on short-term objectives. “Increase sales to 150 units/day”, or “hire 50 new employees”
are both examples of operational plan objectives. Creating the operational plan is the responsibility of
low-level managers and supervisors. Operational plans can be either single-use or ongoing, as
described below:
a. Single-Use Plans

These plans are created for events/activities with a single occurrence. This can be a one-time sales
program, a marketing campaign, a recruitment drive, etc. Single-use plans tend to be highly specific.
The length of the plans varies, but the most common types are budgets and project schedules. The
obvious advantage of a single-use plan is that it can be very specific in how it addresses the need for a
particular situation. 

The most common single-use plan is called Budget. An organization’s budget is a document that
details the financial and physical resources allocated to a project or department. They are single-use
plans because they are specific to a particular period or event. For example, 
departments may have a hiring budget that allocates a certain number of positions and a total salary
value for a calendar year. Next year, that budget may be the same or it may change, depending upon
conditions in the organization but it cannot be assumed that the budget will stay the same. 

Zero-based budgets look at each budget as if it were brand new and require managers to justify each
of the budgeted items. This process ensures that budgets are closely tied to the latest organizational
goals. Managers deal with a variety of budget types e.g. Financial budgets, Operating budgets,
Nonmonetary budgets, Fixed budgets, and Flexible budgets. Budgets are a very important planning
tool, and organizations take their budgeting process very seriously. Some managers spend most of
their time making sure that the expenses and projects they control do not exceed authorized spending
or budgetary limits.

b. Ongoing Plans

These plans can be used in multiple settings on an ongoing basis. Ongoing plans can be of different
types, such as:

Policy: A policy is a general document that dictates how managers should approach a problem. It
influences decision making at the micro-level. Specific plans on hiring employees, terminating
contractors, etc. are examples of policies.

Rule: Rules are specific regulations according to which an organization function. The rules are meant
to be hardcoded and should be enforced stringently. “No smoking within premises”, or “Employees
must report by 9 a.m.”, are two examples of rules.

Procedure: A procedure describes a step-by-step process to accomplish a particular objective. For

example, most organizations have detailed guidelines on hiring and training employees, or sourcing
raw materials. These guidelines can be called procedures.
A marketing manager may direct a three-four-month plan that involves the introduction of a new
product line. A team leader may only be comfortable in planning and implementing very specific
activities over the period of a month.

c. Contingency plan 

A contingency plan describes what will happen in a possible—but not expected—situation. Usually,
contingency plans are designed to handle emergencies. For example, airports have contingency plans
for plane crashes on take-offs or landings, and popular tourist attractions have begun developing
contingency plans in case of terrorist threats. Plan for Contingencies and Crises even with great
planning, things don’t always turn out the way they’re supposed to. Perhaps your plans were flawed,
or maybe something in the environment shifted unexpectedly. Successful managers anticipate and
plan for the unexpected. 

d. Crises Planning 

Crisis Management Organizations also face the risk of encountering crises that require immediate
attention rather than waiting until such a crisis occurs and then scrambling to figure out what to do,
many firms practice crisis management. Some, for instance, set up teams trained to deal with
emergencies. Members gather information quickly and respond to the crisis while everyone else
carries out his or her normal duties. 

Classification based on Functional Areas:

These plans are more specific and relate to a particular area of operation. They develop guidelines for
action in a specific functional area. They usually set short-term objectives for each functional area and
define the means to achieve the objectives within the given time frame.

1. Production plans:

“Production plans consist of planning and overseeing the process of converting inputs into value-
enhanced output.” The areas of production plans are production system, the efficiency of operations,
location of company facilities, design of facilities, and day-to-day process planning. These plans set
the targets for production. They are designed according to the production policy of business
organizations. Firms may produce throughout the year, pile inventories and sell them during peak
season or produce only during the peak season of demand. In the latter case, they can diversify into
other areas during the slack season to keep their plant and machinery occupied.

2. Marketing plans:

Marketing plans are designed by marketing managers. They “tell sales and marketing personnel who
will sell what, where, when, to whom, in what quantity, and how.” They help to sell the products and
develop new products to increase the market share; to plan for sale in cash or credit; if it decides to
sell on credit, to determine the credit terms and credit policies for the sales department. Production
plans and marketing plans aim to satisfy consumer needs and are inter-dependent. The production
department produces according to the expected sale and sales department sells what is produced.

3. Financial plans:
Finance managers prepare financial plans for raising and utilizing/allocating financial resources
effectively. These plans meet the fixed and working capital requirements of the firm. They plan for
financial cuts during recessionary economic conditions and raising additional funds during the boom
period. All departments need funds for their effective functioning. The production department needs
raw material for the smooth flow of production and the marketing department needs funds for
advertisement and sales promotion campaigns. Financial plans contribute to the financial strength of
the organization through effective cost control techniques that reduce the cost of operations.

4. Human resource plans:

These plans make optimum use of the most productive asset of the organization, its people. They
ensure the best match between the employees and their jobs, thus, avoiding manpower shortages and
surpluses. They forecast the demand for labor, analyze the present supply, and balance the projected
demand and supply of labor. These plans forecast the size and nature of human resources required by
the organization to achieve its strategic goals. They identify the human resource requirements of the
organization and plan to satisfy these requirements. They forecast quantitative (how many people are
needed) and qualitative (what type of people are needed) human resource needs of the organization.
They also plan for ways in which people are developed so that they contribute to organizational goals
effectively.

Planning Tools

Strategic Planning Tools

Strategic planning is the process of developing the strategy or direction and the action plan is to
achieve the goals of an organization. Key elements of any strategic planning process are:

SWOT Analysis
S.W.O.T. is an acronym that stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.
  
A SWOT analysis is an organized list of a company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats. The analysis is designed as a structured planning method to identify, separate, and evaluate
internal and external factors of a business. Strengths and weaknesses are internal aspects to the
company such as reputation, services, products, patents, equipment, and location. These are factors
that can be directly managed by the company. Opportunities and threats are external influences such
as competitors, suppliers, social trends, regulations, and the economy. 

Completing a SWOT analysis is very simple. It can be done by an individual or a group of people.
However, it is best to be completed as a brainstorming session.

The SWOT analysis is typically presented as a grid or matrix. It is comprised of four quadrants, one
for each of the SWOT headings: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.

A basic SWOT analysis is completed in a few steps:

Step 1. Create a grid with the four quadrants
Step 2. Label each quadrant (i.e. Strengths, Weaknesses, etc…)
Step 3. Identify and list the company’s key strengths
Step 4. Identify and list the company’s weaknesses
Step 5. Identify and list opportunities in the market environment
Step 6. Identify and list threats in the market environment

Analysing Each Quadrant

Strengths

Strengths are the company’s positive internal attributes. These are things completely under the
company’s control. The company decides how to utilize them and how to benefit from them.
Examples of strength may include;

Products or services
Patents
Strong brand names
Equipment
Intellectual-property
Good reputation
Favourable access to distribution networks
Knowledge and expertise
Efficiencies in processing tasks

Weaknesses

Weaknesses are a company’s negative internal attributes. They are factors that are within the
company’s control. However, even though they are within the company’s control, they adversely
affect the performance of the company. These factors need to be improved upon so they no longer a
disadvantage. e.g.

Lack of technologies
Lack of capital
Lack of resources
Lack of patent protection
Weak brand name
Poor reputation
High-cost structure
Lack of access to key distribution channels
Unskilled labours

Opportunities

Opportunities are the positive external factors that may affect a company. These external forces are
beyond a company’s control. Opportunities reflect the potential positive direction for a business to
grow. They represent possibilities, that if taken, can significantly enhance its performance. Examples
include;

Trends in the economic market

Social trends
Weather conditions
New technologies
Loosening of governmental regulations
Removal of trade barriers
Threats

Threats are the negative external factors that may affect the company. Since they are external factors,
the company has no control over them. These can be very detrimental to the company’s growth and
stability. However, the company can develop plans to minimize risks.
Examples include;

Trends in the economic market

Poor weather conditions
Increased competition
Social changes
Emergence of substitute products
New governmental regulation
Increased trade barriers
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Source: thepeakperformancecenter.com/development-series/tool-box/seven-management-planning-
tools/

PESTEL

PEST (political, economic, social, technology) analysis is a macro framework for expanding a SWOT
analysis to include political and regulatory issues, economic factors, social norms and attitudes as well
as demographics, and technological developments. Some organizations expand the PEST analysis to
include legal and environmental concerns (PESTEL).
  
Source: Improving Finance Function Effectiveness Tool. CGMA

Tactical and Operational Planning Tools 

There are many operational planning tools including MBO
1. Benchmarking
2. Cost-benefit Analysis (CBA)
3. Affinity Diagram 
4. Tree Diagram 
5. Interrelationship Diagram
6. Matrix Diagram

Management by Objectives 

Management by objectives, or MBO for short, is a tool that can be used to improve the performance
of an organization by creating clearly defined objectives agreed upon by management and by the
employees. Peter Drucker, a prolific author and a leader in management theory, coined the phrase
“management by objectives” in 1954. MBO intends to improve employee motivation and
organizational communication by focusing on aligning individual goals to corporate objectives. In
MBO, a manager and an employee do the following:
1. Jointly set goals and objectives for a period.
 2. Together plan tasks that the employee performs with the support of management.
3. Agree on the standards for evaluating the performance of the task.
4. Regularly meet to review progress.

MBO must be a top-down management tool because organizational goals are cascaded down to create
various operational levels. Drucker showed that as long as employee goals support short-term and
long-term organizational objectives, MBO will help move the company forward. Critics, however,
charge that managers using the approach focus more on creating goals than on helping the employee
achieve them.

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA)

sometimes also called benefit-cost analysis or benefit costs analysis, is a systematic approach to
estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives used to determine options that provide the best
approach to achieving benefits while preserving savings (for example, in transactions, activities, and
functional business requirements). A CBA may be used to compare completed or potential courses of
actions, or to estimate (or evaluate) the value against the cost of a decision, project, or policy. It is
commonly used in commercial transactions, business or policy decisions (particularly public policy),
and project investments.

CBA has two main applications:

 1. To determine if an investment (or decision) is sound, ascertaining if and by how much – its
benefits outweigh its costs.
2. To provide a basis for comparing investments (or decisions), comparing the total expected cost of
each option with its total expected benefits.
 
Benchmarking

A benchmark is a standard used for comparison purposes. Benchmarking is looking at performance

levels outside of your organization, or sometimes across departments or divisions inside your
organization, to evaluate your performance. 
You can benchmark using several different criteria:

1. Industry
Let’s say you produce technology widgets. Benchmarking can answer questions about how your
company is doing in comparison to other tech widget makers. This approach is a type of competitive
benchmarking.

2. Geography 
Your state is showing a lot of economic growth. You can use benchmarking to determine if your
company is sharing in that wealth or underperforming compared to the regional economy.

3. Organization 
You are a small business owner. Benchmarking can help answer questions about whether the
economic climate is friendlier to big business than it is to small business, or whether nonprofits are
failing whereas for-profits are succeeding.

4. Processes 
You can use benchmarking to determine what processes other firms are using that are helping or
hurting them. Are there lessons to be learned from them? This is also called strategic benchmarking or
process benchmarking.

5. Innovation
Benchmarking can help you discover what partners or techniques your competitors are using that are
missing in your organization. Are there functions in your products or programs that should be
eliminated and others that could be added? Functional benchmarking is key in technology-related
organizations.

6. Internal benchmarking 
Comparing a department’s performance with another department in your company or branch within
the same larger organization. The important thing about benchmarking is that it gives you a standard
against which to compare your progress.

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/reading-types-of-
plans-and-common-planning-tools/

Affinity Diagram

An Affinity Diagram is a tool used for organizing large amounts of disorganized information into
groups based on their natural relationships and affinity (similarity of characteristics). It is often used
for solving problems with issues that seem to be very complex and difficult to manage. An Affinity
Diagram is a type of brainstorming technique that allows you to generate, organize, and consolidate
information concerning complex processes, issues, or problems. The goal of this process is to take a
broad range of ideas and organize them so they can be more effectively analysed.

As part of the process, a group of individuals reviews a bunch of ideas generated from brainstorming.
After this, they place these ideas into related and meaningful categories called affinity sets. These
categories tie different concepts together with one underlying theme. This way the newly formed
groups of ideas can be analysed and prioritized before being implemented. It is a group activity
involving about 3-6 participants. The idea is to get a variety of perspectives, opinions, and insights
from all the participants.

The Affinity Diagram organizes ideas with the following steps:

1. Write down each idea (generated from a brainstorming session) on a separate index card or a
post-it note.
2. After you have written all the ideas down, place the cards/Post-its randomly on a board or
table. At this point, do not worry about organizing the information.
3. Review the ideas to see a possible relationship between the ideas. Participants should discuss
patterns or relationships that are identified.
4. Move the cards/post-it notes so that the similar/related ideas are together on the table or wall.
5. Sort cards/notes into groups until all cards (ideas) have been assigned a group.
6. After the ideas are grouped, select the meaningful affinity heading to categorize each group or
theme.
7. Write the heading on a card and place the heading cards at the top of each of the groupings.
8. Analyze the affinity diagram with all participants. This will help the group reach a decision or
come to a better understanding of the key issues to address.
Tree Diagram

A Tree Diagram (also referred to as a systematic diagram) is a systematic method to outline all the
details needed to complete a given objective or process. It is used to break down broad categories or
complex processes into minute details allowing you to examine the finer details.

The Tree Diagram is an orderly structure, similar to an organization chart or family tree diagram. It
helps in understanding a process by graphically breaking down complex processes to smaller levels of
detail.

This technique encourages you to direct your thinking from generalities to specifics.

Developing an Operations Plan: 5 Key Elements

Operations plan lays out the who, what, when, and how of your daily operations over the course of the
next year. It is meant to define how human, financial, and physical resources will be allocated to
achieve short-term goals that support your larger strategic objectives. Put simply, your operations plan
is a manual for operating your organization designed to ensure that you accomplish your goals. It’s a
key piece of the puzzle for any goal-oriented team. So what steps can you take to develop a strong
operations plan?

1) Start with your strategic plan.

Ultimately, an operation plan is a tool for carrying out your strategic plan. If you can’t identify how
an element of your operation's plan helps you achieve a specific strategic objective, then it shouldn’t
be part of your plan.

2) Focus on your most important goals.

There’s a simple rule when it comes to operations plans the more complex they are, the less likely it is
that a team will follow them successfully. To avoid writing a tangled tome of a plan, focus on the
goals that truly matter. Before you even set down to create your operations plan, break your strategic
plan down into one-year objectives. Then determine the key initiatives that will help you achieve
those goals. Choose between three and five initiatives that will drive success in your long-term goals,
and then identify metrics that will help you measure your progress. These key performance indicators
(or KPIs) will be among your most powerful tools for success.

3) Use leading – not lagging – indicators.

Your KPIs will play an important role in your operations plan’s success so it’s critical to choose the
right one. The most effective metrics are leading indicators & predictive measures that show you what
to expect in the future and allow you to adjust course accordingly. By contrast, lagging indicators
show you that your progress is falling short only after it’s too late. 

If your goal is to reach a certain sales threshold, for example, sales meetings or calls-per-week might
be a strong leading indicator. Based on your experience, you may be able to calculate how many calls
it takes, on average, to complete a sale. This will allow you to use calls to determine whether you’re
on track to meet sales goals. If you were to simply measure sales, however, you wouldn’t know where
you stood relative to goals and projections until you were already there.
4) Don’t develop your KPIs in a vacuum. 

The KPIs you choose will guide the work of everyone in your organization for the next year. With this
in mind, you should draw on a wide variety of perspectives within your team as you develop those
KPIs. If your organization is made up of 15 people or less, you may want to hold an annual planning
session where everyone collaborates to craft the KPIs for the coming year. Larger organizations may
wish to restrict participation to their leadership teams. In either case, the key is to include a range of
perspectives in the planning process but not so many that effective decision-making becomes difficult.

5) Communication is Paramount.

It’s essential for everyone to understand why you’ve chosen these specific metrics, why they matter,
how they will help your organization achieve its goals, and what each individual’s role may be in
working toward success. The importance of buy-in and communication among your team is hard to
overstate. Hold regular meetings – ideally weekly – to communicate organizational progress on your
KPIs and discuss any issues that may have emerged. Whether through meetings, dashboards, or some
other means, team members should be able to track their progress and performance weekly.

Source: 

Let me share a very interesting quotation on planning and it says

Luck Favours Prepared Minds

 
Magic of a Very Productive Week - Effective Scheduling

It's the end of another busy week and even though you came into the university early every day and
left late, you don't feel as if you've accomplished anything significant. If this is the case, your need to
learn how to schedule your time properly. Let us look at the steps you can take to do this, thereby
making time for the work that matters. Scheduling is the art of planning your activities so that you can
achieve your goals and priorities. 

Please 
1. Understand you need time to plan or make a schedule for a week
2. Understand what you can realistically achieve with your time.
3. Make sure you have enough time for A MUST / Urgent tasks.
4. Add contingency time for "the unexpected."
5. Avoid taking on more than you can handle.
6. Have enough time for family and friends, exercise, and hobbies.

How to Schedule Your Time

Set a regular time to do your scheduling at the start of every week. A simple and easy way to keep a
schedule is to use a pen and paper, organizing your time using a weekly planner. You can also use
apps and software such as Google Calendar, MS Outlook, and Business Calendar. The most important
thing when choosing your planner is that it lets you enter data easily, and allows you to view an
appropriate time (day/week/month) in the level of detail that you need. Once you have decided which
tool you want to use and I recommend the following to-do list-style as it is easy to make and manage.
Now prepare your schedule in the following way:

Step 1: Identify Available Time

Make time slots on column one and highlight/circle hours available in a given day. 

Step 2: Make a list of tasks for a week.

Make a list of weekly tasks on the sheet of paper 

Step 3: Categorize these as MUST /Urgent/Routine and list

Please grade each task as MUST, Urgent, or Routine by putting M or U or R in front of it

respectively.  

Step 4: Schedule High-Priority Activities

Assign 1-3 for each task and Put these MUST and Urgent tasks on the planner and assign times (be
realistic). Maybe you can handle only one priority in a week from each category. 

Step 5: Schedule Contingency Time

Next, schedule some extra time to cope with contingencies and emergencies. 

Step 6: Schedule Routine Tasks 

Now add routine tasks. The space you have left in your planner is "discretionary time"

Step 7: Analyze Your Activities weekly  

I suggest your color code these tasks as well. Review your progress daily (at the end of the day) and
make adjustments. 

Step 8: Reward your Self 

At the end of the week review your progress and reward yourself if your week was productive 

1. Urgent: cannot be delayed 

2. Must: Essential but can wait 
3. Routine: live will flow without it. 

Key Points
Scheduling is the process by which you plan how you'll use your time. Doing it well can maximize
your effectiveness and reduce your stress levels. Your schedule must make time for your professional
and personal goals. 

Please stick with the basic planner’s template and once you are comfortable with the planning you
may download the advance templates of weekly planners. At the end of each week, you need to
evaluate your performance and reschedule the incomplete task. 
 
Magic of a Very Productive Week - Effective Scheduling
List of Tasks
Name: _________________________________________________________
Week: _________________________________________________________
 1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________
8. ________________________________________________________

Magic of a Very Productive Week - Effective Scheduling

  

Productive Workday: A Five steps Approach

Prioritizing daily tasks is the key to successful Management. When you prioritize, you make
sure you accomplish the most important tasks first. Make Daily Planning a habit and your
effectiveness will improve. 

1. Select a suitable Template and Tool of the daily planner. 

The selection of a template and Tool is a very personal thing. It depends on one’s choice and comfort.
The traditional tools are very effective as these are easy to manage and not reliant on internet speed,
etc. Following is a daily planning template I find very useful in getting the information. 

2. Make the Plan 

If you have planed the week in advance and you have a master list for the day, you are preparing the
plan. Just review the progress of the last day and look at the plan of the day you are working on.
Prepare the plan of the day in the daily planner by making sure to look at the looking at what you have
planned for the day and making adjustments in it if you have undelivered tasks from the previous day.
Readjust the categories and priorities. 

3. Follow the Schedule 

It is very common to get out of focus and not follow the plan. Believe me, if you do that then you are
doing worth far more than those who did not plan at all. 

4. Analyze Your Activities Daily 

Review your progress daily (at the end of the day) and make adjustments in the day to come. Please
make sure to give sufficient time to reflect and adjust. There is no one way to improve but every
missed deadline will raise some questions and you have to addresses these as you go along.   

5. Reward yourself 
At the end of the week review your progress and reward yourself if your week was productive 
 Chapter 4
Organizing for Success
Organizing and organizing explained
ORGANIZING DEFINED 

Its simplest definition is

“Arranging resources in purposeful sequence or order or structure”

In managerial terms, organizing is a function of management which is concerned with combining

people, work to be done, and physical resources into a meaningful relationship called structure to
achieve organizational goals. It is a function in which the synchronization and combination of Human,
Physical, Financial, and knowledge resources take place. 
All four resources are important to get results. Organizing function, according to Chester Barnard is, 

“It is a function by which the concern is able to define

the role, positions, the jobs related and the co-ordination
Between authority and responsibility.”
 
Levels of Organizing 

Organizing plays its role on two levels, organizational and manager stages. 

2.1. Organizational level 

It is a key component of productivity. We organize organizational resources where the key resources
are human, capital, physical, and knowledge. Knowledge includes intangible and intellectual
resources including patent, formulas, etc. An organized organization is more productive than an
unorganized organization. 

Benefits of Organizing at the Organizational level 

1. Specialization 
Organizational structure is a network of relationships in which the work is divided into units and
departments. This division of work is helping in bringing specialization in various activities of
concern.

2. Well defined jobs 

Organizational structure helps in putting the right person on the right job which can be done by
selecting people for various departments according to their qualifications, skill, and experience. This
is helping in defining the jobs properly which clarifies the role of every person.

3. Clarifies authority
Organizational structure helps in clarifying the positions of roles to every manager (status quo). This
can be done by clarifying the powers to every manager and the way he has to exercise so that misuse
of powers does not take place. Well defined jobs and attached responsibilities help in bringing
efficiency into managers working. This helps in increasing productivity.

4. Co-ordination
The organization is a means of creating co-ordination among different departments of the enterprise.
It creates clear cut relationships among the positions and ensures mutual co-operation among
individuals. Harmony of work is brought by higher-level managers exercising their authority over the
interconnected activities of the lower-level managers.

5. Authority responsibility relationships 

For the smooth running of an organization, the co-ordination between authority- responsibility is very
important. There should be coordination between different relationships. Clarity should be made for
having the ultimate responsibility attached to every authority. There is a saying, “Authority without
responsibility leads to ineffective behavior and responsibility without authority makes person
ineffective.” Therefore, the co-ordination of authority- responsibility is very important.

6. Effective administration 
The organization structure helps defining job positions. The roles to be performed by different
managers are clarified. Specialization is achieved through the division of work. This all leads to
efficient and effective administration.

7. Sense of security 
Organizational structure clarifies the job positions. The roles assigned to every manager are clear. Co-
ordination is possible. Therefore, clarity of powers helps automatically in increasing mental
satisfaction and thereby a sense of security. This is very important for job- satisfaction.

2.2 Managerial Level 

An organized individual is more productive and hence is more successful than an unorganized one.
When clutter accumulates, attention diminishes and performance can suffer as a result. An organized
individual organizes his/her mind and thoughts, time, and workspace as a result he/she becomes
more productive.  

Benefits of Organizing at Individual level 

1. Achieve more in less time. Gain a sense of control.
2. Give things a Structure which reduces stress level
3. Meet deadlines
 4. Use the best of your talents and skills.
5. To have more time, do what is important
6. Improve Productivity 
Let us talk about how to organize resources at the organizational level. 
1. Organizing Resources 

Now let us look at these resources one by one to see how these resources are organized. 

3.1 Organizing HR 

We give a structure to human resources and this structure is called organogram. There is a variety of
organizational structures and selection of the organizational structure is based on many factors
including an organization's philosophy, size, mission, culture, scope, strategy, etc. The structure
provides role and responsibility details, information access and sharing rights, benefits and perks,
title, chain of command, authority, responsibly and accountability details and job description for each
position in a structure. 

1. Steps in developing organization structure  

A manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps: -

1. Identification of activities 
All the activities which have to be performed, are to be identified first. For example, preparation of
accounts, making sales, record keeping, quality control, inventory control, etc. all these activities have
to be grouped and classified into units.

2. Departmentally organizing the activities 

In this step, the manager tries to combine and group similar and related activities into units or
departments. This organization of dividing the whole concern into independent units and departments
is called departmentation.

3. Classifying the authority 

Once the departments are made the manager likes to classify the powers and its extent to the
managers. This activity of giving a rank to the managerial positions is called Hierarchy. The top
management is involved in the formulation of policies, the middle-level management into
departmental supervision, and lower-level management into the supervision of foremen.

4. Co-ordination between authority and responsibility 

Relationships are established among various groups to enable smooth interaction toward the
achievement of the organizational goal. Each individual is made aware of his authority and he/she
knows whom they have to take orders from and to whom they are accountable and to whom they have
to report. A clear organizational structure is drawn and all the employees are made aware of it.

Principles of Organizing Human Resource 

The organizing process can be done efficiently if the managers have certain guidelines so that they
can take decisions and can act. To organize effectively, the following principles of organization can
be used by a manager.
Specialization
According to the principle, the whole work of a unit should be divided amongst the subordinates
based on qualifications, abilities, and skills. It is through the division of work and specialization can
be achieved which results in an effective organization.

Functional 
According to this principle, all the functions in a concern should be completely and clearly defined to
the managers and subordinates. This can be done by clearly defining the duties, responsibilities,
authority, and relationships of people towards each other. 

The span of Control/Supervision

According to this principle, the span of control is a span of supervision which depicts the number of
employees that can be handled and controlled effectively by a single manager. According to this
principle, a manager should be able to handle what number of employees under him should be
decided. This decision can be taken by choosing either from a wide or narrow span. A is one in which
a manager can supervise and control effectively a large group of persons at one time. 

Scalar Chain
The scalar chain is a chain of command or authority that flows from top to bottom. With a chain of
authority available, wastages of resources are minimized, communication is affected, overlapping of
work is avoided and easy organization takes place. A scalar chain of command facilitates workflow in
an organization which helps in achieving effective results. As the authority flows from top to bottom,
it clarifies the authority positions to managers at all levels that facilitate effective organization.

Unity of Command
It implies one subordinate-one superior relationship. Every subordinate is answerable and accountable
to one boss at one time. This helps in avoiding communication gaps and feedback and response is
prompt. Unity of command also helps in an effective combination of resources, that is, physical,
financial resources which helps in easy co-ordination and, therefore, effective organization.

Human Resource Structure choices

There are different forms of a structure listed here. 

Line 
It is the oldest and simplest method of administrative organization. According to this type of
organization, the authority flows from top to bottom in a concern. The line of command is carried out
from top to bottom. 

Line and Staff 

Line and staff organization is a modification of line organization and it is more complex than line
organization. The power of command always remains with the line executives and staff supervisors
guide, advice, and counsel the line executives. Personal Secretary to the Managing Director is a staff
officer.

Functional 
The functional organization has been divided to put the specialists in the top position throughout the
enterprise. This is an organization in which we can define as a system where functional departments
are created to deal with the problems of business at various levels. Functional authority remains
confined to functional guidance to different departments.
Project 
The line, line and staff and functional authority organizational structures facilitate establishment and
distribution of authority for vertical coordination and control rather than horizontal relationships.  In
some projects (complex activity consisting of many interdependent and independent activities) work
process may flow horizontally, diagonally, upwards, and downwards. The direction of workflow
depends on the distribution of talents and abilities in the organization with the need to apply them to
the existing problem. To cope up with such situations, project organizations and matrix organizations
have emerged.

Matrix 
It is a permanent organization designed to achieve specific results by using teams of specialists from
different functional areas in the organization. The matrix organization is illustrated in Exhibit 10.8.

Hybrid 
In modern management practices, the function of human resources departments is administrative and
common to all organizations. Organizations may have formalized selection, evaluation, and payroll
processes. 

Creating an Organization Chart 

Organogram is an intuitive reflection of organization structure, one of the most common diagrams to
illustrate the relationships among departments, superiors, and subordinates vividly and briefly. It is
defined as a top-bottom with icon list and architecture diagram which can automatically increase the
vertical level. Organogram shows the correlation among organizational units in the form of graphics
and it provides great convenience for people to view detailed information on organizational units as
well as the associated position and personnel.
 
Organogram describes as visual representations of a system of hierarchy and an organization with
various levels. Roles, ranks, or positions of people or things are laid out in a graphic format clearly
that depicts the relationships between the entities. The top of the chart is generally kept for the most
important or significant part of the system. Looking down from the top are the other components of
the system. As you may know, the commands and decisions should flow from the top to the bottom in
this system of hierarchy.
 
                    
Purposes of Creating an Organogram

1. Displays function division.

2. Allows people to know whether right and responsibility are set properly or not.
3. Tell if someone is under the overweight workload.
4. Assist people in finding if someone is undertaking relevant work and staying idle.
5. Help managers to identify if some talented workers haven’t been able to draw out the best in
themselves.
6. Help managers to notice if some unqualified person holds an important position.
 
Here is an example of an organization chart of a startup. You can see the key pattern and functional
departments of the team. In this case, each of the sub-division may only include just a few employees.
 
 
  
 
 
Source: http://www.orgcharting.com/hierarchical-organizations/
 
The HR resource is primarily dealt with by the HR department and here are some of the basic
information of this department.

Human Resource Management

The human resource management department is concerned with the development of both individuals
and the organization in which they operate. HRM, then, is engaged not only in securing and
developing the talents of individual workers but also in implementing programs that enhance
communication and cooperation between those individual workers to nurture organizational
development. 

The primary responsibilities associated with human resource management include job analysis and
staffing, organization and utilization of workforce, measurement and appraisal of workforce
performance, implementation of reward systems for employees, professional development of workers,
and maintenance of workforce. To reduce the manual workload of these administrative activities,
organizations began to electronically automate many of these processes by introducing specialized
human resource management systems. The automated HR systems began during the 1970s but due to
limited technology and mainframe computers, companies were still relying on manual entry to
conduct employee evaluation to digitize reporting. 

The first enterprise resource planning (ERP) system that integrated human resources functions was
SAP R/2 (later to be replaced by R/3 and S/4hana), introduced in 1979. This system gave users the
possibility to combine corporate data in real-time and regulate processes from a single mainframe
environment. 

Many of today's popular HR systems still offer considerable ERP and payroll functionality.

The first completely HR-centered client-server system for the enterprise market was PeopleSoft,
released in 1987 and later bought by Oracle in 2005. Hosted and updated by clients, PeopleSoft
overtook the mainframe environment concept in popularity. Oracle has also developed multiple
similar BPM systems to automate corporate operations.

Beginning in the late 1990s, HR vendors started offering cloud-hosted HR services to make this
technology more accessible to small and remote teams. Instead of a client-server, companies began
using online accounts on web-based portals to access their employees' performance. Mobile
applications have also become more common. HRIS and HRMS technologies have allowed HR
professionals to shy away from their traditional administrative work and have inserted them as
strategic assets to the company. For example, these roles include employee development, as well as
analysing the workforce to target talent-rich areas.
 
The human resource management function involves the recruitment, placement, evaluation,
compensation, and development of the employees of an organization. Initially, businesses used
computer-based information systems to:

1. Produce pay cheques and payroll reports;

2. Maintain personnel records;
3. Pursue talent management.
 
Currently, human resource management systems tend to encompass:

1. Retaining staff
2. Hiring
3. Onboarding
4. Administration
5. Managing payroll
6. Tracking and Managing employee benefits
7. HR planning
8. Recruiting/Learning management
9. Performance management and appraisals
10. Employee self-service
11. Scheduling and rota management
12. Absence management
13. Leave management
14. Reporting and analytics
15. Employee reassignment
16. Grievance handling by following precedents
 
3.2 Organizing Physical Resources
 
Physical Resources are Equipment, Materials, Supplies, Facilities, MIS, and Infrastructure. The
importance of good physical resource management is to ensure you have the right physical resources
at the right place at the right time for your project to proceed as planned. Due to the temporary nature
of projects, the physical resources you need often belong to someone else and are utilized elsewhere. 
 
Your organization might have adopted resource philosophies such as Lean, Just-In-Time, KAISEN,
Total Productive Maintenance, or Theory of Constraints. If so, you need to manage your project
taking these philosophies into account. 
 
Management of Physical Resources consists of four processes: 
 
1. Plan Resource Management
2. Estimate Activity Resources
3. Acquire Resources
4. Control Resources. 
 
Physical resources are managed with the help of timetable, scheduling, lock and key process, resource
access protocols, or standard operating procedures, logbook, access code (username and password),
etc. 

There are different resource planning techniques and models to improve resource utilization. The
modern ERP system has dedicated modules to manage these types of resources. The fundamental
responsibilities of managing these resources are done by the Asset Management department of an
organization. 
 
3.3 Organizing Financial Resources
Term financial resources refer to all financial resources available for use in an organization. They are
a part of the company's liquid assets, which are usually used as business continuity funds to provide
continuous running of all processes. The Financial resources are the funds at the disposal of the
enterprise and intended for the implementation of the current costs and expenses for expanded
production, the fulfillment of financial obligations, and economic incentives for employees. Financial
resources are also directed to the maintenance and development of non-production objects,
consumption, accumulation, to special reserve funds, etc. 

A financial management system is a methodology and software that an organization uses to oversee
and govern its income, expenses, and assets with the objectives of maximizing profits and ensuring
sustainability. 
 
There are three main types of financial management systems. These are:
1. Financial accounting
2. Managerial accounting
3. Corporate finance
 
Financial accounting is a part of financial information systems that provide income statements,
balance sheets, and statements of cash flows to creditors, investors, tax authorities, and other
stakeholders. These reports are monthly outputs that create the ability for decision-makers to
determine financial trends relating to the business.
 
Managerial accounting is a system that provides information internally to individuals and businesses.
These are generally not released to the public and are for internal use only. Decision-makers can
simply request data they wish to see and ask for a specific format, if necessary.
 
Corporate finance is a part of financial management systems that reside outside of the normal
accounting information systems. These include budgeting, financial analysis, forecasting, and
performance metrics, among others. The activities in this system take accounting information to create
necessary reports. The main purpose of corporate finance is to provide a road map or plans for a
company’s future activities, however, not all financial management systems include the same
activities. A small business will not have the same needs as a much larger organization in terms of
financial management. Creating a specific system tailored to the company’s needs is what sets these
systems apart from others.

An effective financial management system improves short- and long-term business performance by
streamlining invoicing and bill collection, eliminating accounting errors, minimizing record-keeping
redundancy, ensuring compliance with tax and accounting regulations, helping personnel to quantify
budget planning, and offering flexibility and expandability to accommodate change and growth.

Other significant features of a good financial management system include:

1. Keeping all payments and receivables transparent.
2. Amortizing prepaid expenses.
3. Depreciating assets according to accepted schedules.
4. Keeping track of liabilities.
5. Coordinating income statements, expense statements, and balance sheets.
6. Balancing multiple bank accounts.
7. Ensuring data integrity and security.
8. Keeping all records up to date.
9. Maintaining a complete and accurate audit trail.
 10. Minimizing overall paperwork.

ERP financial management software should include features that support the creation of ad-hoc
reporting as well as month-end closing, quarter closings, and year-end reporting.
 
3.4 Knowledge and Intellectual Capital resources

Knowledge resources include organization know-how, process and procedures, Intellectual property,
culture, information and networking systems, the organization’s brand and image in the marketplace,
as well as its relationships with external stakeholders (such as government, customers, partners and
retailers, suppliers, residents, etc.). 

The knowledge of is the key component yet, knowledge is undocumented, difficult to access, and at
risk of disappearing and it is therefore in the success of an organization and hence it needs to
organized, protected and expanded with time and particularly because it contributes to the ability to
respond and adapt to a changing environment. Knowledge management is any system that helps
people in an organization share, access, and update business knowledge and information.

Knowledge Management (KM) emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 1990s. It was initially
supported by individual practitioners when Skandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world's
first Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO). The objective of CKO is to manage and maximize the
intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and
theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. 

The KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity. First, is a trend toward
higher cooperation among academics; single-author publications are less common. Second, the role of
practitioners has changed. 

KM has different focus areas listed here as 

1. Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance knowledge sharing and
creation. 
2. Organizational with a focus on how an organization can be designed to facilitate knowledge
processes best.
3. Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people, identity, knowledge, and environmental
factors as a complex adaptive system akin to a natural ecosystem. 
Knowledge management comes in many different forms including training and cross-training
programs, document management, content management systems, social networking tools, chatbots,
etc. When knowledge isn’t shared and accessible, employees waste time recreating solutions, making
mistakes people made before, not getting the insights they need to be productive, and answering the
same questions over and over again.

Poor knowledge sharing results in companies running much less efficiently and productively. An
effective knowledge management system reduces these costs of inefficiency by making company
knowledge more available, accessible, and accurate. It’s particularly important for businesses today
because teams are much more distributed. When you have multiple branches or hire remote
employees, the need for a system of distributing knowledge increases exponentially.
 THE 6 KEY BENEFITS OF KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT IN AN ORGANIZATION
Effective knowledge management reduces operational costs and improves productivity because it
provides seven key benefits:

1. Spend less time recreating existing knowledge. 

2.  Get the information you need sooner 
3. Make fewer mistakes. 
4. Make informed decisions. 
5. Standardize processes. 
6. Provide better service to employees and customers. 

There is a wide variety of Knowledge Management technologies including Groupware, Workflow

systems, Content management, and document management systems, Enterprise portals, eLearning,
Planning and scheduling software, Telepresence, and Semantic technology. 

Proprietary KM technology products such as Lotus Notes defined proprietary formats for email,
documents, forms, etc. The Internet drove most vendors to adopt Internet formats. In short, the
modern ERP system has dedicated modules to manage these types of resources. 
 
 4.0 Some Key Terms in Organizing
 
1. Responsibility: 
The obligation to carry out assigned duties.
 
2. Authority: 
The right (power) to apply resources makes, decisions, gives approvals, issue orders to other people,
and exact obedience.
 
3. Accountability: 
 Being answerable for actions taken and results. A person should not be held accountable, without
being given the required authority.
 

4. Delegation 
It is a process in which the authority and powers are divided and shared amongst the subordinates.

5. Power   
The ability to exert the influence that is the ability to change
Authority is one type of power. Authority gives the management the power to enforce obedience. It is
the power to give orders and make sure that these orders are obeyed. 

Source: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/importance_of_delegation.htm

 5.0 Classification of Structure in an Organizations

Organizations are classified based on relationships. There are two types of organization structure
formed based on relationships.

Formal Structure 
This is one which refers to a structure of well-defined jobs each bearing a measure of authority and
responsibility. It is a conscious determination by which people accomplish goals by adhering to the
norms laid down by the structure. This kind of organization is an arbitrary set up in which each person
is responsible for his performance. The formal organization has a formal set up to achieve pre-
determined goals.

Informal Structure 
It refers to a grapevine and it is a network of personal and social relationships that spontaneously
originates within the formal set up. Informal organizations develop relationships that are built on
likes, dislikes, feelings, and emotions. Therefore, the network of social groups based on friendships
can be called as informal organizations. There is no conscious effort required to have an informal
organization. It emerges from the formal organization and it is not based on any rules and regulations
as in case of formal organization.

Relationship between Formal and Informal Organizations

Formal and informal organization helps in bringing efficient working organization and smoothness in
a concern. Within the formal organization, the members undertake the assigned duties in co-operation
with each other. They interact and communicate amongst themselves. Therefore, both formal and
informal organizations are important. When several people work together for achievement of
organizational goals, social tie ups tend to built and therefore informal organization helps to secure
co-operation by which goals can be achieved smooth. Therefore, we can say that an informal
organization emerges from a formal organization.
 
6.0 Organizing at Managerial Level 
 
The organization is a key component of productivity. When clutter accumulates, our attention
diminishes and performance can suffer as a result. When your brain, time and workspace are
organized, it becomes easier to streamline both your actions and thoughts. Since it is a soft skill,
hence not much is spent on this skill. Let us share what to do to build organizing skills. Building these
skills and can be segmented into three verticals as follows to help you improve productivity. 

Organize Mind 

1. Narrow your thoughts and get focus 

Focus is the key to success in life that disregards other thoughts. At work think of work and you
will get a lot and further Think Positive and Surround yourself with positive thinkers. Stop too
much browsing and watching too much as media drives you nuts. You are or will be, what you
think and hence think positive and positive actions will follow automatically. Think of Goals
that you have and then make short term strategies and keep on thinking will get you there
where you want to be. 

2. Differentiate between important and interesting   

You come across a lot of data and information and you need to distinguish between what is important
and what is interesting. Interesting information will not get closure to your goal but important will.

2. Get Enough Sleep 

Sleep deprivation does a number on our grey matter. Anyone who has experienced a restless night can
tell you that mental acuity diminishes with every hour of sleep we lose. Aim to get around seven
hours of sleep each night and consider working in power naps during the afternoon to re-energize at
the end of the workday.
 
3. Take Breaks 
 It’s during these periods that our brains are most creative and it helps give us a productivity boost.
 
Organize Time
Time is money. We've all heard it before, but these days it bears repeating. Yet nearly all of us are
guilty of sabotaging our performances to some degree because we fail to go on the offensive against
two specific threats: disorganization and poor time management. Value your time please and here is
how you do it. 

1. Start with Goals 

 When organizing your time, the first thing you should do is identify your goals. Goals help us focus
our energy and serve as a starting point for identifying what we need to get done. Download our free
Long-term Goal Worksheet to help pinpoint your top goals for the next year and beyond.
 
2. Outline Your Priority 
Once goals are identified, your priority will become clear. Your priority is the most important task
that you need to complete to accomplish your most important goal and move forward. 

Learn to use the Pareto principle, that is, 80% of the results will come from 20% of the efforts. To
maximize your productivity, then, you need to identify the key 20 percent activities that are most
effective and prioritize them.

3. Time Block Each Day

 A lot of emphasis gets put on time blocking in The ONE Thing because it works. The concept is
simple – create a schedule for each day squaring away time for every task you need to complete. This
creates deadlines and puts time limits on tasks, making it an automatic time organizer.

4. Guard your domain against time encroachers. 

Being successful in time management means adhering to your schedule...which happens through
controlling interruptions. Essentially, you need to think of your workday as a fortress to
which you control access. No, you shouldn't become a hermit...but you should be on your guard
against people and situations that pull you away from your goals, dreams, objectives, and schedule.

5. Check-in with yourself every Friday. 

One way to determine how effectively you're managing your time is to check your results by tracking
them on an ongoing basis and periodically. Let us say at the end of the week, perform a weekly
review and what you learn from the performance of the week. 

Organize Workspace

1. Divide (and conquer!) your documents. 

For many of you, the number of posts, social media messages, and emails with much to do, on daily
basis are nearly overwhelming – and figuring out how, when, and if you should address them can take
up more time than the actual tasks themselves. Divide the activity and tasks into MUST, Urgent, and
Routine to see which needs more time and when. 

2. Make your desk a "no parking" zone. 

Your working or studying area isn't a storage area or a catch-all...it's a workspace! Remember, less is
more. The more pictures, notes, boxes, tools, and so on that park themselves on your desk, the greater
your odds of being distracted. So be storing and brutal. Remove everything that isn't necessary from
your desk. 

3. Have Everything You Need Within Reach

Take a careful inventory of everything you use regularly to get things done at the office. Keeping
these items at your desk or on your computer will maximize productivity and make the organization
easier.
 
4. Get Rid of the Non-Essentials
Clutter is a distraction. We’re not saying that your desk needs to be a fun-free zone, but cutting out
non-essentials will make a workspace more functional and productive. If you haven’t used something
in the past six months, get rid of it or store it away somewhere off your desk and out of eyesight.
 
5. Put Paperwork in Its Place
Piles of paperwork are one of the biggest organizational pitfalls. Instead of letting paperwork stack up,
create a filing system that is based on the one-touch method. Make different files for each project or
client, and when a document comes across your desk either act on it, trash it, or file it away. Once the
project is complete go back through the file and get rid of anything that isn’t essential.
 
6. Organize your Virtual Workspace 
Organize it the same way you would organize your paperwork – files and a one-touch system. Apply
the filing system to your electronic files as well. Another strategy to consider is to develop a time
block for checking your e-mail only two or three times a day so it doesn’t become a time-sucking
distraction.

7. Ask very specific questions

We've all experienced data overload – you might have felt as though your head would explode if you
tried to cram one more number, date, spec, or explanation into it! Specificity cuts out the confusion
and extraneous detail. When you ask a question, make sure to communicate precisely why you need to
know the answer, and what its purpose is. 
 Chapter 5
Leading the Way
5.1 Leading Defined 
Now we move towards the execution as we have planned and did the organizing. So the third function
is the execution-related function. Let us look at the function in detail. 

it best defined as is motivating employees to achieve organizational goals

Richard Daft

Organizational productivity declines when employees are not motivated to fulfill the organization’s
objectives but, what exactly is motivation, and how does it relate to you to manage and to lead your
team? 

Understanding the history of the word motivation can help us apply it to the business world.
Motivation comes from the word “motive.” The original meaning of this word deals with movement.
Movement is central to motivation. What is it that then that causes any of us to move from where we
are currently to another place?
Motivation then is a 

Strong desire to act — to gain something within a person (needs, values, and goals)

Motivation is the driving force behind a purpose to achieve. Since motivation is individual, personal,
and internal so one cannot have a one-approach-fits-all attitude about it. The truth is that the goals that
you want to fulfill in the workplace and your career may be of little interest to others working with
you. This understanding of the origin of the word motivation and its internal focus has special
meaning for you as a manager, you seek to get your team to follow your lead. Technically, you cannot
“motivate your team.” Your team has to want to fulfill your organization’s objectives for themselves.

Your power as a manager to motivate your employees comes through your ability to create the
working environment in which they work. As a leader, one of your most effective ways to gain your
team members’ cooperation is by positively influencing their motivational needs. The key to this
activity is to align your organizational objectives with the individual needs, emotions, and goals of
your team members. You have to create a working environment that fosters their different internal
motivations. Some managers create work environments where their employees are enthusiastic about
giving their best. Other managers create work environments where their team members just struggle
to make it through the day. 

Managers must be able to make employees want to participate in achieving an organization's goals.
Three components make up the leading function:

1. Motivating employees
2. Influencing employees
3. Forming effective groups.
Leading is also inspiring someone and encouraging them to do something or make one what he wants
to do or give someone the enthusiasm to do or create something. 

The leading process helps the organization move toward goal attainment. A leader is one who clearly
helps an individual to set a direction and further helps him to set goals and let them distinguish
between goals and wishes. 
Here are definitions of these two terms to understand these clearly. 

1. Goals are powerful tools for change. Goals are clear, specific, and constructive. In today's
workplace goals should be SMART. 
 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Time-bound

1. Wishes are fantasies that usually are vague, ambiguous, and not very constructive.
 
Influence is the power to have an important effect on someone or something. If someone influences
someone else, they are changing a person or thing in an indirect but important way. Sometimes a
person who influences another doesn't intend to have any effect, but sometimes they are using
influence to benefit themselves. 
 
Leading is inspiring follower and here is a famous quotation of Sam Walton 

"Outstanding leaders go out of their way to boost

the self-esteem of their personnel. If people believe
in themselves, it's amazing what they can accomplish".
Sam Walton
 
6.2 Understanding Motivation - Theories of Motivation 
One of the key roles of leaders is to motivate followers. Motivation involves the biological,
emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. Let us look at some of the theories of
Motivation. What motivates employees to provide excellent service, market a company’s products
effectively, or achieve the goals set for them? Let us explore what and how to develop our
understanding of what motivation is and what are the factors which if understood and communicated
to followers will enable a leader or manager to motivate his/her subordinates. 

Here are some theories on motivation which are grouped as 

Factors based theories "Maier’ Performance Model"

 
Need-based theories 

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

2. ERG Theory
3. Two-Factor Theory
4. Acquired-Needs Theory
 
Process-Based Theories
 
1. Equity Theory
2. Expectancy Theory
 
1. Factor-Based Theory  

Job performance is viewed as a function of three factors and is expressed with the equation below
called Maier’s Performance Model. 
                    
Performance is a function of the interaction between an individual’s motivation, ability, and the
environment. Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level and
therefore it is goal-directed behavior. Ability is having the skills and knowledge required to perform
and the environmental factors such as having the resources, information, and support the one, needs to
perform well are critical in determining performance. 

2. Need-Based Theories of Motivation

The earliest studies of motivation involved an examination of individual needs. Specifically, early
researchers thought that employees try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior to satisfy their
needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s
acquired-needs are theories that are based on needs and these are as follows. 

2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the twentieth century. According to
him, some needs are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. As we
satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher-order needs. The most basic of Maslow’s
needs are physiological needs. Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other
biological needs. These needs are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them may
overpower all other urges. At that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you
eat, though, the food search ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once
physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. 

On the next level, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, beloved, and form
lasting attachments with others. The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient.
Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization refers to "becoming all
you are capable of becoming".  This need manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on
new challenges, and behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals. 

Maslow was a clinical psychologist, and his theory was not originally designed for work settings.
Despite the lack of strong research support, Maslow’s theory found obvious applications in business
settings. 

2.2 ERG Theory

ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs
may be grouped under three categories namely, existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence
corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and
growth refers to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization. This theory implies that we need to
recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at a given point to understand their
behavior and properly motivate them.

2.3 Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation differently. By asking individuals what
satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg concluded that aspects of the work
environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them. Herzberg
labelled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because these factors were part
of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. 

Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and
security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment.
Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and
mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these
problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you
be motivated? According to Herzberg’s research, motivators are the conditions that truly encourage
employees to try harder.
  
The two-factor theory of motivation includes hygiene factors and motivators. The classification of the
factors as hygiene or motivator is not that simple. Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable
aid to managers because it points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed
goes only a little far in motivating employees. Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter because their
absence causes dissatisfaction, however, solely focusing on hygiene factors will not be enough, and
managers should also enrich jobs by giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater
responsibilities, advancement opportunities, and a job in which their subordinates can feel successful.

2.4 Acquired-Needs Theory

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory is the
one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals acquire
three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the
need for affiliation, and the need for power. All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and
the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior. 

McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for the motivation of employees.
Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to be able to motivate them.
While people who have a high need for achievement may respond to goals, those with a high need for
power may attempt to gain influence over those they work with, and individuals high in their need for
affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their peers and supervisors. Finally, those who
have a high drive for success may experience difficulties in managerial positions, and making them
aware of common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.

3. Process-Based Theories

A separate stream of research views motivation as something more than action aimed at satisfying a
need. Instead, process-based theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyze their
environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain ways. Process theories attempt to
explain the thought processes of individuals who demonstrate motivated behavior. Here are a few
theories based on the process.

3.1 Equity Theory

This theory argues that a person compares his/her input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of
another here referred to as referent. When the two ratios are equal, equity exists. According to this
theory, individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions. 

3.2 Expectancy Theory

According to expectancy theory, individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined
by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation. According to this theory,
individuals ask themselves three questions.
  
The first question is whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of
interest, such as performance or success. This perception is labeled expectancy. For example, do you
believe that the effort you put forth in a class is related to performing well in that class? If you do, you
are more likely to put forth an effort. The second question is the degree to which the person believes
that performance is related to subsequent outcomes, such as rewards. This perception is labelled
instrumentality. 

Conclusions are Motivation.

These theories provide some foundations to understand motivation but Motivation is a also culturally
bound topic. In other words, the factors that motivate employees in different cultures may not be
equivalent. Based on the cultural context, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may require modification
because the ranking of the needs may differ across cultures. 

Source: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_organizational-behavior-v1.1/s09-theories-of-
motivation.html

To make it short the modern model of motivation, as

suggested By Helle Bundara, Founder, Motivation Factor, is
as follows   
  
According to him, there is absolutely no reason to dispute Hertzberg’s theory and it almost perfectly
confirms what we know today, but in our model, we have added one more factor: The Motivation
Capability.  

He summarized these factors as follows: -

1. The Extrinsic Motivation factors 

These are almost always things that you expect others to do, or not do, for you or things that you
expect others to give, or not give, you. External factors could be salary, bonus, promotion, equipment,
management, etc. however, these motivations factors are 
1. Extrinsic motivation is short-term motivation.
2. Extrinsic motivation does not make your job more meaningful.
2. The Intrinsic Motivation factors 

It’s all about feeling a part of something bigger than yourself, leveraging your talents and knowing
your contribution and purpose related to the overall objectives. 

1. Intrinsic motivation is long term motivation

2. Intrinsic motivation measures the extent to which you responded positively to factors
associated with feeling connected to, or finding joy in your work and taking pleasure in an
activity itself, rather than working towards an external reward.

3. Motivation Capabilities

It is the benchmark for your ability to keep yourself motivated. We believe that motivation is the
individual’s responsibility. Motivation is far too important to leave it to someone else. 

https://motivationfactor.com/hertzberg-motivation-factor/
Learn motivational derive at 
https://www.leadershipiq.com/blogs/leadershipiq/what-motivates-you

6.4 What managers do 

The late Peter Drucker, whose name stands out above all others in the century-long history of
management studies, was an intellectual who worked as a journalist and studied economics and
according to him the job of the manager is divided into five basic tasks which are as follows. Adapted
from “The Wall Street Journal Guide to Management” by Alan Murray, published by Harper
Business.

1. Sets objectives. 

The manager sets goals for the group and decides what work needs to be done to meet those goals.

2. Organizes. 

The manager divides the work into manageable activities and selects people to accomplish the tasks
that need to be done.

3. Motivates and Communicates. 

The manager creates a team out of his people, through decisions on pay, placement, promotion, and
through his communications with the team. 

4. Measures. 

The manager establishes appropriate targets and yardsticks, and analyzes, appraises, and interprets
performance.

5. Develops people. 
With the rise of the knowledge worker, this task has taken on added importance. In a knowledge
economy, people are the company’s most important asset, and it is up to the manager to develop that
asset.

While other management experts may use different words and focus on different aspects of these
responsibilities, Mr. Ducker’s basic description of the manager’s job still holds.

6.5 Management styles Choices  

A manager needs to develop a management style and system which is based on local values and
cultures as the wrong management style hurts everyone. It’s easy to assume that that 82% of managers
just weren’t cut out to be in a management position but, a four-year study conducted by Leadership IQ
found that more often, the case is that the manager’s style is inappropriate for their particular culture.
Different projects, teams, tasks, and businesses need different management styles. If you cannot adapt
to the needs of your position and organization, then you’re doomed to failure. The bottom line is that
the wrong management style de-motivates employees, kills productivity, and trains employees to
disengage or leave and it hurts the entire organization. 

Let us look at different management styles being adopted around the globe. 

1. Authoritarian 

This style involves managing through clear direction and control. It is also sometimes referred to as
the autocratic or directive management style. Authoritarian managers typically assert strong authority,
have total decision-making power, and expect unquestioned obedience. This type of management
style requires clearly defined roles and strict hierarchies and reporting structures. Employees should
not have to question who is responsible for what. 

This style is ideal for managers who like strict control and are willing to and able to consistently stay
up-to-date on your teams’ work and to make any and all decisions. 

2. Visionary 

This style is also sometimes called inspirational, charismatic, strategic, and transformational.
Visionary managers focus on conveying the overall vision of the company, department, or project to
their team. This style focus on motivation and alignment of the team, to keep everyone moving in the
same direction, and entrust their team members to handle the details about how to get there. 

This style is ideal for managers who are charismatic, outgoing, and personable leader, you may find
this style easy to adopt. It also requires a great deal of emotional intelligence, willingness to take
risks, and the ability to lead and manage change. 

A well-known visionary leader is Nelson Mandela. Mandela was the face and leader of the Anti-
Apartheid movement. Through his determination and force of will, Mandela successfully led his
country of South Africa to liberation. By relying on his charismatic nature and important vision, he
motivated people to bring change without dictating their actions.  

3. Transactional 
This management style focuses on using positive rewards such as incentives, bonuses, and stock
options to motivate employees to improve their performance. Transactional management style is
founded on the belief that a manager can successfully manage and motivate employees through
extrinsic rewards. 

For instance, transactional managers may rely on piece-work pay to incentivize their employees to
produce more. Similarly, they may structure quarterly or annual bonuses around employee
performance. 

4. Servant Leadership 

The phrase “servant leadership” was originally coined back in 1970 by Robert K. Greenleaf in an
essay titled “The Servant as Leader.” This management style is also sometimes called coaching,
training, or mentoring. A servant management style focuses on supporting your employees. Managers
who embrace this style spend their time coaching, mentoring, and supporting their team. They see
their role as one of an adviser or coach rather than a dictator or rule enforcer. 

In order to be an effective servant leader, the manager needs to be highly experienced both in the jobs
of your employees and in performing coaching. 

Strong interpersonal skills are needed in order to relate well with your team and build a mentoring
relationship. 

5. Pacesetting 

Pacesetting management style embodies leading from the front of the pack. As a manager, you
provide instructions and set a work pace, and then expect your employees to follow in your footsteps. 

Typically, pacesetting involves setting high or hard to reach standards in an effort to drive your team
to achieve new bests and hit bigger goals. 

6. Democratic 

A democratic management style is also sometimes referred to as consultative, consensus,

participative, collaborative, or affiliative style. This style is based on the philosophy that two heads
are better than one and that everyone deserves to have a say, no matter what their position or title. 

7. Laissez-Faire 

The laissez-faire management style emphasizes employee freedom. Laissez-faire originates from
French and directly translates to “let do” in English. In other words, laissez-faire managers let their
employees do what they will, with little to no interference. 

Little supervision is provided and there is a strong emphasis on trust and mutual cooperation. Laissez-
faire managers promote self-directed teams, and typically only get involved if something goes wrong
or the team requests it. 

6.6 Which is right for you?

Your perfect management style needs to align with the following:
1. Your own skills, experience, and personality. 
For instance, you may struggle to be a pacesetter if you’re not a subject matter expert. 

2. The needs of your team. 

Is your team new and inexperienced? Or are they highly-skilled professionals? The answer will
impact which management style you should adopt. 

3. The overall management style in the organization. 

The culture of your team and the organization as a whole need to impact your style. For instance, if
your company is currently undergoing a lot of change, you may need to be a visionary. If you have a
divided and unmotivated team, you may need to be a servant leader.
 
6.7 Tools to be an Effective Manager 
It is important to understand that employees are the most important assets of an organization. They are
responsible for the business functioning on a day-to-day basis and keeping the engine running towards
your company objectives. For those in managerial positions, it's crucial to understand your staff and
support them. When done well, you can help to maintain happy, hardworking, and loyal employees.  

Being a perfect manager isn’t always easy. There are many leadership mistakes you will need to avoid
along the way. To help you become an effective manager for your team, here are twelve behaviors
and characters that are ideal for any leader to have.

Not everyone is a born leader, but being aware of these qualities and working hard at them is certainly
a key step towards developing your skills as a more effective manager:

Understand the value of employees

Bosses need to appreciate the role of employee’s play in the organization and the contribution they
make daily. By underestimating the effort put in by staff members and the value they add, this can
lead to unhappy, demotivated, and underperforming staff. It could even lead to a higher staff turnover
rate.

Express gratitude

An effective manager should always show their appreciation to the staff for a job well done. A simple
‘thank you’ can make a big difference to many employees, but where possible, provide positive
feedback too. Expressing gratitude can help develop loyalty, boost motivation, and productivity
within your team.

Communicate clearly

It’s important for employees to understand what is expected of them. As an effective manager, it’s
your job to communicate clearly with workers on a one-to-one basis, or as a team, to ensure everyone
knows what they’re meant to be doing.

Listen effectively
As a manager, you need to be able to listen to what your employees have to stay, especially during
performance reviews. This could be a work matter, or something more personal. Either way, it’s
important you’re available to staff and are willing to listen and support them in any way you can.

Make decisions

A team of employees is ready to follow your lead, but they need to be given appropriate direction.
Therefore, an effective manager needs to be decisive. Otherwise, your staff may find themselves left
without knowing what to do next.

Trust your employees to achieve

Good managers break down projects into more manageable chunks and delegate according to the
team’s strengths. However, to delegate work, you need to trust that your workers can handle
important tasks. An effective manager doesn’t micromanage, but instead, takes a step back and trusts
staff to do a good job.

Resolve conflicts

Sometimes, it is necessary for managers to be a good mediator of conflicts, particularly if two

members of the team have fallen out or just cannot see eye to eye. For the sake of overall performance
and productivity, it is important to resolve such situations quickly and effectively before they spiral
out of control.

Get to know your employees

An effective manager should take the time to get to know employees better. Find out what their key
motivators are and what they really value in their job. If you find out that an employee wants to
ascend the leadership ladder, you may be able to provide a mentor or training.
Others may be looking for more flexible hours, a different seating arrangement, or improved
equipment to be able to do their job more efficiently. By finding this out you can create more
motivated employees and improve the overall work environment.

Set a good example

Employees are looking for somebody they can look up to, and aspire to emulate. Strong team leaders
are ethical, honest, collaborative, creative, empowering, innovative, dedicated, and trustworthy.

Stay one step ahead of everyone else

Of course, as a manager, it’s important to always stay slightly ahead of others in terms of knowledge,
maturity, and confidence. Therefore, to be an effective manager, make sure you never stop growing,
learning, and developing your character. 
Chapter 6
Monitoring and
Controlling
 Performance Measurement/Check &Balance/Regulating 

c 
ontrol is a primary goal-oriented function of management in an organization. One of the most
essential qualities required in a manager is that he should Monitor and Evaluate against the
set target for each subordinate. Hence Controlling is one of the important functions of a
manager. To seek planned results from the subordinates, a manager needs to exercise
effective control over the activities of the subordinates. In other words, the meaning of
controlling function can be defined as ensuring that activities in an organization are
performed as per the plans. Controlling also ensures that an organization’s resources are
being used effectively & efficiently for the achievement of predetermined goals. 
 
 2. How Controlling Function Helps Managers 
 
Managers at all levels of management Top, Middle & Lower – need to perform controlling
function to keep control over activities in their areas. Therefore, controlling function should
not be misunderstood as the last function of management. It is a function that brings the
management cycle back to the planning function. Thus, the controlling function act as a tool
that helps in finding out that how actual performance deviates from standards and also finds
the cause of deviations & attempts which are necessary to take corrective actions based upon
the same. 
 
This process helps in the formulation of plans in light of the problems that were identified &,
thus, helps in better planning in the future periods. So from the meaning of controlling, we
understand it not only completes the management process but also improves planning in the
next cycle. 
 
 
 It is a process of comparing the actual performance with the set standards of the
company to ensure that activities are performed according to the plans and if not then taking
corrective action. Every manager needs to monitor and evaluate the activities of his
subordinates. It helps in taking corrective actions by the manager in the given timeline to
avoid contingency or the company’s loss. Controlling is performed at the lower, middle, and
upper levels of the management. 
 
“Monitoring employees' activities, determining 
whether the organization is on target toward 
 its goals, and making correction as necessary” 
 
Richard Daft  
 
Controlling ensures that, through effective leading, what has been planned and organized to
take place has taken place.  
 
 
Importance and Benefits of Controlling 
 
After the meaning of control, let us see its importance. Control is an indispensable function of
management without which the controlling function in an organization cannot be
accomplished and the best of plans which can be executed can go away. A good control
system helps an organization in the following ways: 
 
1. Accomplishing Organizational Goals 
 
The controlling function is an accomplishment of measures that further makes progress
towards the organizational goals & brings to light the deviations, & indicates corrective
action. Therefore, it helps in guiding the organizational goals which can be achieved by
performing a controlling function. 
 
2. Judging Accuracy of Standards 
 
A good control system enables management to verify whether the standards set are accurate
& objective. The efficient control system also helps in keeping careful and progress check on
the changes which help in taking the major place in the organization & the environment and
also helps to review & revise the standards in light of such changes. 
 
3. Making Efficient use of Resources 
 
Another important function of controlling is, each activity is performed in a manner that
predetermined standards & norms ensure that the resources are used in the most effective &
efficient manner for the further availability of resources. 
 
4. Improving Employee Motivation 
 
Another important function is that controlling help in accommodating a good control system
which ensures that each employee knows well in advance what they expect & what are the
standards of performance based on which they will be appraised. Therefore, it helps in
motivating and increasing their potential so to make them & helps them to give better
performance. 
 
5. Ensuring Order & Discipline 
 
Controlling creates an atmosphere of order & discipline in the organization which helps to
minimize dishonest behavior on the part of the employees. It keeps a close check on the
activities of employees and the company can be able to track and find out the dishonest
employees by using computer monitoring as a part of their control system. 
 
6. Facilitating Coordination in Action 
 
The last important function of controlling is that each department & employee is governed by
such pre-determined standards and goals which are well versed and coordinated with one
another. This ensures that overall organizational objectives are accomplished in an overall
manner. 
 

Process of Controlling  
 

Following are the steps involved in the process of control: 

  
1. Establish the Standards: 
  
Within an organization’s overall strategic plan, managers define goals for organizational
departments in specific, precise, operational terms that include standards of performance to
compare with organizational activities. However, for some of the activities, the standards
cannot be specific and precise.  Standards, against which actual performance will be
compared, may be derived from experience, statistical methods, and benchmarking (based
upon best industry practices). As far as possible, the standards are developed bilaterally rather
than top management deciding unilaterally, keeping in view the organization’s goals. 
 
Standards may be tangible (clear, concrete, specific, and generally measurable) – numerical
standards, monetary, physical, and time standards; and intangible (relating to human
characteristics) – desirable attitudes, high morale, ethics, and cooperation. 

The standards are not decided by randomly picking a figure, but it is decided on the basis of
the past performance of employees and performance of last season and the condition of the
market. Before revealing the expected standards with employees and giving them the target,
the standards are approved from the senior management.
 
2. Measure Actual Performance: 
  
Most organizations prepare formal reports of performance measurements both quantitative
and qualitative (where quantification is not possible) that the managers review regularly.
These measurements should be related to the standards set in the first step of the control
process. 
 
For example, if sales growth is a target, the organization should have a means of gathering
and reporting sales data. Data can be collected through personal observation (through
management by walking around the place where things are happening), statistical reports
(made possible by computers), oral reporting (through the conferencing, one-to-one meeting,
or telephone calls), written reporting (comprehensive and concise, accounting information –
normally a combination of all. To be of use, the information flow should be regular and
timely. 
 
3. Compare Performance with the Standards: 
 
This step compares actual activities to performance standards. When managers read computer
reports or walk through their plants, they identify whether actual performance meets,
exceeds, or falls short of standards. 
 
Typically, performance reports simplify such comparison by placing the performance
standards for the reporting period alongside the actual performance for the same period and
by computing the variance—that is, the difference between each actual amount and the
associated standard. 
The manager must know of the standard permitted variation (both positive and negative).
Management by exception is most appropriate and practical to keep insignificant
deviations away. Timetable for the comparison depends upon many factors including
importance and complexity attached with importance and complexity. 
 
4. Take Corrective Action and Reinforcement of Successes: 
  
When performance deviates from standards, managers must determine what changes, if any,
are necessary and how to apply them. In the productivity and quality-centered environment,
workers and managers are often empowered to evaluate their work. After the evaluator
determines the cause or causes of deviation, he or she can take the fourth step— corrective
action. The corrective action may be to maintain the status quo (reinforcing successes),
correcting the deviation, or changing standards. The most effective course may be prescribed
by policies or best left up to employees’ judgment and initiative. The corrective action may
be immediate or basic (modifying the standards themselves). 
 

Levels of Control
All management is required to control at all levels. For example, a top-level manager will
control the actions of a middle-level manager and supervise the performance of the manager
and similarly, a low-level manager is answerable to a middle-level manager. There are 3
levels of Control, that is, strategic, operational and line. A control system is designed and
developed and managed at each level to ensure the optimal usage of resources and assets to
achieve the objectives. Furthermore, control system is further to ensure security of assets of
both physical and intellectual. Hence, there are 3 levels of control and each level has
different control systems to ensure the objective is set and performance is measure

1. Strategic level
2. Operation level
3. Line Level

Strategic level Controls

At this level the strategic level work is performed, the top management is responsible for the
overall sustainably and growth of the organization and hence the management has the
intellectual capital and how to ensure this capital is optimally use to create and executive
corporate level strategic. At this level, a Committee or Board is constituted to ensure the
management first management prepare a plan and then present annual and periodic reports to
ensure the achievement of the goal.

Performance audit including management, financial and non-financial is conducted both by

internal and external team to measure performance. Furthermore, Business know-how, best
practices, and any other form of Knowledge and intellectual capital, the main assets, needs to
protected.

Structure control is most often used control at this level. There are different elements of
organization structure with intended aim. Strategic controls are early warning systems.
Strategic control is the process to determine the effectiveness of corporate and business.
Strategic controls are exercised by top-level management. Two important forms of structural
control can be bureaucratic control and clan control, about which we have already talked.
Structural control is exercised by the top and middle management.

Operation level Controls

Its focus remains upon the processes used by the organization for transforming the inputs
(resources) into outputs (products/services). Operational controls are used at lower
management. It is exercised almost every day. Quality control, financial controls are part of
operational controls. At the level the resources including financial, physical, human,
intellectual rescue and asset including copy rights, patent, Know-how, process and procedure
and Policies and created and protected. Infrastructure needs to be protected and human
resource needs to be regulated. The are certain market forces which ensures the organization
comply to and these are called market controls. Market Control is based upon market
mechanisms of competitive activities in terms of price and market share. Different divisions
are converted into profit centers and their performance is evaluated by segmental top line
(turnover), bottom line (profit), and the market share. Using market control will mean that the
managers in the future will allocate resources or create departments or other activities in line
with the market forces.
Line Level Controls
Staff is the prime resource and physical resource assets including machinery and equipment
needs to be protected and staff needs to regulated.

Types of controls 
 
Controls can be numerous in kind the most common types of control is Timing and here are
the detail this control system.

4.1. Timing: 
 
Control can focus on events before, during, or after a process. For example, a local
automobile dealer can focus on activities before, during, or after sales of new cars. Such
controls may be respectively called as Preventive, Detective, and Corrective. 
 
On this basis the control may be: 
  
(i) Feedforward Control 
(ii) Concurrent Control 
(iii) Feedback Control 
  
1. Feedforward Control: 
 
The objective of feedforward control or preliminary control is to anticipate the likely
problems and to exercise control even before the activity has started or problem has occurred
or been reported. It is future-directed. 
 
This kind of control is very popular in airlines. They go in for preventive maintenance
activities to detect and prevent structural damage, which may result in disaster. These
controls are evident in the selection and hiring of new employees. It helps in taking action
beforehand. In the case of feedback control, one relies on historical data, which will come
after the activity has been performed. This means information is late and rectification is not
possible. One can correct only for future activities. 
 
That means whatever wrong has been done is done, and it cannot be undone. Though, future-
directed control is largely disregarded in practice, because managers have been excessively
dependent on accounting and statistical data to control. In the absence of any means of
looking forward, a reference to history is considered better than no reference at all. However,
the concept of feed forwarding has been applied now and then. One common way managers
have practiced it is through careful and repeated forecasts using the latest available
information, comparing what is desired with the forecasts, and introducing programmed
changes so that forecasts can be made more promising. 
 
2. Concurrent Control: 
 
Concurrent control monitors ongoing employee activity to ensure consistency with quality
standards takes place while an activity is on or in progress. It involves the regulation of
ongoing activities that are part of the transformation process to ensure that they conform to
organizational standards. The technique of direct supervision is the best-known form of
concurrent control.  
 
Concurrent control is designed to ensure that employees’ activities produce the correct results
and to correct the problems if any before they become costly like, in the case of computer
typing, if the spelling is wrong or construction is incorrect, the program immediately alerts
the user. 
 
Many manufacturing operations include devices that measure whether the items being
produced meet quality standards or not. Since concurrent control involves ongoing regulating
tasks, it requires a complete understanding of the specific tasks involved and their
relationship to the desired end product. 
 
Concurrent control sometimes is called steering, screening or yes-no control, because it often
involves checkpoints at which decisions are made about whether to continue progress, take
corrective action, or stop work altogether on products or services. 
 
3. Feedback Control: 
 
The control takes place after the job is over. Corrective action is taken
after analysing variances with the planned standards at the end of the activity. It is also
known as ‘post action control because feedback control is exercised after the event has taken
place. 
 
Such control is used when feed-forward or concurrent is not possible or very costly or when
exact processes involved in performing work are difficult to specify in advance. 
 
The twin advantages of feedback control are that meaningful information is received about
planning efforts, and feedback control enhances employee motivation. 
Choices of Control between Self and external Control
The ideal control is internal control which on exercise to regulate his behavior and action but
this type of control is applicable to in organization which individuals are fully aware to their
role and responsibilities need little or no supervision to begin with.
Responsibility and Right Balance
 
Who has the responsibility of controlling? The responsibility may rest with the person
executing the things or with the supervisor or manager. This way control may be internal and
external. Internal control permits highly motivated people to exercise self-discipline. External
control means that the thread of control is in the hands of the supervisor or manager and
control is exercised through formal systems. 

 6.1 Financial Controls 

 
Financial controls are controls over financial activity to ensure that the desired return on
investment will achieve. There are several financial controls managers use to analyze the
organization's financial health. The income statement is a financial report of an organization's
revenues and expenses over a given period, generally a month, a quarter, or a year. Its
purpose is to show how revenue is converted into a net profit. The balance sheet is a
statement of the overall financial status of an organization at a fixed point in time. Its purpose
is to provide a clear snapshot of an organization's financial health as it relates to assets and
liabilities. The financial audit verifies the accuracy of all financial reporting in an
organization as it relates to regulations and shareholder equity. Its purpose is to analyze and
verify all financial data. The financial ratios compare financial statement items with other
items to reveal a relationship between the two. Its purpose is to determine whether the
information being compared has an interrelationship and it tells the company's standing
amongst its competitors.  
 
1. Financial Statements: 
2. Financial Audits: 
3. Ratio Analysis: 
4. Budgetary Controls: 
5. Break-even Analysis: 
  
  
6.2 Marketing Control: 
  
In the field of marketing, to see that customer gets the right product at the right price, at the
right place, and through right communication, the control is exercised through the following: 
 
  Market Research: 
 Test Marketing: 
 Marketing Statistics
 
6.3 Human Resource control: 
 
Human resource control is required to have a check on the quality of new personnel and also
to monitor performances of existing employees to determine the firm’s overall effectiveness.
Goal setting, instituting policies, and procedures to guide them are to help them. Common
controls include performance appraisals, disciplinary programmers, observations, and
development assessments. Human Resources control are the controls that focus on employee
behavior, employee performance, developing, upholding policies, and procedures. They are
part of human resource management, which serves to plan for, recruit, and train employees to
meet organizational needs and respond to changes in the external environment. There are
several human resources controls used in human resources management: 

1. Performance appraisals 
2. Discipline policies 
3. Employee observations 
4. Employee training 
 
6.4 Knowledge Control: 
 
All organizations have confidential and sensitive information to be kept secret. How to
control access to computer databases is very important. This has become a key contemporary
issue in control. Organizations keep a watch on employee’s computer usage in general and
the internet in particular. 

 
6.5 Production Control: 
 
To ensure quality production in the right quantity at the right time economically, production
controls are required. Two of the important techniques include Inventory control (ABC
Analysis, Economic Order Quantity, Just-in-time inventory control), and quality control
(through inspection, statistical quality control). 
 
6.6 Project Control: 
 
Network analysis is the most suitable for the projects which are not routine in minimizing
cost and completing the project well in time. Network analysis makes use of two techniques –
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), and Critical Path Method (CPM). 
  
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/managerial-control-process-its-
characteristics-importance-techniques-and-other-details/5383 
 
7.0 Reward system  
 
Reward systems are typically managed by HR areas as well. This aspect of human resource
management is very important, for it is the mechanism by which organizations provide their
workers with rewards for past achievements and incentives for high performance in the
future. It is also the mechanism by which organizations address problems within their
workforce, through the institution of disciplinary measures. Aligning the workforce with
company goals, stated Gubman, "requires offering workers an employment relationship that
motivates them to take ownership of the business plan." 
  
7.1 Effective Reward Systems 
 
A motivated workforce can be a significant factor in organizational success. When employees
are motivated to work at higher levels of productivity, the organization as a whole runs more
efficiently and is more effective at reaching its goals. This is in contrast to an unmotivated
workforce, who can negatively disrupt an organization and distract employees from their
work. For this reason, managers must understand the power of reward systems and how they
are being used to influence employee behavior. Rewards are positive outcomes that are
earned as a result of an employee’s performance. These rewards are aligned with
organizational goals. When an employee helps an organization in achievement of one of its
goals, a reward often follows. There are two general types of rewards that motivate people:
intrinsic and extrinsic. 
  
1. Intrinsic Rewards 
 
Intrinsic motivation is internal to the person i.e. something that you have to offer yourself and
is driven by personal interest or enjoyment in the work itself. Because intrinsic motivation
exists within the individual, achieving it does not depend on others. Some people believe
that the most powerful rewards come from inside a person. 
  
Think of that sense of accomplishment you feel once you have overcome a significant
challenge or completed an assignment or work project that required a good deal of effort.
Intrinsic motivation provides that personal pat on the back or natural high that reflects a
person’s ability, competency, growth, knowledge, and self-control over their endeavors.  
  
Employees who are intrinsically motivated tend to work at higher levels of productivity and
strive to develop professionally. Intrinsic rewards include things such as personal
achievement, professional growth, sense of pleasure, and accomplishment. 
  
2. Extrinsic Rewards 
 
Extrinsic motivation is based on tangible rewards. Unlike intrinsic motivation that is self-
administered, extrinsic motivation is external to the individual and is typically offered by a
supervisor or manager who holds all the power, when extrinsic rewards are offered, and in
what amount. Extrinsic rewards are usually financial in nature, such as a raise in salary, a
bonus for reaching some quota, or paid time off.  
 
However, extrinsic rewards can also be as simple as getting a better office, verbal praise,
public recognition or awards, promotions, and additional responsibility. These material
rewards can be motivating to employees because pay, time off, advancement, and
recognition are important to most workers. Just imagine how de-motivating it would be to
underpaid, overworked, and unappreciated, and you can quickly see how important extrinsic
rewards are to organizational success. An extrinsically motivated person will work on a task
that they do not particularly care for simply because of the anticipated satisfaction that will
come from some extrinsic reward. 
  
Building an effective Reward and Recognition System 
 
In a competitive business climate, more business owners are looking at improvements in
quality while reducing costs. Meanwhile, a strong economy has resulted in a tight job
market. So while small businesses need to get more from their employees, their employees
are looking for more out of them. Employee reward and recognition programs are one
method of motivating employees to change work habits and key behaviors to benefit a small
business. 
  
Creating Organizational Control Systems
In addition to creating an appropriate organizational structure, effectively executing strategy depends
on the skillful use of organizational control systems. Executives create strategies to try to achieve
their organization’s vision, mission, and goals. Organizational control systems allow executives to
track how well the organization is performing, identify areas of concern, and then take action to
address the concerns.

Three basic types of control systems are available to executives:

(1) output control,

(2) behavioural control, and

(3) clan control.

Different organizations emphasize different types of control, but most organizations use a mix of all
three types.
Output Control

Output control focuses on measurable results within an organization. Examples from the business
world include the number of hits a website receives per day, the number of microwave ovens an
assembly line produces per week, and the number of vehicles a car salesperson sells per month). In
each of these cases, executives must decide what level of performance is acceptable, communicate
expectations to the relevant employees, track whether performance meets expectations, and then make
any needed changes. In an ironic example, a group of post office workers in Pensacola, Florida, were
once disappointed to learn that their paychecks had been lost—by the U.S. Postal Service! The
corrective action was simple: they started receiving their pay via direct deposit rather than through the
mail.

Many times the stakes are much higher. In early 2011, Delta Air Lines was forced to face some facts
as part of its use of output control. Data gathered by the federal government revealed that only 77.4
percent of Delta’s flights had arrived on time during 2010. This performance led Delta to rank dead
last among the major U.S. airlines and fifteenth out of eighteen total carriers (Yamanouchi, 2011). In
response, Delta took important corrective steps. In particular, the airline added to its ability to service
airplanes and provided more customer service training for its employees. Because some delays are
inevitable, Delta also announced plans to staff a Twitter account called Delta Assist around the clock
to help passengers whose flights are delayed. These changes and others paid off. For the second
quarter of 2011, Delta enjoyed a $198 million profit, despite having to absorb a $1 billion increase in
its fuel costs due to rising prices (Yamanouchi, 2011).

Output control also plays a big part in the university experience. For example, test scores and grade
point averages are good examples of output measures. If you perform badly on a test, you might take
corrective action by studying harder or by studying in a group for the next test. At colleges and
universities, students may be put on academic probation when their grades or grade point average
drops below a certain level. If their performance does not improve, they may be removed from
their major and even suspended from further studies. On the positive side, output measures can trigger
rewards too. A very high grade point average can lead to placement on the dean’s list and graduating
with honors.
Figure 9.17: UBC’s Museum of Anthropology

Arthur Erickson, noted Canadian architect, graduated from University of British Columbia and was
commissioned to design the Museum of Anthropology there, which opened in 1976. It was inspired
by the post-and-beam architecture of northern Northwest Coast First Nations people.

Behavioural Control

While output control focuses on results, behavioural control focuses on controlling the actions that
ultimately lead to results. In particular, various rules and procedures are used to standardize or to
dictate behaviour). In most states, for example, signs are posted in restaurant bathrooms reminding
employees that they must wash their hands before returning to work. The dress codes that are
enforced within many organizations are another example of behavioural control. To try to prevent
employee theft, many firms have a rule that requires checks to be signed by two people. Some
employers may prefer non-smoking employees, as cigarette breaks can take as much as 40 minutes
out of a workday, plus higher absenteeism and associated health costs for smokers.
Output control also plays a significant role in the university experience. An illustrative (although
perhaps unpleasant) example is penalizing students for not attending class. Professors grade
attendance to dictate students’ behaviour; specifically, to force students to attend class. Meanwhile, if
you were to suggest that a rule should be created to force professors to update their lectures at least
once every five years, we would not disagree with you.

Outside the classroom, behavioural control is a major factor within university and college athletic
programs. The Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) governs college athletics using a set
of rules, policies, and procedures. CCAA members, all players, and coaches are expected to follow
the standard guidelines and principles of the CCAA Code of Ethics, and failure to comply will result
in disciplinary action. Some degree of behavioural control is needed within virtually all organizations.

Creating an effective reward structure is key to effectively managing behaviour because people tend
to focus their efforts on the rewarded behaviours. Problems can arise when people are rewarded for
behaviours that seem positive on the surface but that can actually undermine organizational goals
under some circumstances. For example, restaurant servers are highly motivated to serve their tables
quickly because doing so can increase their tips. But if a server devotes all his or her attention to
providing fast service, other tasks that are vital to running a restaurant, such as communicating
effectively with managers, host staff, chefs, and other servers, may suffer. Managers need to be aware
of such trade-offs and strive to align rewards with behaviours. For example, wait staff who
consistently behave as team players could be assigned to the most desirable and lucrative shifts, such
as nights and weekends.
Figure 9.19: Although some behavioural controls are intended for employees and not customers,
following them is beneficial to everyone.

Clan Control

Instead of measuring results (as in outcome control) or dictating behaviour (as in behavioural
control), clan control is an informal type of control. Specifically, clan control relies on shared
traditions, expectations, values, and norms to lead people to work toward the good of their
organization Clan control is often used heavily in settings where creativity is vital, such as many high-
tech businesses. In these companies, output is tough to dictate, and many rules are not appropriate.
The creativity of a research scientist would be likely to be stifled, for example, if he or she were given
a quota of patents that must be met each year (output control) or if a strict dress code were enforced
(behavioural control).

Google is a firm that relies on clan control to be successful. Employees are permitted to spend 20
percent of their work week on their own innovative projects. The company offers an ‘‘ideas mailing
list’’ for employees to submit new ideas and to comment on others’ ideas. Google executives
routinely make themselves available two to three times per week for employees to visit with them to
present their ideas. These informal meetings have generated a number of innovations, including
personalized home pages and Google News, which might otherwise have never been adopted.

ome executives look to clan control to improve the performance of struggling organizations. In 2014,
Rogers Communications CEO Guy Laurence formally unveiled his plan to revitalize growth at the
country’s largest communications firm. The strategy, dubbed “Rogers 3.0,” aimed to improve the
customer experience and use the company’s assets—which include everything from magazines to the
Toronto Blue Jays—together in a more effective way. Laurence explained the issues he believed the
company struggles with, and how his plan will address them. The reorganization is aimed at focusing
on better customer service by bringing together all of the elements of customer experience—10,400
staff—into a single unit reporting to him. In plans to improve customer service to business and
enterprise customers, Rogers has split out consumers from enterprise users, believing there’s a growth
story in enterprise. Finally, Laurence said that Rogers’ stable of sports, broadcast, and publishing
properties would differentiate the company from its telecom peers and commented, “I believe content
is the most important part of our mix” (Castaldo, 2014).

Clan control is also important in many Canadian cities. Vancouver has the steam clock and Wreck
Beach; Toronto has the CN Tower and the Blue Jays; Edmonton has the Oilers and West Edmonton
Mall. These attractions are sources of pride to residents and desired places to visit for tourists; they
help people feel like they belong to something special.

It is worth noting that control systems, once embedded in an organization, become very difficult to
change. Control systems emerged within an organization, not by accident, but in response to the
firm’s need to monitor employees’ work to encourage high performance. Changing results metrics is
an invitation for gaming the data with employees finding innovative ways to ensure that the data
shows they are performing at the expected level, while behaviour and clan culture are notoriously
difficult to change, often taking a decade or more to truly change. New senior executives often tweak
control systems in an effort to improve performance. However, the time required to actually
implement such changes often exceeds the executive’s tenure with the firm—thus the phrase, latest
(management) fad.

REWARD VS. RECOGNITION 

 
Although these terms are often used interchangeably, reward and recognition systems should
be considered separately. Employee reward systems refer to programs set up by a company to
reward performance and motivate employees on individual and/or group levels. They
are normally considered separate from salary but may be monetary in nature or otherwise but
have a cost to the company. While previously considered the domain of large companies,
small businesses have also begun employing them as a tool to lure top employees in a
competitive job market as well as to increase employee performance. 
 
As noted, although employee recognition programs are often combined with
reward programs they retain a different purpose altogether. They are intended to provide a
psychological—rewards a financial—benefit. Although many elements of designing and
maintaining reward and recognition systems are the same, it is useful to keep this difference
in mind, especially for small business owners interested in motivating staff while keeping
costs low. 
The keys to developing a reward program are as follows: 
 
1. Identification of company or group goals that the reward program will support 
2. Identification of the desired employee performance or behaviors that will
reinforce the company's goals 
3. Determination of key measurements of the performance or behavior, based on
the individual or group's previous achievements 
 4. Determination of appropriate rewards 
5. Communication of program to employees 
 
In order to reap benefits such as increased productivity, the entrepreneur designing a reward
program must identify the company or group goals to be reached, and the behaviors or
performance that will contribute to this. While this may seem obvious, companies frequently
make the mistake of rewarding behaviors or achievements that either fail to further business
goals or actually sabotage them.  
 
If teamwork is a business goal, a bonus system rewarding individuals who improve their
productivity by themselves or at the expense of another does not make sense. Likewise, if the
quality is an important issue for an entrepreneur, the reward system that he or she designs
should not emphasize rewarding the quantity of work accomplished by a business unit. 
 
Properly measuring performance ensures the program pays off in terms of business goals.
Since rewards have a real cost in terms of time or money, small business owners need to
confirm that performance has actually improved before rewarding it. Often this requires
measuring something other than financial returns, reduced defects, happier customers, more
rapid deliveries, etc. 
 
TYPES OF REWARD PROGRAMS 
 
There are a number of different types of reward programs aimed at both individual and team
performance. 
 
Variable Pay 
 
Variable pay or pay-for-performance is a compensation program in which a portion of a
person's pay is considered "at risk." Variable pay can be tied to the performance of the
company, the results of a business unit, an individual's accomplishments, or any combination
of these. It can take many forms, including bonus programs, stock options, and one-time
awards for significant accomplishments. Some companies choose to pay their employees less
than competitors but attempt to motivate and reward employees using a variable pay program
instead. Good incentive pay packages provide an optimal challenge, one that stretches
employees but remains in reach. If too much is required to reach the goal, the program will be
ignored. 
 
Bonuses 
 
Bonus programs have been used in American business for some time. They usually reward
individual accomplishments and are frequently used in sales organizations to encourage
salespersons to generate additional business or higher profits. They can also be used,
however, to recognize group accomplishments. Indeed, increasing numbers of businesses
have switched from individual bonus programs to one which rewards contributions to
corporate performance at group, departmental, or company-wide levels. 
 
According to some experts, small businesses interested in long-term benefits should probably
consider another type of reward. Bonuses are generally short-term motivators. By rewarding
an employee's performance for the previous year, they encourage a short-term perspective
rather than future-oriented accomplishments. In addition, these programs need to be carefully
structured to ensure they are rewarding accomplishments above and beyond an individual or
group's basic functions. Otherwise, they run the risk of being perceived as entitlements or
regular merit pay, rather than a reward for outstanding work. Proponents, however, contend
that bonuses are a perfectly legitimate means of rewarding outstanding performance, and they
argue that such compensation can actually be a powerful tool to encourage future top-level
efforts. 
 
Profit-Sharing 
 
Profit-sharing refers to the strategy of creating a pool of monies to be disbursed to employees
by taking a stated percentage of a company's profits. The amount given to an employee is
usually equal to a percentage of the employee's salary and is disbursed after a business closes
its books for the year. The benefits can be provided either in actual cash or via contributions
to employee's 401(k) plans. A benefit for a company offering this type of reward is that it can
keep fixed costs low. 
 
Stock Options 
 
Previously the territory of upper management and large companies, stock options have
become an increasingly popular method in recent years of rewarding middle management and
other employees in both mature companies and start-ups. Employee stock-option programs
give employees the right to buy a specified number of a company's shares at a fixed price for
a specified period of time (usually around ten years). They are generally authorized by a
company's board of directors and approved by its shareholders. The number of options a
company can award to employees is usually equal to a certain percentage of the company's
shares outstanding. 
 
Like profit-sharing plans, stock options usually reward employees for sticking around,
serving as a long-term motivator. Once an employee has been with a company for a certain
period of time (usually around four years), he or she is fully vested in the program. If the
employee leaves the company prior to being fully vested, those options are canceled. After an
employee becomes fully vested in the program, he or she can purchase from the company an
allotted number of shares at the strike price (or the fixed price originally agreed to). This
purchase is known as "exercising" stock options. After purchasing the stock, the employee
can either retain it or sell it on the open market with the difference in strike price and the
market price is the employee's gain in the value of the shares. 
 
GROUP-BASED REWARD SYSTEMS 
 
As more small businesses use team structures to reach their goals, many entrepreneurs look
for ways to reward cooperation between departments and individuals. Bonuses, profit
sharing, and stock options can all be used to reward team and group accomplishments. An
entrepreneur can choose to reward individual or group contributions or a combination of the
two. Group-based reward systems are based on a measurement of team performance, with
individual rewards received on the basis of this performance. While these systems encourage
individual efforts toward common business goals, they also tend to reward under-performing
employees along with average and above-average employees. A reward program which
recognizes individual achievements in addition to team performance can provide extra
incentive for employees. 
 
RECOGNITION PROGRAMS 
 
For small business owners and other managers, a recognition program may appear to be
merely extra effort on their part with few tangible returns in terms of employee performance.
While most employees certainly appreciate monetary awards for a job well done, many
people merely seek recognition of their hard work. For an entrepreneur with more ingenuity
than the cash available, this presents an opportunity to motivate employees. 
 
Recognition has a timing element 
 
It must occur so that the performance recognized is still fresh in the mind. If high
performance continues, recognition should be frequent but cautiously timed so that it doesn't
become automatic. Furthermore, like rewards, the method of recognition needs to be
appropriate for the achievement. This also ensures that those actions which go farthest in
supporting corporate goals receive the most attention. However, an entrepreneur should
remain flexible in the methods of recognition, as different employees are motivated by
different forms of recognition. Finally, employees need to clearly understand the behavior or
action being recognized. A small business owner can ensure this by being specific in what
actions will be recognized and then reinforcing this by communicating exactly what an
employee did to be recognized. 
 
Recognition can take a variety of forms. Structured programs can include regular recognition
events such as banquets or breakfasts, an employee of the month or year recognition, an
annual report, or yearbook which features the accomplishments of employees, and
department or company recognition boards. Informal or spontaneous recognition can take the
form of privileges such as working at home, starting late/leaving early, or long lunch breaks.
A job well done can also be recognized by providing additional support or empowering the
employee in ways such as greater choice of assignments, increased authority, or naming the
employee as an internal consultant to other staff.  
  
A good reward system should  
have recognition, effort, and individual and  
group collective effort and outcome. 

How to Manage in Future

 
How to Manage in Future
The modern trends in both the macro and microenvironment lead us to believe that the following to
lesions very useful for the manger of future needs to be fully ready to deal with the 

1. Changing Nature of workplace due to culture, diversity, and technical environment factors. 
 
1. The Impact of Artificial Intelligence and Data sciences in the work world of today 
 
1. Need for a greater balance between Hard (Technical Skills, Intelligence) and Soft Skills
(People skills/ emotional intelligence)    
 
https://www.goskills.com/Soft-Skills/Articles/Soft-skills-for-managers
 
 
8.1 Understanding Culture and Diversity  

Culture in general is comprised of values, assumptions, traditions, and beliefs of a group community,
organization, or county or region. Culture, or shared values within the organization, may be related to
increased performance. Organizational culture can be thought of as consisting of three stages and
these are as under.  

                    
For example, in an organization, one of the basic assumptions employees and managers share might
be that happy employees benefit their organizations. This assumption could translate into values such
as social equality, high-quality relationships, and having fun. The artifacts reflecting such values
might be an executive “open door” policy, an office layout that includes open spaces and gathering
areas equipped with pool tables, and frequent company picnics in the workplace. 

A Detail Discussion on Culture 

The famous theorist, Geert Hofstede‘s presented the theory of cultural dimensions, which describes
the effects of a society’s culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior,
using a structure derived from factor analysis. The theory has been widely used in several fields as a
paradigm for research, particularly in cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-
cultural communication. 

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a
worldwide survey of employee values by IBM in the 1960s and 1970s. The theory was one of the first
that could be quantified and could be used to explain observed differences between cultures.
  
Organizations do operate within a community of country hence carries some cultural components
from the community or the country but it needs to be managed. Even though Hofstede’s model is
generally accepted as the most comprehensive framework of national culture values by those studying
business culture, its validity and its limitations have been extensively criticized.
 
Hofstede acknowledges that the cultural dimensions he identified, as culture and values, are
theoretical constructions. They are tools meant to be used in practical applications. Generalizations
about one country’s culture are helpful but they have to be regarded as such, i.e. as guidelines for a
better understanding. 
 
They are group-level dimensions that describe national averages that apply to the population in its
entirety. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions enable users to distinguish countries but are not about
differences between members of societies. They don’t necessarily define individuals’ personalities.
National scores should never be interpreted as deterministic for individuals. For example, a Japanese
person can be very comfortable in changing situations whereas on average, Japanese people have high
uncertainty avoidance. There are still exceptions to the rule. 
 
Organizational level

Within and across countries, individuals are also parts of organizations such as companies. Hofstede
acknowledges that “the dimensions of national cultures are not relevant for comparing organizations
within the same country”. In contrast with national cultures, embedded in values, organizational
cultures are embedded in practices. From 1985 to 1987, Geert’s institute IRIC (Institute for Research
on Intercultural Cooperation) has conducted a separate research project to study organizational
culture. Including 20 organizational units in two countries (Denmark and the Netherlands), six
different dimensions of practices, or communities of practice have been identified:
 
1. Process-Oriented vs. Results-Oriented
2. Employee-Oriented vs. Job-Oriented
3. Parochial vs. Professional
4. Open System vs. Closed System
5. Loose Control vs. Tight Control
6. Pragmatic vs. Normative

Managing international organizations involves understanding both national and organizational

cultures. Communities of practice across borders are significant for multinationals to hold the
company together.
 
Occupational level

Within the occupational level, there is a certain degree of values and convictions that people hold
concerning the national and organizational cultures they are part of. The culture of management as an
occupation has components from national and organizational cultures. This is an important distinction
from the organizational level.
 
 
Gender level
When describing the culture, gender differences are largely not taken into consideration. However,
certain factors are useful to analyze in the discussion of cross-cultural communication. Within each
society, men’s culture differs greatly from women’s culture. Although men and women can often
perform the same duties from a technical standpoint, there are often symbols to which each gender has
a different response. In situations where one gender responds in an alternative manner to their
prescribed roles, the other sex may not even accept their deviant gender role. 

The level of reactions experienced by people exposed to foreign cultures can be compared similarly to
the reactions of gender behaviors of the opposite sex. The degree of gender differentiation in a
country depends primarily on the culture within that nation and its history.
 
 
8.2 Revisiting Hard and Soft skill 

Hard skill and soft Skills 

In today's work world, employers look for both hard and soft skills. Hard skills are specific, teachable
abilities that can be defined and measured, such as typing, writing, math, reading, and the ability to
use software programs. Soft skills, on the other hand, are less tangible and harder to quantify, such as
getting along with others, managing your time, creative thinking, and the ability to lead. While soft
skills are less measurable (and less commonly taught), they’re just as vital for career success; some
may argue they’re even more important than the hard skills you bring to the table. 

“Talented people with poor soft skills get fired every day”

Soft Skills 
 
These skills are often referred to as, “people skills” or “interpersonal skills “or social skills and
include things like how well you get along with your colleagues, how well you communicate with
others, and of course, how you lead. We define soft skills as abilities not unique to any job. 
Soft skills relate to your attitudes. Intuitions and based on your emotional intelligence and social
quotient. Soft skills fall under all five of Sun Tzu's virtues, humaneness, trustworthiness, courage, and
discipline, including, intelligence. 
Soft skills use a different type of intelligence to hard skills, “emotional intelligence.”
For examples
 
1. Interpersonal Skills and Communication Skills 
2. Team player  
3. Honesty and Integrity
4. Adaptability and Patience
5. Professionalism & Strong work ethic
6. Emotional intelligence
7. Self-motivated and positive attitude
8. Energy  
 
Hard Skills
 
Hard skills ore Technical skills are teachable abilities or skill sets that are easily measurable. We
define hard skills as the technical abilities that fit the job. Normally, you can acquire hard skills in the
classroom, in an online course, through books and other materials, or on the job. Hard skills are
learned abilities acquired and enhanced through practice, repetition, and education. Hard skills are
important because they increase employee productivity and efficiency and subsequently improve
employee satisfaction. However, hard skills alone don't translate into business success as employees
also need to employ other skills, such as soft skills, that contribute to customer satisfaction. Hard
skills are also known as technical skills, which means they are teachable.

Your use of these very skills is what most likely helped you to become a manager, without even
knowing it.

Types of hard skills or Business graduates are 

1. General Management 
1. Economic analysis
2. Strategic planning
3. AI and Data Analysis
4. Proficiency in a Foreign Language
5. Planning Skills 
6. Licensing
 
2. Sales & Marketing
1. SEO/SEM marketing
2. Marketing
3. Social media
4. Outreach
5. Inside sales
6. Outbound calling
7. Strategy
8. Forecasting
9. CRM

8.2 Understating Artificial Intelligence and Data Sciences 

Should we be afraid of computer technologies like AI and Data Sciences? 

The good side of a technological revolution does improve productivity many folds and hence makes
some workforce of low productivity workforce irrelevant and this makes people nervous. Let us look
at history; in the 19th century, most of the earth's population was employed in manual, back-breaking
agricultural work. Due to the automation of farm equipment, the productivity of farmers increased
more than tenfold and the number of farmworkers decreased from the majority of the workforce to
less than 2% of the workforce in the USA. The same process played out in manufacturing in the 20th
century, as improvements in automation increased the productivity of manufacturing workers and
reduced the number of workers employed in manufacturing.
 
Today, knowledge-based and service industries employ far more workers than the manufacturing
industry, and AI in the form of physical robots or software bots is beginning to transform the way we
work and live. From the automotive industry to the manufacturers of vacuum cleaners, robots
increasingly perform more of the functions workers performed just a few years ago. Let us understand
AI a bit more in this connection. 

Status of AI today  

The computer comprises software and hardware, the hardware is the processor, memory, and
connecting devices. Let us look at a bit of the history of computers. Artificial Intelligence is an
advanced level of program or software which generates its instructions to perform certain tasks and
this is based on the theory of mind and that is the reason it is called artificial intelligence. In other
words, it thinks on its own. But does this software has the hardware needed to replace us, not yet plus
does it is fully conscious and the answer is NO. 

Narrow AI is used as a decision-support tool with a focused application, albeit a potentially broad
range of operations that it may be application in workflow planning and optimization, fraud detection,
error reduction, connected machines, automated (e.g., vision-based) problem identification,
cybersecurity, health diagnosis, etc. 

Within expert systems it may be used to support case-based reasoning, responding using speech
synthesis, natural language generation, robot automation, and systems control through computer
apps.  

  
The computer of today are very much smart, understand traditional languages, drive cars, prescribe
medicine and solve our day to day problems but this is just a few task human do and provide
functional support, however AGI and ASI will be based our pure theory of mind and these are many
years from application. A general AI (Artificial General Intelligence or AGI) can perform at the same
level as a human and is the goal of AI development. 

AGIs should also have the abilities to acquire knowledge in real-time, understand language, remember
interactions and relate them to context, use knowledge to accelerate learning, manage conflicting
goals and priorities, respond to human emotion, and do all this in a context with limited knowledge
such as may reflect real-world problems 
 
Super AIs (Artificial Super Intelligence or ASI) extend beyond this to achieve what is not humanly
possible. These AIs and the 'intelligence' implied by the descriptions represent a broad evolution of
the computer science discipline. 

Are we in danger of being replaced by robots?

We fear that humans may become irrelevant become again, The software applications we use every
day are enhanced with artificial intelligence to figure out our questions and find immediate answers to
them. AI is advancing rapidly and will change everything we do as individuals and as a society. There
is no need for panic, but both governments and academia need to give serious thought to the effects of
AI on our way of life. If we do it right, we will work less, produce more, and live longer and better
lives. If we do it wrong, the result would be catastrophic and unimaginable for humanity.

Article and tools to Boost Success

 Self Confidence -Key to success is Confidence

  What is Self Confidence? 
 Having a trust in yourself is self-confidence and it goes low for much different
reason and some of the reasons are
 
Self Confidence stealers  
1. Past Bad Memories and Experiences
2. Lack of Focus and preparation 
3. Criticism and lack to support 
4. Lack of self Respect and image 
5. Overreacting 
 
 
How to Rebuild your Self Confidence – Confidence Building Measures  
Building self-confidence is like building your body, one muscle at a time and painful 
 
1. Exercise your Mind  
 
a. Live for the moments 
 Reality Check one area of lack shadows others 
 Bad Past creates regret and future creates anxiety
 Live for the moments
                                                        
You are what you think
 
b. Change your Attitude about yourself and situation and others 
 How do you look at yourself – self-bashing
 If you do not respect yourself nobody will 
 Focus on strengths that some area of confidence
 
c. It is in you and not around you. Better dress and brand is just add on 
 
 
2. Take Action Steps 
 
1. Identify and conquer 
o Identify your area of lack of confidence 
o Make an action plan of small steps 
o Practice makes it perfect 
 
2. Leave your comfort zone
o Social Circle and social media circle 
o Exercise  
 
3. Have a Role model - Practice more 

4. Do God’s work 
o Giveaway your time and advice, smile and your respect if you cannot give money 
o Forgive  

5. Failure is Part of the Game  

6. Set Small target and upon achieving reward yourself 
 
Deal with Stealers 
1. Past Bad Memories and Experiences- Think in the present 
2. Lack of Focus and preparation – it happens among people 
3. Criticism and lack to support – words have killed it 
4. Lack of self Respect and image – Start respecting yourself 
5. Overreacting – think what is the cause 
 
Examples: 
1. if you are afraid of the stage, practice at home, join a club like a toastmaster 
2. Afraid of writing, write a letter to your mother or friend and have them critique it 
3. Afraid of exams, attempt online exams  
4. Improvement comes slowly but gradually.
 

I hope you have gained something out of this video 

 Chapter 7
Sustainable Management

Sustainable Management
Chapter Content:
 Introduction to Sustainability- Definition & explanation w.r.t. Pakistan’s scenario

 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030- Short Overview

 Sustainable Business-Definition & key attributes

 System Thinking- A business approach that includes an awareness and understanding

that everything is related and that nothing exists in isolation. Problems are viewed in
the context of an overall system rather than as discrete issues to be resolved.

 Focus - how sustainability is implemented inside companies regarding

 Strategy & Value Creation,
 Governance, and
 Leadership & Management.

 Sustainable Managers- Definition & Importance

 Types of Sustainable Managers – Definition & explanation of each one of the

following:
 Explicit Ssustainability Managers- an integrative function within the
firm,
 Implicit Sustainable Managers- Functional managers with dedicated
sustainability responsibility,
 Sustainable Managers in Mainstream Management- roles across the
firm.
 Responsible Sustainable Management-

The chapter will also include the following:

 Learning Objectives
 Case Study- 2
 Summary at the end of the Chapter
 “Key Takeaways” after every two topics
 3 Classroom activities
MODULE 2
ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

What are Competencies?

 
In very simple words, competencies are: -

Inherent qualities an individual possesses, combining skills, knowledge, and ability.

Here is a list of the behavioural, technical, and leading equipment and how these mapped with
competencies. One of the biggest challenges a company might face in recruitment is identifying
employee competencies in the first place; it can often be difficult to put into words what employees
need to possess to make them successful.
Category
Subcategory
Competency
 
Behavioural

Teamwork
Supports group decisions and puts group success ahead of their own goals
 
Problem Solving
Analyses problems by obtaining and organizing relevant information
 
Customer Service
Is approachable and willing to help others
 
Results Orientation
Is results-driven and can identify steps to achieving goals
 
Communication
Communicates ideas effectively
 
Technical
Knows the product knowledge and systems

Sales
Is competent at using Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system
 
Marketing
Is competent at using social media tools 
 
Accounting
Is competent at using SAGE
 
Leadership
Motivation
Motivates and inspires
 
Employee relations
Acts with empathy and compassion
 
Diversity
Embraces diversity
 
  
Source: https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/interview-advice/
competencies/what-are-competencies

https://www2.mmu.ac.uk/media/mmuacuk/content/
documents/human-resources/a-z/competencies/
campus_services_support_5.pdf

We will work on the following skills to build managerial

competencies 
1. Problem Solving Skills and Critical Thinking 
2. Decision Making 
3. Time and Stress Management 
4. Develop a Positive Attitude and Mindset 
5. Team Building 

Chapter 8
Improve Decision Making
Decision Making
Decision Making is selecting the best options from a given set of options. 

MARK TWAIN's most beautiful Quote,

"DECISIONS" are the 'hardest move to make especially,

when it is a choice between

WHAT YOU WANT... and WHAT IS RIGHT...?

To prove a manager is good at decision making, a manager will need to make the best possible choice
in the shortest time possible, as well as being able to show reasons that support your decisions.
Generally the more senior the role, the more difficult these decisions become. Many employees are
forced to make complex decisions routinely as part of their job description; sometimes these decisions
have to be made under intense pressure. 

Employers tend to value decision making because it is a skill that is required in many different
situations across many business areas – from everyday tasks through to more complex projects or
unforeseen situations. 

1. Types of Decision Making

Generally speaking, there are three ways in which you can make a decision:

a) Intuition
 
This is used to describe when you have a ‘gut feeling’ about something. This type of decision making
is handy when you have to make a decision quickly, or you have a considerable amount of experience
that enables you to make a snap judgment of the situation.

b) Logic
 
In comparison to intuition, logic requires the person to come to an informed choice based on all the
facts presented to them. Before making a decision, that person will have been presented with large
amounts of information surrounding it, and it will be their job to decide which is the most suitable
decision based on all of the disadvantages and advantages of the options that they have available to
them.

c) Cognitive Bias
 
Inherent bias can both disrupt and distort the decision-making process. The most common cognitive
biases include confirmation, anchoring, the halo effect, and over-confidence. Confirmation is when a
decision-maker will seek out evidence that confirms their previously held belief. Anchoring is over-
reliance on a single piece of evidence or experience to reach certain judgments. The halo effect is an
overall impression of a company, individual, brand, or product which has a direct impact on an
individual’s feelings and thoughts. Over-confidence occurs when someone overestimates how reliable
their judgments are.

The modern managers make the logic base decision which is a process-based approach and here is the
detailed Decision-making process outlined.

2. Personal Vs Organizational Decision Making

Decision Making happens both at individual and group bases. There are decisions which personal in
context or professional in context, but we are going to talk about professional nature. Here are some
of the issues in decision making a manager has to decide. 

2.1 Group Vs Individual Decision Making for a Business

At first glance, individual decision-making in organizational behavior is just as simple as the phrase
implies. When considering individual versus group decision-making, a group decision is made by
several people, while an individual decision is made by one person. But, as is often the case in
business, the issue is far from that simple. Discussing the situations under which group decision-
making is better than individual decision-making is one of the most complex issues in business as
complex psychological factors play into the decision-making process. In some cases, individual
decision-making proved more fruitful and productive; in other cases, group decision-making proved
the wiser choice. However, group decision-making has come into favour more over the past few
decades. 
 
To truly understand the differences between group and individual decision-making – and to get a
sense of which might be better under specific circumstances – delve into what constitutes individual
versus group decision-making, decision-making in general in an organization, and the different types
of decision-making.
 
a) Individual Decision-Making
 
Individual decision-making does not involve a group or even more than one person. Individual
decision-making is quick and generally cost-effective because it does not require gathering others and
scheduling a meeting or multiple meeting or sending a single email. 
 
Individuals tend to think and question before performing, which is fruitful in analysis and forecasting
of an individual’s behavior, says Prachi Juneja writing on Management Study Guide. What are the
plus points of individual decision making? 
 
1. An individual generally makes prompt decisions, while a group is dominated by various
people, making decision-making very time-consuming. Moreover, assembling group
members consumes lots of time.
2. Individuals do not escape their responsibilities. They are accountable for their acts and
performance. In a group, it is not easy to hold any one person accountable for a wrong
decision.
3. Individual decision-making saves time, money, and energy as individuals usually make
prompt and logical decisions, says Juneja, while group decision-making involves a lot of
time, money, and energy.
 
b) Group Decision-Making
 
The time to discuss the situations under which group decision-making is better than individual
decision-making. In other words, there are also cons to individual decision-making. 
 
These include:
 
1. A group has the potential to collect more complete information, compared to an individual, while
making decisions.
 
2. An individual uses his intuition and views. A group has many members, so its many views and
many approaches result in better decision-making.
 
3. A group discovers the hidden talent and core competency of employees of an organization.
4. An individual will not take into consideration every member's interest, while a group will take into
account the interest of all members of an organization.
 
 
2.2 Level of Decision and Other Considerations  

There are many ways of classifying decision in an organization but the following types of decisions
are important ones:
 
a) Level of Decision 
 
Decisions on the objective of the business, capital expenditure, plant layout, production, etc., are
examples of strategic decisions. Policy decisions are those which are taken by top management and
which are fundamentally affecting the entire business. Tactical decisions are those which a manager
makes over and over again adhering to certain established rules, policies, and procedures. They are
repetitive and related to general functioning. Authority for taking tactical decisions is usually
delegated to lower levels in the organization. Operating decisions are those which are taken by lower
management to execute policy decisions. Operating decisions relate mostly to the decision marker's
work and behavior while policy decisions influence work or behavior patterns of subordinates.
 

 
2. Programmed and Non-programmed Decisions
 
Prof. Herbert Simon, an American economist, and psychologist has used computer terminology in
classifying business decisions. These decisions are of a routine and repetitive nature. The programmed
decisions are basically of a routine type for which systematic procedures have been devised so that the
problem may not be treated as a unique case each time it crops up. The non-programmed decisions are
complex and deserve a specific treatment. 
 
3. Category of Decision 
 
Ernest Dale (born in Hamburg, Germany, and died at the age of 79) has classified decisions in a
business organization as under.
 
(a) Policy decisions,
(b) Administrative decisions and
(c) Executive decisions.
 
1. Policy decisions
 
Top management or administration of an organization. They relate to major issues and policies such
as the nature of the financial structure, marketing policies, outline of organization structure.
 
 
2. Administrative decisions 
 
The middle management and are less important than policy decisions. According to Ernest Dale, the
size of the advertising budget is a policy decision but the selection of media would be an example of
the administrative decision.
 
3. Executive decisions
 
Those which are made at the point where the work is carried out. Distinguishing between these three
types of decisions Dale writes, "policy decisions set forth goals and general courses of action,
administrative decisions determine the means to be used and executive decisions are those made on a
day-to-day basis as particular cases come up".
 
3. The Decision-Making Process

When decisions have to be made, there are several stages that you should go through to reach a
practical solution. The process is the same for both single decision-maker and group decision making.
Quite literally, organizations operate by people making decisions. A manager plans, organizes, staffs,
leads, and controls her team by executing decisions. The effectiveness and quality of those decisions
determine how successful a manager will be.
Managers are constantly called upon to make decisions to solve problems. Decision making and
problem-solving are ongoing processes of evaluating situations or problems, considering alternatives,
making choices, and following them up with the necessary actions. Sometimes the decision ‐making
process is extremely short, and mental reflection is essentially instantaneous. In other situations, the
process can drag on for weeks or even months. The entire decision ‐making process is dependent upon
the right information being available to the right people at the right times.

The decision‐making process involves the following steps:

 
1. Define the problem- Purpose 
2. Develop the criteria with the ranking order 
3. Develop potential alternatives
4. Analyze the alternatives
5. Select the best alternative.
6. Implement the decision.
7. Establish a control and evaluation system.

The decision‐making process begins when a manager identifies the real problem. The accurate
definition of the problem affects all the steps that follow; if the problem is inaccurately defined, every
step in the decision‐making process will be based on an incorrect starting point. One way that a
manager can help determines the true problem in a situation is by identifying the problem separately
from its symptoms. The most troubling situations found in an organization can usually be identified as
symptoms of underlying problems. 

(See Table for some examples of symptoms.) 

These symptoms all indicate that something is wrong with an organization, but they don't identify root
causes. A successful manager doesn't just attack symptoms; he works to uncover the factors that cause
these symptoms

All managers want to make the best decisions. To do so, managers need to have the ideal resources —
information, time, personnel, equipment, and supplies — and identify any limiting factors.
Realistically, managers operate in an environment that normally doesn't provide ideal resources. For
example, they may lack the proper budget or may not have the most accurate information or any extra
time. So, they must choose to satisfice — to make the best decision possible with the information,
resources, and time available.
 
Time pressures frequently cause a manager to move forward after considering only the first or most
obvious answers. However, successful problem solving requires a thorough examination of the
challenge, and a quick answer may not result in a permanent solution. Thus, a manager should think
through and investigate several alternative solutions to a single problem before making a quick
decision. One of the best-known methods for developing alternatives is through brainstorming, where
a group works together to generate ideas and alternative solutions. 
 
The assumption behind brainstorming is that the group dynamic stimulates thinking — one person's
ideas, no matter how outrageous, can generate ideas from the others in the group. Ideally, this
spawning of ideas is contagious, and before long, lots of suggestions and ideas flow. Brainstorming
usually requires 30 minutes to an hour. 
 
The following specific rules should be followed during brainstorming sessions:
 
1. Concentrate on the problem at hand. 
 
This rule keeps the discussion very specific and avoids the group's tendency to address the events
leading up to the current problem.
 
2. Entertain all ideas. 
 
The more ideas that come up, the better. In other words, there are no bad ideas. Encouragement of the
group to freely offer all thoughts on the subject is important. Participants should be encouraged to
present ideas no matter how ridiculous they seem, because such ideas may spark creative thought on
the part of someone else.
 
3. Refrain from allowing members to evaluate others' ideas on the spot. 
 
All judgments should be deferred until all thoughts are presented, and the group concurs on the best
ideas. Although brainstorming is the most common technique to develop alternative solutions,
managers can use several other ways to help develop solutions. Here are some examples:
 
4. Nominal group technique. 
 
This method involves the use of a highly structured meeting, complete with an agenda, and restricts
discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision‐making process. This technique is
useful because it ensures that every group member has equal input in the decision ‐making process. It
also avoids some of the pitfalls, such as pressure to conform, group dominance, hostility, and conflict,
that can plague a more interactive, spontaneous, unstructured forum such as brainstorming.
 
5. Delphi technique. 
 
With this technique, participants never meet, but a group leader uses written questionnaires to conduct
decision making. No matter what technique is used, group decision making has clear advantages and
disadvantages when compared with individual decision making. The results of dozens of individual‐
versus‐group performance studies indicate that groups not only tend to make better decisions than a
person acting alone but also that groups tend to inspire star performers to even higher levels of
productivity. So, are two (or more) heads better than one? The answer depends on several factors,
such as the nature of the task, the abilities of the group members, and the form of interaction. Because
a manager often has a choice between making a decision independently or including others in the
decision making, she needs to understand the advantages and disadvantages of group decision
making.
 
The purpose of this step is to decide the relative merits of each idea. Managers must identify the
advantages and disadvantages of each alternative solution before making a final decision.
Evaluating alternatives can be done in numerous ways. 
 
Here are a few possibilities:
 
1. Determine the pros and cons of each alternative.
2. Perform a cost‐benefit analysis for each alternative.
 
Weight each factor important in the decision, ranking each alternative relative to its ability to meet
each factor, and then multiply by a probability factor to provide a final value for each alternative.
 
Regardless of the method used, a manager needs to evaluate each alternative in terms of its
 
Feasibility — 
Can it be done?
 
Effectiveness — 
How well does it resolve the problem situation?
 
Consequences — 
What will be its costs (financial and non-financial) to the organization?
 
After a manager has analysed all the alternatives, she must decide on the best one. The best alternative
is the one that produces the most advantages and the fewest serious disadvantages. Sometimes, the
selection process can be fairly straightforward, such as the alternative with the most pros and fewest
cons. 
 
Other times, the optimal solution is a combination of several alternatives. Managers are paid to make
decisions, but they are also paid to get results from these decisions. Positive results must follow
decisions. Everyone involved with the decision must know his or her role in ensuring a successful
outcome. 
 
To make certain that employees understand their roles, managers must thoughtfully devise programs,
procedures, rules, or policies to help aid them in the problem ‐solving process. Ongoing actions need
to be monitored. An evaluation system should provide feedback on how well the decision is being
implemented, what the results are, and what adjustments are necessary to get the results that were
intended when the solution was chosen. The above steps don’t work for every decision, but this is
nevertheless a useful framework when it comes to making tough operational decisions. If a decision
has to be made quickly, you probably won’t have the luxury of running through each of these steps.
 

4. Types of Group Decisions

Below are six different kinds of group decision-making processes and the pros and cons of each.

1. Unanimous
Unanimous decisions occur when all agree without reservation. They are easier for trivial matters but
very difficult for important and/or higher-pressure situations. Be careful not to confuse unanimity
with consensus.

2. Consensus
In a consensus, each person agrees to support the decision, though all may not agree, and gives his or
her consent. Despite differing perspectives, all agree that they can live with the decision. The
consensus is the process most likely to ensure that each person’s input is valued, heard, and
considered.

3. Majority Rule
Majority rule decisions are made when more than half the group votes in favor. This process is used
frequently in democracies, and rarely in organizations. Majority decisions, as with any voting
situation, a risk that you won’t have the full support and that those not in agreement with the majority
may do something less than helpful later. It also carries the possibility of establishing an “us” versus
“them” mentality.

4. Expert

In this scenario, the group delegates the decision-making responsibility to an expert or small
subgroup. This type of process is good for situations that do not require the entire group’s
participation.

5. Executive

In an executive decision, the leader makes the call. Most decisions are executive and should be. The
big mistake is that often the kind and amount of participation leading up to this kind of decision-
making isn’t what it should be. The best decision-making is typically a highly participative executive
decision. This approach is critical when dealing with issues such as team vision and mission.

6. Default

In this scenario, a decision is made by action, or more likely, inaction that forces a conclusion. It is a
powerless form of decision-making and is best avoided.

What are some helpful mechanisms for successful decision-making?

1. Use Polling: 

Polling can help determine where people are feeling about an issue without requiring anyone to
commit him or herself to anything. Leaders might do this by asking a question like, “If we were to
decide now, how many of you would favor doing Option 1?”

2. Assign accountability: 

Once a decision is made, by whatever mechanism, everyone must know what is expected of them, and
how they are going to be held responsible (by understanding actions required, due dates, and budgets).
Leaders must also assign authority to each individual to act within their respective areas of
responsibility, or everything will be delegated upward for decision.

3. Articulate a clear process to manage conflict escalation: 

Murphy’s law says that if something can go wrong, it will, so it is important to have a conflict
escalation management procedure in place for two reasons. First, it is a mechanism for resolving
disputes between peers. Second, if things go wrong, it is a means of keeping senior management
informed. Escalation procedures can be built on a case-by-case basis.

4. Which Factors Can Lead to Poor Decision Making

There are many factors that can negatively impact decision making, including:
1. Inadequate information

If you do not have sufficient information, decisions can be made without considering all of the facts.
Take time to collect the necessary data even if you have a particularly short timescale.

2. Information overload

Too much information than you know how to handle can also prove detrimental to the decision-
making process. This can be overcome by a department or team coming together and deciding what
information is the most important and the reasons for this.

3. Too many people

Deciding by committee can be difficult, as everyone has their views and values. Although it is
important to consider these, it’s usually best to designate someone to make a decision.

4. Vested interest

If any of the decision-makers have an incentive to reach one particular result, a fair decision-making
process could be compromised.

5. Resistance to change.

People are often attached to a business - particularly those in the management team – and for some,
the prospect of change can be difficult.

Source: https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/interview-advice/competencies/decision-making
 Chapter 9
Learn Effective
Communication
Effective Team Building skills 

Effective (Team, group (followers/subordinates) Building skills 

A manager's performance is a measure of three fundamental parameters, called time, cost,

and scope/objective on a given project.  Generally speaking, there are three HR formations
when it comes to followers organizing and these are crowd, group, and team. A manager has
a deep understanding of what type of HR formation he/she needs to get work done. The
choice depends on the situation, nature, and profile and characteristics of
followers/subordinates.  

Building HR is skills and qualities are crucial not only for every business area but for all
life’s areas. A manager aspires to followers and subordinates and at times has to manage
group and crowd as well. Let us start by defining these terms first. 

In a business context, the question of how to build an effective team is crucial for the
company’s growth. To build a good and effective team you have to learn how to build
confidence, trust, and friendships. This is a long-lasting process that requires many skills. 
 
A manager gets a project and he/she forms a community to workers called subordinates to get
the desired goal achieved. The subordinates are formed in the form of a group or team. Group
is informed and formal and sometimes the leader or the project manager is just a crowd to a
manager called the mop. Most of the work in a business entity is performed in groups.
Although the individual personality of an employee is important, their effectiveness depends
on the teams in which they are working collectively to achieve any objective. 
In a particular team, there can be several groups in which the group members individually
help their leader to accomplish the goals. Below you can see the difference between group
and team in an organization, explained in tabular form.
To conclude, the formation of followers is crowd, group, or team.  

1. Crowd

A crowd is a large group of people that are gathered or considered together. A crowd may be
definable through a common purpose or set of emotions, such as at a political rally, a sports
event, or during looting (this is known as a psychological crowd), or may simply be made up
of many people going about their business in a busy area. The term "the crowd" may
sometimes refer to the lower orders of people in general and it is the most informal form of a
group. 

Characteristics of a Crowd

1. A crowd is very short-lived or transitory in nature.

2. In a crowd, there is emotional excitement of a strong nature.
3. There is more face to face and shoulder to shoulder contact, more forward and
backward movement, and physical activity in an action crowd.
4. Drives of more primitive types are found in a crowd where one loose s its rational
behavior and become animalistic, irrational, antisocial being guided by the emotional
aspect and excitement.
5. In the crowd situation, all the psychological functions of the individual like
perception, learning, motivation, emotion, thinking, and reasoning are affected to a
greater or lesser degree.
6. Sense of facilitation, imitation, and irresponsibility, etc. are more observed in a
crowd 

2. Group 

A group is an assemblage of persons who work, interact, and cooperate in achieving a

common goal in a specified time. The identity of the group members is taken individually.
The members share information and resources with other group members. In an organization,
the groups are made based on common interests, beliefs, experience in common fields and
principles, so that they can easily coordinate with each other. Nowadays, the group is adopted
by the organization, to accomplish various client projects. When two or more individuals are
classed together either by the organization or out of social needs, it is known as a group. 

Formal Group: 
These groups are created by the management of the organization for performing a specific
task.

Informal Group: 
The formation of these groups is done naturally in an organization, to satisfy the social or
psychological human needs.

Difference between Group and Crowd

1. A group is more organized while a crowd is more disorganized. 

2. The crowd is emotionally charged and short-lived.  
3. In a group, on the contrary, drives are expressed in a polished, socialized, modified,
and socially acceptable manner.
4. To add to this a group can turn to a crowd at any moment and a crowd can also turn to
a group.

3. Team 

A team is the collection of people, who are linked together to achieve a common

objective. The agenda of the team is “one for all and all for one”. Apart from sharing
information, the team members also share the responsibility of the team task. The team is
always responsible for the outcome (i.e. Result of the collective efforts of the team members).
The team members have a mutual understanding with other members. The team members set
the target and preformed the combined effort to achieve the target. They work jointly to
maximize the strengths and minimize the weakness by complementing each other. The most
important feature of a team is “synergy” i.e. the team can achieve much more as the
members can achieve individually. 
 
For example Cricket team, team for accomplishing a project, team of doctors, management
team, etc.

Here is a quotation on a Team lead by Rumi and I quote 

                    

Difference between Group and Team

no
BASIS
GROUP
TEAM
 
  1
Meaning
A collection of individuals who work together in completing a task.
A group of persons having a collective identity joined together, to accomplish a goal.
 
  2
Leadership
Only one leader
More than one
 
  3
Members
Independent
Interdependent
 
  4
Process
Discuss, Decide and Delegate.
Discuss, Decide, and Do.
 
  5
Work Products
Individual
Collective
 
  6
Focus on
Accomplishing individual goals.
Accomplishing team goals.
 
  7
Accountability
Individually
Either individually or mutually
 
  8
Level
Intelligence 
Very smart 
 
 
For example, Cricket team, team for accomplishing a project, team of doctors, management
team, etc.

Similarities between a Group and Team

 Two or more than two persons.

 Interaction of members.
 Face to face relationship.
 Focus on the achievement of an objective.
  Leader
 Sharing of information and resources

Conclusion
A team is qualitatively different from a group. A team plays a very vital role in the life of the
members. The team members motivate the members for working creatively and actively
participating in the team tasks. Moreover, a team stimulates the members to work for/with
one another in achieving an objective. 

The Group is also not less; the group also helps the members in developing a sense of
conformity between the members and respects the group values. It increases their resistance
to change. Above all, the power of a group is always more than an individual.
 
SKILLS YOU NEED FOR BUILDING THE BEST
TEAM
Teamwork is essential for almost every job and career imaginable. The ability to work as part
of a team is one of the most valuable skills an employer will look for when hiring new
employees, so it’s worth taking the time to develop the skills you will need for effective
teamwork. Whether you’re looking for your dream job or hoping to get a promotion, these
three skills are essential for success when working in a team environment.

Communication Skills 
Communication skills are crucial for dealing with coworkers, customers, and clients, as well
as your boss. The ability to express your ideas, whether verbally or in writing is essential for
showing other people what you can do. Learning how to communicate effectively is an
interactive process, which means that you also need to learn how to listen and understand
what other people are saying. 
Communication skills are verbal and not verbal. The words only contribute 7, voice 38, and
body language 55.  
 
Your worth will increase by 50 percent 
if you can communicate effectively.
Warren Buffet 
 
 
1. Communication is not just about speaking, it is about Listening. The tongue is one
compared to two ears. Natures tell you to listen twice as much as you speak. 
 
Silence is the language of God, all else is poor translation.
Rumi 
 
Listen to silence; it has so much to say
RUMI
 
2. There are two things to consider media and medium. Media is a form of communication
and medium is the language. 
3. Media is the vehicle and it could be face to face, social media, telephone, print, etc.
Medium is verbal or nonverbal. In verbal you could use appropriate language.  
4. The selection of location and timing is also very important in effective communication. 
5. Reaction and Response can be learned, Reaction is immediate impulse and at once,
Response is a well-thought reply to a situation. 
 
It is not what you say but it is how you say it.
 
 
1. Relationship Building

Good professional relationships are an important part of creating a productive work

environment. Interpersonal skills are necessary for effective teamwork, as well as networking
and work-related social events. Interpersonal skills are defined as skills we use every day.
Interpersonal skills are traits you rely on when you interact and communicate with others.
They cover a variety of scenarios where communication and cooperation are essential.
Some examples of interpersonal skills include:
1. Active listening
2. Responsibility
3. Dependability
4. Flexibility
5. Patience
6. Empathy
In a work environment, strong interpersonal skills are an asset that can help you navigate
complexity, change, and day-to-day tasks. 
Interpersonal skills are the skills we use every day when we communicate and interact with
other people, both individually and in groups. They include a wide range of skills, but
particularly communication skills such as listening and effective speaking. They also include
the ability to control and manage your emotions.

There was time IQ and now we are about EQ and SQ. 

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a value that indicates a person's ability to learn, understand, and
apply information and skills in a meaningful way. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a way to
measure how a person recognizes emotions in himself or herself and others and manages
these emotional states to work better as a group or team. 

The major difference between EQ and IQ is what part of a person's mental abilities they
measure: understanding emotion or understanding information.
 
The most valuable interpersonal skills include assertiveness, negotiation, conflict resolution,
and non-verbal communication skills, such as body language, facial expressions, and
gestures. As with communication skills, there are plenty of courses and books that will help
you to develop your interpersonal skills.
 
 3. Feedback Exchange

Learning to accept criticism and feedback is an important part of professional development.

Many people are afraid of negative feedback or become angry when they feel they are being
criticized, but you can use this feedback to improve relationships with your coworkers. By
accepting criticism graciously, you will create a more open and honest work environment
where other members of your team feel free to express their opinions. Accepting criticism
doesn’t mean that you have to agree with the points made; it simply means accepting another
person’s point of view. 
 
The ability to give constructive feedback and criticism to your coworkers is also important
for creating a strong and productive team. Focus on using positive language when providing
feedback, as negative words and accusations can make the recipient feel defensive, which
will obstruct open discussion.
 

What Manager Do? 

 The Vroom-Yetton Decision Model

DECIDING HOW TO DECIDE

© GettyImages
 ExtremePhotographer
Steer your decision-making process in the right direction.
 
How you go about making a decision can involve as many choices as the decision itself.
Sometimes you have to take charge and decide what to do on your own, but you don't want to
appear autocratic to your team (particularly in situations where you need their input). At other
times it's better to make a decision based on the group consensus, but this can use up precious
time and resources. So how do you decide which approach is best?
Every manager needs to be able to make good decisions. A systematic approach to decision
making, such as the Vroom-Yetton Decision Model, allows you to bring consistency and
order to a process that might otherwise feel idiosyncratic and instinctive. It can also help you
to determine the most effective means of reaching a decision.
UNDERSTANDING THE MODEL
The Vroom-Yetton model is designed to help you to identify the best decision-making
approach and leadership style to take, based on your current situation. It was originally
developed by Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton in their 1973 book, "Leadership and
Decision Making."
No single decision-making process fits every scenario. Instead, Vroom-Yetton offers many
different processes and directs you toward the best one for your situation. For example, if
speed and decisiveness are required then it will likely point you toward an autocratic process.
If collaboration is what's needed, then it will nudge you toward a more democratic process.
Researchers have found that managers are more effective, and their teams more productive
and satisfied when they follow the model. The simplicity of Vroom-Yetton also means that
anyone – from the boardroom to the factory floor – can use it.
Although a little long-winded at times, it can be particularly helpful in new or unusual
situations. Practice using it, and you'll quickly get a feel for the right approach to take,
whether you're making a decision about a day-to-day issue or dealing with a more complex
problem.
Before you start using the model, you'll need to consider these three factors:
·        Decision quality – Sometimes, making the "right" decision is critical, and you'll need
to use a large number of resources (people, time, information, and so on) to ensure that the
action you take has been well thought through and is of high quality.
·        Team commitment – Some of your decisions will have a major impact on your team,
while others will go unnoticed. When a decision will likely impact your team, it's best to use
a collaborative process. This will improve the quality of the decision, and you'll likely deliver
a successful result faster.
·        Time constraints – When the issue at hand isn't time-sensitive, you have more "space"
to research your options and to include others, which will help to boost the quality of your
decision. If your time is limited, however, it may not be feasible to include others or to
undertake thorough research.
SPECIFIC LEADERSHIP PROCESSES
Figure 1, below, shows the Vroom-Yetton model. The framework poses seven "yes/no"
questions, which you need to answer to find the best decision-making process for your
situation.
As you answer each of the questions, you work your way through a decision tree until you
arrive at a code (A1, A2, C1, C2, or G2). This code identifies the best decision-making
process for you and your team. (Note that, in some scenarios, you won't need to answer all of
the questions.)
Figure 1: The Vroom-Yetton Decision Model

  
The Vroom-Yetton Decision Tree: Adapted from Leadership and Decision Making by Victor
H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton by permission of the University of Pittsburgh Press.
Copyright © 1973 University of Pittsburgh Press.
Download Diagram
The following codes represent the five decision-making processes that are described by the
model:
Autocratic (A1): You use the information that you already have to make the decision,
without requiring any further input from your team.
Autocratic (A2): You consult your team to obtain the specific information that you need,
and then you make the final decision.
Consultative (C1): You inform your team of the situation and ask for members' opinions
individually, but you don't bring the group together for a discussion. You make the final
decision.
Consultative (C2): You get your team together for a group discussion about the issue and to
seek their suggestions, but you still make the final decision by yourself.
Collaborative (G2): You work with your team to reach a group consensus. Your role is
mostly facilitative, and you help team members to reach a decision that they all agree on.
 
In general, a consultative or collaborative style is most appropriate when:
· You need information from others to solve a problem.
· The problem can't be easily defined.
· Team members' buy-in to the decision is important.
· You have enough time available to manage a group decision.
An autocratic style is most appropriate when:
· You have greater expertise on the subject than others.
· You are confident about acting alone.
· The team will accept your decision.
· There is little time available.
Note:

Vroom-Yetton is a useful model, but it's not necessarily appropriate for all eventualities. It
misses out several important considerations, and its rigid structure means that it fails to take
into account subtleties, such as the emotions and dynamics of your team, and the task’s
complexity. The seven questions are imprecise, too – "importance" and "quality," for
example, are vague terms – and it can be difficult to give straight "yes" or "no" answers to
them.
Vroom and Arthur Jago addressed these weaknesses and amended the original model in their
1988 book, "The New Leadership." The newer model is more complex and includes several
additional questions, which allow users to take other constraints, such as geographic location,
into account when making their decision. It also uses a mathematical formula to help people
to pinpoint the optimum decision-making process for their situation. The newer version of the
model is often referred to as either Vroom-Jago or Vroom-Yetton-Jago.
Key Points

The underlying assumption of the Vroom-Yetton Decision Model is that no single leadership
style or decision-making process fits all situations.
To find the process best suited to your situation, you need to consider some factors. These
include time constraints, the level of team participation required, and the quality of the final
decision.
The model walks you through these factors logically, to help you to identify the most
appropriate process and style. It is particularly useful for managers and leaders who are trying
to balance the benefits of participative management with the need to make decisions
effectively.
 INFOGRAPHIC
You can see our infographic of the Vroom-Yetton Model here:
  
This site teaches you the skills you need for a happy and successful career; and this is just one
of many tools and resources that you'll find here at Mind Tools. Subscribe to our free
newsletter, or join the Mind Tools Club and supercharge your career
Article and tools to Boost Success
Self Confidence -Key to success is Confidence
What is Self Confidence? 
Having a trust yourself is self-confidence and it goes low for many different reasons and
some of the reasons are 
Factors which lower your Self Confidence 
1. Past Bad Memories and Experiences
2. Lack of Focus 
3. Lack of preparation 
4. Criticism and lack to support 
5. Lack of self Respect 
6. Overreacting 
 
 
How to Rebuild your Self Confidence – Confidence Building Measures  
Building self-confidence is like building your body, one muscle at a time and painful 

1. Change your Thinking

 
a. Take control of your thoughts 
 Reality Check one area of lack shadows others 
 Bad Past creates regret and the future creates anxiety
 Live for the moments  
1. You are what you think

b. Change your Attitude about yourself and situation and others

 How do you look at yourself – self-bashing 
 If you do not respect yourself nobody will
 Focus on strengths that some area of confidence 

2. Change your Behaviors 
- Action Steps 
 
1. Divide and conquer 
o Identify your area of lack of confidence 
o Make an action plan of small steps 
o Practice makes it perfect 
 
2. Leave your comfort zone
o Social Circle and social media circle  
3. Have a Role model - Practice more 
4. Do God’s work 
o Giveaway your time 
and advice, smile and your respect if you cannot give money  
5. Failure is Part of the Game  
6. Set Small target and upon achieving reward yourself 
 
Improvement comes slowly but gradually.
 
Self-confidence waxes and wanes and takes work to build, develop, and maintain. We
all experience moments which challenge our confidence, however, when we understand
the sources of healthy self-confidence we can always work on cultivating it within
ourselves.
 
 
Ways to Improve Productivity
There’s nothing more important to a small business than its employees. If your employees are
happy, their productivity will increase, and that’s exactly what you need to help your business
grow. Making small changes to habits will drastically improve the levels of productivity and
office efficiency in your business. This will allow you to get more quality work done in a
shorter period as well as reduce the amount of time spent on unnecessary tasks.
Here are eight top tips on how to get the most out of your employees and ensure that their
productivity is kept to a maximum:

Be Efficient
Consider how your business is currently operating, and be open to the potential of changing
the way you work. Remember that it’s equally as important to make short-term and long-term
lists as it is to prioritize tasks, especially in a small business. Is there a better way that staff
members could structure their day to enable them to achieve their daily goals? Provide each
member of staff with a plan and encourage each to make a list to ensure he or she completes
prioritized jobs on time and stays on task all day, resulting in efficient working.

Delegate
Delegation comes with an element of risk, but increased responsibility is important for
improving the morale and job satisfaction of your staff. Give responsibilities to qualified
employees that have a proven track record with success in a certain field, and trust that they
will perform the tasks well. If you allow employees the chance to gain skills and leadership
experience, it will benefit your company and provide your employees with a sense of
achievement and direction in their careers.

Reduce Distractions
Social media can be a huge productivity killer, but it isn’t practical to have a no-phone policy.
Instead, try to keep employees focused and engaged while allowing them breathing room.
Encourage employees to turn off their mobiles but take regular breaks during which they can
be free to check their phones. This will ensure that the time spent at their desk is more
productive.

Have the Right Tools and Equipment

Providing employees with the right tools and equipment is important so they can perform
their duties efficiently and on time. There’s nothing more counterproductive than spending
time waiting for paperwork to print because you haven’t got a fast printing device. High-
quality, modern programs and equipment make a massive difference not only to the
workforce but also to how your company is perceived. Save time and effort by using
equipment such as an MFP, which can work as a printer, scanner, copier, and fax machine.

Improve workplace conditions

A comfortable working temperature is between 68 and 70 degrees F (20-21 C). An
environment that’s too hot or too cold distracts from concentration, as employees will spend
more time walking around to get their coats or an electric fan. Ensure both heating and air-
conditioning systems are in working order for when the relevant season comes around.

Offer Support and Set Realistic Goals

A common problem for managers is having no clear, strong sense of whether their employees
are high-performing or not. Do your employees need an incentive to stay on track? Help them
by offering achievable goals. Provide clear direction to supervisors and employees to help
clarify expectations. This will help to increase their productivity, as they will have a clear
focus and clear goals.

Practice Positive Reinforcement

Encourage, motivate, and reward. Tell employees they are doing a good job and give
constructive criticism. Most importantly, offer personal incentives for doing the job well –
could they get a free holiday or a free takeout coffee for performing above and beyond their
roles? You should indicate the success of one employee to other staff to cultivate a sense of
fulfillment to motivate others. When you motivate your employees to work harder and
receive rewards in return, they’re more likely to put increased productivity high up on their
to-do list.

Ensure Employees Are Happy

A stressful workplace will not yield results. Workers that constantly operate under highly
stressful conditions are found to be less productive and have higher levels of disengagement
and absenteeism … They need to be happy!. Showing employees how much the company
appreciates, respects, and values them on a personal level is gratifying – and often
overlooked. If you want your staff to work to the best of their ability, try out a few of these
tips, and enjoy the benefits.
Habits of Highly Productive People: What Efficient People Have in
Common

We’ve all known that person who always seems to be getting things done.
 Whether a friend or a colleague, this is the person whose work is always done early. The one
who somehow manages to finish hour-long tasks in 20 minutes. The one people describe as a
robot or machine because surely no simple human could work as quickly as they do. And yet
these people exist, cranking away at maximum efficiency. How do the most efficient people
overcome challenges like:
 Procrastinating on tasks—both small, nagging ones and large, challenging ones
 Boring work that needs just to get done
 Responding to email and other messages while working
 Staying motivated and energized throughout the entire workday
 Focusing and finishing the most important projects on their plates
As much as I would like to claim the status of “highly productive person,” the best I can do is
say: I’m working on it. But from reading articles, checking out books, and asking questions
of productive people, I’ve pulled together the best advice I could find on their productivity
habits.
What follows are 18 of the most important habits of highly productive people. From ways to
spend less time on emails to methods of staying focused, these productivity tips can help you
maximize your efficiency — and get more done.
You can’t become more productive overnight. But if you make small changes and put some
of these habits into place, you’ll be well on your way to becoming more efficient.
Increase productivity and become highly efficient with these habits:
1. Focus on the most important tasks first
2. Cultivate deep work
3. Keep a distraction list to stay focused
4. Use the Eisenhower Matrix to identify long-term priorities
5. Use the 80/20 rule
6. Break tasks into smaller pieces
7. Take breaks
8. Make fewer decisions
9. Eliminate inefficient communication
10. Find repeatable shortcuts
11. Learn from successes as well as mistakes
12. Plan for when things go wrong
13. Work before you get motivated or inspired
14. Don’t multitask
15. Fill the tank — recharge
16. Sharpen the axe
17. Manage your energy (not just time)
18. Get better at saying “no”
19. Focus on the most important tasks (MITs) first
You probably didn’t go to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology — but MIT can help
you be more productive. The theory behind Most Important Tasks is that any given to-do list
has some tasks that are more important than others. If you focus on simply checking off to-do
list items, you’ll end up with a mix of important and less important tasks completed. It also
exposes you to the potential for procrastination — it’s easy to spend the whole day checking
off easy, less important to-dos instead of buckling down on the hard stuff.
Instead, spend a few minutes at the beginning of your day to choose 1–3 MITs — the things
that, no matter what, you need to finish by the end of the day.

Cultivate deep work

Some tasks are just hard. There’s no substitute for deep work.
Everybody has a few daily to-dos that could be almost be knocked out while sleeping. These
are the tasks that you need podcasts to get through — if anything, they’re hard to get yourself
to do because they’re not especially interesting. At the same time, some tasks are just
difficult. You can’t multitask your way to finishing them. You need to devote serious time
and mental effort to knock them out of the park. These tasks are called “deep work.”

Keep a distraction list to stay focused

With emails, social media, and a thousand little to-dos, it’s easy to get distracted when you’re
trying to be productive. Whether you’re trying to focus on deep work or just dealing with
smaller tasks, distractions are the bane of productivity. It’s hard to maintain efficient work
habits with distractions around. One powerful method of reducing distractions is creating a
“distraction list.”

Keep this list — whether it’s a Google Doc or a physical piece of paper — nearby while
you’re working. Whenever a distracting thought pops up, write it down on the list and get
back to work.

Use the Eisenhower Matrix to identify long-term priorities

One of the dangers of productivity is a focus on the short term. As management legend Peter
Drucker once said, “there is nothing so useless as doing efficiently that which should not be
done at all.” When you study productivity habits, it’s easy to fall into that trap.
On any given workday, it’s easy to get caught up in things that seem important right now.

The Eisenhower Matrix, used by Dwight Eisenhower to make decisions during his time as a
general, was popularized by Stephen Covey’s book The 7 Habits of Highly Effective
People. It helps you to quickly determine what you should work on and what you should
ignore.
To create an Eisenhower Matrix, make a 2 x 2 square. On one axis, write “important” and
“not important.” On the other, “urgent” and “not urgent.”
  Source: Develop Good Habits
Organizing your to-do list based on each task’s importance and urgency can help you identify
time-sinks that aren’t worth it.

Use the 80/20 rule

Another way to prioritize tasks comes from the 80/20 principle. Discovered by Italian
economist Vilfredo Pareto, the 80/20 rule (also called the Pareto Principle) states that, in any
pursuit, 80% of the results will come from 20% of the efforts. To maximize efficiency, highly
productive people identify the most important 20% of their work. Then, they look at ways to
cut down the other 80% of their schedule, to find more time for the things that make the
biggest impact.

Break tasks into smaller pieces

There are a variety of reasons that people procrastinate, but one of the most important is that
the tasks on their to-do list just seem too daunting. If you have to-do list items that are large
in scope and not very specific, tackling those tasks becomes challenging. You look at the
item and think 

“I don’t even know where to start.”

You can start by breaking large to-dos into smaller to-dos. Set small goals for each task.

If I have a to-do list item labeled “write a blog post on productivity,” it’s easy to (ironically)
put it off — because there are a few different places I could start.

Take breaks
Nobody, not even highly productive people, can focus for eight hours straight. It simply isn’t
possible. No matter how many efficient habits you build, you can’t maintain distraction-free
focus for that long. That’s why taking breaks is so important (and research shows it makes
people more productive). Even breaks that are just a few minutes long can help you recharge
and come up with new ideas. Be proactive about taking breaks. When you take breaks, it’s
important to make them structured and deliberate. It’s easy to justify distractions as “taking a
break.” But if you don’t have that break time scheduled, you may be just getting distracted.

Methods like the Pomodoro Technique can help. The Pomodoro Technique suggests 25-
minute blocks of work, with short 5 minute breaks. You work intensely for a specific amount
of time, followed by intentionally not working for a shorter amount of time. 
Scheduling breaks can keep you fresh and productive throughout an entire day.
1. Make fewer decisions (about things that aren’t important)
While he was President, Barack Obama once told Vanity Fair that he never decides what to
wear: “You’ll see I wear only gray or blue suits,” [Obama] said. “I’m trying to pare down
decisions. I don’t want to make decisions about what I’m eating or wearing. Because I have
too many other decisions to make.”

If you’re trying to decide between two books to read, Sethi would say: “read them both.”
There’s no point in wasting your decision-making energy on the unimportant.

Eliminate inefficient communication (spend less time on email)

Another is to become more efficient in your email communications, to begin with. In other
words: Send better emails. Have you ever tried to schedule a meeting, then sent another five
emails back and forth to set a specific time and place?

What if you could reduce the number of emails it takes to schedule simple meetings? Or
make each email more precise, so that there’s less back and forth before you get to the real
work? Highly productive people reduce the number of emails they send by making each
email clearer and more valuable. That might mean each email takes a few more minutes to
write — but it also ultimately saves time.

Find repeatable shortcuts — automate tasks

If you find yourself doing the same things over and over, look for ways to do those things
faster.
This can be as simple as learning common keyboard shortcuts or involve automating entire
sections of your business.
  
 
 
What are some ways you can find shortcuts? Here are a few potential examples:
 Put together standard operating procedures for common tasks, so you can quickly follow
checklists instead of working from scratch
 Delegate tasks to interns or other employees where appropriate. (Just make sure you follow
up with and update your team regularly.)
 Learn simple keyboard shortcuts that come up often. I like using “command + shift + t” to
open a recently closed tab, or “command + option + 2” to create a heading in Google docs.
 Increase your typing speed — it seems obvious, but the difference between 60 and 90 words
per minute is huge. A game like Typeracer can help (warning: it’s addictive).
 Use technology to take care of repetitive tasks
Repetitive tasks are great candidates for shortcuts, delegation, or automation. Knocking them
off your schedule can save you lots of time and energy.

Learn from successes as well as mistakes

One of the challenges of highly productive people is ensuring that fast work is also good to
work.

When you’re working quickly, you open yourself up to making mistakes. Highly productive
people tackle that risk by learning and improving at every possible moment — so that
producing good work becomes intuitive. Learning from mistakes is obvious (although of
course valuable). When something goes wrong, analyzing the mistakes and looking for ways
to prevent them is a massively valuable learning experience. As important, and much less
common, is learning from successes. When something goes well, why?

Plan for when things go wrong

It happens to everyone. You have big plans for today — it’s going to be your most productive
day yet — but then little fires start popping up and demanding your attention.

Whether your furnace breaks and you need to call a repairman, a last-minute meeting pops
up, or you forgot to schedule in time for lunch — sometimes things go wrong. Highly
productive people acknowledge the planning fallacy: The fact that everyone underestimates
how long it will take to finish tasks. Research on the planning fallacy shows that a lot of the
reason for this misestimation is that we forget to take into account tasks or responsibilities
that aren’t yet on our calendars.

Work before you get motivated or inspired

A lot of people looking to get more productive habits to talk about needing to get inspired or
motivated. Highly productive people instead focus on getting started — whether they’re
motivated or not. It means that you don’t need to tackle everything at once. When you are
having trouble getting motivated, it’s often because you are looking at the massive scope of a
project.
That’s intimidating. It’s hard to get started when faced with the enormity of a task. Lamott
tells writers not to worry about inspiration or motivation. Just start writing in the smallest
possible way. Even if you need to start by describing your shoes, getting words — any words
— on the page is the first step.

Don’t multitask
With so many distractions in our surroundings, it’s tempting to fall into the trap of
multitasking. Don’t. The research on multitasking is clear: people are bad at it.

The reason is that “multitasking” is misnamed. When you try to multitask, you aren’t doing
two things at once — you’re rapidly switching your focus between two things.

Every time you switch, you have to re-focus on the new task. Because it takes a few minutes
to get up to speed on a task, these “switching costs” make multitasking extremely inefficient.

Are there times where multitasking is ok? Probably.

If you’re cleaning your apartment while listening to an audiobook, you’re probably going to
do just fine. The reason is that the two tasks — cleaning and listening — don’t use the same
mental resources. But if you’re writing an email while trying to follow the words in a
podcast, both tasks are competing for your language resources — your work will slow down
and quality will suffer. It also zaps your energy and makes your brain more tired, which
means that you slow yourself down on future tasks, too.

Fill the tank — recharge

Productivity tactics, email templates, and prioritization are valuable methods of improving
your productivity. But they won’t help if you aren’t taking care of yourself. Highly
productive people spend time recharging. That means getting enough sleep every night,
exercising, and eating healthy. If you aren’t thinking straight or have trouble focusing, take a
look at your habits. I know that 7 or 8 hours of sleep just isn’t enough for me — I need closer
to 9, and missing out on sleep affects my productivity for days.

Sharpen the axe

There’s a famous quote attributed to Abraham Lincoln that goes:
By spending a lot of time reading, becoming more knowledgeable, and getting better at their
trade, they were able to make faster and more accurate decisions. As Munger once said:
“Neither Warren nor I am smart enough to make the decisions with no time to think. We
make actual decisions very rapidly, but that’s because we’ve spent so much time preparing
ourselves by quietly sitting and reading and thinking.”. Dedicate time to improving, and
you’ll be able to respond more efficiently to a variety of situations.

Manage your energy (not just time)

Productivity tip – manage your energy, not just your time tweet THIS!
Time management is a huge part of productivity. Many of the productivity habits on this list
will help you manage your time more effectively.
But just as important — and often overlooked — is energy management.
  
If you are exhausted and can barely think, it doesn’t matter how many hours are left in the
day. You won’t be able to use them productively.
This is the logic of tackling difficult tasks early in the day — by using your peak hours
efficiently, you can get more done in less time before you get tired. Jason Fried, founder, and
CEO of Basecamp says that:
“While people often say there’s not enough time, remember that you’ll always have less
attention than time.”
Highly productive people know that it isn’t enough to have time to do things. Managing your
energy — to ensure that you tackle the most intense tasks while you have the energy to
handle them — is an important trick to becoming productive.

Get better at saying “no”

Productivity tip – get better at saying no, even when it's uncomfortable tweets THIS! 

It’s so tempting to say yes.

New projects and opportunities crop up all the time. It’s easy to get excited by the
possibilities — and then wind up with too many commitments.

Saying no is hard. It means consciously setting things aside so that you have the time to work
on your most important priorities. Expert Mark Shead from Productivity501 had this to say
about the importance of saying no:
CONCLUSION: HOW TO BE MORE PRODUCTIVE
Highly productive people can seem like magicians or robots. Most of the time, the most
efficient people you meet have managed to find ways to overcome procrastination and other
challenges.
Our productivity tips come down to 4 main things. Here’s how to be more productive:
1. Manage your time well
2. Make better to-do lists
3. Take care of yourself
4. Be proactive
And one more tip: Know when to ask for help.
Smart people ask for help. Productive people admit when they don’t know something. When
you ask for help instead of trying to struggle through something on your own, you save time
(and frustration). Make sure you know who and what your resources are — and make asking
for help a habit. To recap, here are the 18 work habits that highly productive people use to
become more efficient:
1. Focus on the most important tasks (MITs) first
2. Cultivate deep work
3. Keep a distraction list
4. Use the Eisenhower Matrix
5. Use the 80/20 rule
6. Break tasks into smaller pieces
7. Take breaks
8. Make fewer unimportant decisions
9. Eliminate inefficient communication
10. Find repeatable shortcuts
11. Learn from successes as well as mistakes
12. Plan for when things go wrong
13. Work without getting motivated or inspired
14. Don’t multitask
15. Fill the tank and recharge
16. Sharpen the axe and improve constantly
17. Manage energy as well as time
18. Get better at saying “no”

Top 5 Managerial Dilemmas

 
Whether you’re managing your own company or one department within the regional office of
an international corporation, there are universal challenges every supervisor faces. These
difficulties test the mettle and resourcefulness of even the most seasoned and skilled
supervisor. The following guidelines will help you handle the top five managerial dilemmas
swiftly and effectively.
 
1. Conflicts between employees.
 Individual differences in employees’ abilities, temperaments, and work styles can frequently
lead to tension and problems on the job. When coworkers clash, you face a dual dilemma —
you must deal with the immediate issue as well as prevent fall-out that could negatively affect
the rest of your staff.

 Meet individually with every employee involved and, without assigning blame, restate the
situation as you see it. Give each person the chance to give his or her side of the story. Listen
as objectively as possible, even if you disagree with certain viewpoints. Then, encourage the
parties to collectively brainstorm ways to resolve the problem. Emphasize that your goal is
not to decide who’s right and who’s wrong, but to help the teamwork together more
harmoniously. Although you should guide the discussion, make sure they understand that it is
their responsibility to reach an agreement. If the conflict proves to be intractable, you may
ultimately have to reassign or transfer one or more of the individuals.
 
2. Low morale.
 
 
Many factors can cause a decline in morale, including downsizing or uncertainty about a
company’s future. When employees are demoralized, they are likely to fall into a self-
perpetuating cycle of inefficiency and low productivity. Turnover may increase as staff
members seek more secure jobs elsewhere. As a manager, you must take decisive action to
reverse such trends and bolster spirits.

 Meet with your staff and acknowledge that the company has been through a difficult period.
Thank them for persevering and continuing to do their best. If you honestly can, reassure
them that the situation has stabilized. If this is not the case or if you are not in a position to
comment, avoid making promises you won’t be able to keep as your staff may be further
demoralized by assertions that eventually prove to be untrue.
 On an ongoing basis, remember to always recognize and reward good performance. A simple
thank you or public comment about a job well done can help boost lagging morale.

3. Performance problems.
 Most managers have at least one staff member who doesn’t perform up to his or her
potential. The best strategy for dealing with this dilemma is to hold periodic performance
reviews. Schedule a private meeting with the employee and review recent activity. Start by
recognizing instances when the person exceeded expectations and explain why you value this
type of behavior. Then discuss problematic areas. Together with the individual, establish
performance goals, and discuss how to monitor progress. Set up another review session as a
check-point.

 There will be times when no amount of monitoring can reverse weak performance. When
you don’t see an appreciable change after ample time and numerous efforts to assist the
worker, termination may be the best option. An underperforming employee is generally an
unhappy one, and this can negatively impact the rest of your staff.
4. Chronic tardiness/absenteeism.
Most employees are late or absent from time to time, but if one of your employees comes in
late with alarming regularity or has a high frequency of absence, you must take action. Meet
privately and say that you’re concerned about the situation. Give him or her a chance to
explain the tardiness or absences — a compelling personal reason (family problems or a
medical condition, for example) may be the root cause. If that’s the case, express your
support and discuss ways that the person can still meet his or her job-related responsibilities.
If the employee has no reasonable explanation, reiterate the company policy and state that
habitual tardiness or absence will not be tolerated. Be prepared to take the necessary
disciplinary action if the problem persists.
 
5. A top performer hands in her resignation.
 When one of your most talented, valuable employees breaks the news that he or she has
decided to accept a position elsewhere, your first instinct may be to make a counteroffer or
try to persuade him or her to stay. But if an employee is determined to move on, neither of
these strategies will affect. Although it’s difficult to lose a good staff member, you must
realize that people’s professional and personal goals change over time. Ask if the employee
would be willing to stay on long enough to help train a replacement. At the very least, he or
she should tie up as many loose ends as possible and provide you with a final status report on
unfinished projects. Conduct an exit interview, being sure to ask what made the employee
decide to leave. Pay close attention to the answer in case it points to a situation you have the
power to change (for example, the individual felt there were no further opportunities for
advancement). Finally, request their new contact information, so that the person remains part
of your professional network. No business is immune from dilemmas that, if not handled
wisely and in a timely fashion, could cause decreased productivity, low employee morale,
and diminished profitability. But by responding strategically, you’ll find that such problems
arise less frequently and pose little threat to your company’s continued stability and success.

Repetition “PLZ SEE”

 Chapter 10- Key
Critical Thinking
Skills

1. Problem Solving Skills and Critical Thinking 

What Is Problem Solving?

The simple definition is 

“An unwanted situation or a
matter, if not solved, can
cause harmful”

So there is a need to solve and needing to be dealt with and overcome. A problem could be personal in
nature and professional in nature.  

If there is anything which is disrupting the process is called the bottlenecks. The problem could
technical or non-technical, soft or hard, individual or group. 
The speed of the car is measured with the slowest wheel.

“Problem is an opportunity in work clothes”

The most common management problems are as follows:

1. Poor communication between various sections.

2. Constant change (moving the goalposts).
3. Too much to do; not enough time to do it.
4. Difficult people who don't do what you want them to do.
5. Poor morale
6. Lack of organization 
7. Low Motivation 

Strong problem-solving skills can make a huge difference in a manger's career. Find its cause or
getting to the root of the problem. Differentiate between symptoms and causes. Problems are hidden
in symptoms and we need to find causes of the problem. 

Problems are at the centre of what many people do at work every day. Whether you're solving a
problem for a client, supporting those who are solving problems or discovering new problems to
solve, the problems you face can be large or small, simple or complex, and easy or difficult. Being a
confident problem solver is an asset and much of that confidence comes from having a good process
to use when approaching a problem. With one, you can solve problems quickly and effectively. Being
faced with a problem becomes a problem. 

Here are seven-steps for an effective problem-solving process.

Step 1. Refining the Problem- Understanding Problem/Finding Core of the problem 

Step 2. List the possible solutions (options)
Step 3. Evaluate the options.
Step 4. Select an option or options.
Step 5. Document the agreement(s).
Step 6. Agree on contingencies, monitoring, and evaluation.

Step 1. Defining the Problem

The key to a good problem definition is ensuring that you deal with the real problem – not its
symptoms. However, if you look a bit deeper, the real issue might be a lack of training or an
unreasonable workload. There are many tools to define a problem including 1) 5 Whys, 2)
Appreciation, 3) Root Cause Analysis 4) Affinity Diagram, etc to help ask the right questions, and
work through the layers of a problem to uncover what's going on. 

Here is the detail of 5 Ways and Root Cause Analysis 

1.1 5 Whys 

SAKICHI TOYODA, the Japanese industrialist, inventor, and founder of Toyota Industries,
developed the 5 Whys technique in the 1930s. It became popular in the 1970s, and Toyota still uses it
to solve problems today. Toyota has a "go and see" philosophy. This means that its decision making is
based on an in-depth understanding of what's happening on the shop floor, rather than on what
someone in a boardroom thinks might be happening.

The 5 Whys technique is true to this tradition, and it is most effective when the answers come from
people who have hands-on experience of the process or problem in question. The method is
remarkably simple: when a problem occurs, you drill down to its root cause by asking "Why?" five
times. 

1.2 When and how to use the 5 Whys

You can use 5 Whys for troubleshooting, quality improvement, and problem-solving, but it is most
effective when used to resolve simple or moderately difficult problems. The tool's simplicity gives it
great flexibility, too, and 5 Whys combines well with other methods and techniques, such as Root
Cause Analysis. It is often associated with Lean Manufacturing, where it is used to identify and
eliminate wasteful practices. It is also used in the analysis phase of the Six Sigma quality
improvement methodology.

The model follows a very simple seven-step process:

1. Assemble a Team
Gather together people who are familiar with the specifics of the problem, and with the process that
you're trying to fix. Include someone to act as a facilitator, who can keep the team focused on
identifying effective counter-measures.

2. Define the Problem

If you can, observe the problem in action. Discuss it with your team and write a brief, clear problem
statement that you all agree on. For example, "Team A isn't meeting its response time targets" or
"Software release B resulted in too many rollback failures." Then, write your statement on a
whiteboard or sticky note, leaving enough space around it to add your answers to the repeated
question, "Why?"

3. Ask the First "Why?"

Ask your team why the problem is occurring. (For example, "Why isn't Team A meeting its response
time targets?"). Asking "Why?" sounds simple, but answering it requires serious thought. Search for
answers that are grounded in fact: they must be accounts of things that have happened, not guesses at
what might have happened.

This prevents 5 Whys from becoming just a process of deductive reasoning, which can generate a
large number of possible causes and, sometimes, create more confusion as you chase down
hypothetical problems.

4. Ask "Why?" Four More Times

For each of the answers that you generated in Step 3, ask four further "whys" in succession. Each
time, frame the question in response to the answer you've just recorded. The diagram below, shows an
example of 5 Whys in action, following a single line of inquiry.

           

1.3 Cause and Effect Analysis

Identifying the Likely Causes of Problems, (Also known as Cause and Effect Diagrams, Fishbone
Diagrams, Ishikawa Diagrams, Herringbone Diagrams, and Fishikawa Diagrams.). Cause and Effect
Analysis was devised by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa, a pioneer of quality management, in the 1960s.
The technique was then published in his 1990 book, "Introduction to Quality Control." When you
have a serious problem, it's important to explore all of the things that could cause it, before you start
to think about a solution". 

1.4 When and how to Use Cause and Effect Analysis 

Cause and Effect Analysis gives you a useful way of doing this. This diagram-based technique, which
combines brainstorming with a type of Mind Map, pushes you to consider all possible causes of a
problem, rather than just the most obvious ones. It is used if the nature of the problem is complex.
Follow these steps to solve a problem with Cause and Effect Analysis:

1: Identify the Problem

First, write down the exact problem you face. Where appropriate, identify who is involved, what the
problem is, and when and where it occurs.

2: Work Out the Major Factors Involved

Next, identify the factors that may be part of the problem. These may be systems, equipment,
materials, external forces, people involved with the problem, and so on. Brainstorm any other factors
that may affect the situation.

Then draw a line off the "spine" of the diagram for each factor, and label each line.
  
3: Identify Possible Causes
Now, for each of the factors, you considered in step 2, brainstorm possible causes of the problem that
may be related to the factor. Show these possible causes as shorter lines coming off the "bones" of the
diagram. Where a cause is large or complex, then it may be best to break it down into sub-causes.
Show these as lines coming off each cause line.

4: Analyze Your Diagram

By this stage, you should have a diagram showing all of the possible causes of the problem that you
can think of. Depending on the complexity and importance of the problem, you can now investigate
the most likely causes further. This may involve setting up investigations, carrying out surveys, and so
on. These will be designed to test which of these possible causes is contributing to the problem.

2. List the possible solutions (options)

This is the time to do some brainstorming. There may be lots of room for creativity. Separate the
listing of options from the evaluation of the options.

4. Evaluate the options.

What are the pluses and minuses? Honestly! Separate the evaluation of options from the selection of
options.

5. Select an option or options.

What's the best option, in the balance? Is there a way to "bundle" some options together for a more
satisfactory solution?

6. Document the agreement(s).

Don't rely on memory. Writing it down will help you think through all the details and implications.

7. Agree on contingencies, monitoring, and evaluation.

Conditions may change. Make contingency agreements about foreseeable future circumstances (If-
then!). Create opportunities to evaluate the agreements and their implementation. ("Let's try it this
way for three months and then look at it."). Effective problem solving does take some time and
attention more of the latter than the former. But less time and attention than is required by a problem
not well solved. What it takes is a willingness to slow down. If you're having trouble selecting an
option, you may have to go back to thinking about the interests. Don't worry if it feels a bit unfamiliar
and uncomfortable at first. You'll have lots of opportunities to practice!

Critical Thinking Skills You Need to Master

Now
Understanding how the five different thinking styles work can help you work better with
others, communicate more effectively, and achieve more.

In Coping with Difficult Bosses, ROBERT BRAHMSON identifies five thinking styles we use most

frequently.

The five thinking styles are:

 Synthesist Thinkers
 Idealist Thinkers
 Pragmatist Thinkers
 Analyst Thinkers
 Realist Thinkers

Synthesist Thinkers
Synthesists are very curious and creative. They tend not to think in logical, linear ways but often see
connections between things. Synthesists delight in finding relationships in things, which, to others,
have no apparent connection. They often veer off on tangents and love to ask ‘what if’ questions.
Synthesists are often seen as argumentative. However, they are looking at and analyzing a range of
different views and ideas. To others, it can often seem that their patterns of thought are somewhat
disjointed.

If you are a synthesist, it can help you to get along with others if you acknowledge the value of their
ideas before discussing alternatives. This can help you appear more interested in others’ views and
less argumentative.

If you work with a synthesist, understand that they are not being deliberately argumentative – they
just can’t help looking at problems from all angles.

Idealist Thinkers
Idealists often have very high standards and big goals. Others might see them as perfectionists but
they are trying to achieve the highest quality they can in everything they do. They also take a broad,
holistic view of things and tend to be future-oriented. Idealists also value cooperation and teamwork
so they will work hard to bring a team together and help everyone achieve their best.
If you are an idealist, it is important to understand that everyone doesn’t have such high standards
as you. You should try not to get upset when people fail to achieve your (sometimes unrealistic)
expectations.
If you work for an idealist, this can be quite difficult. It can seem as if your best efforts are never good
enough. However, working with an idealist can help you to strive to be the very best you can. It also
means that your opinion will be listened to and valued. You can also rely on idealists, to be honest
and to live up to high moral standards. This means you can trust them and always know they will
be honest with you.

Pragmatist Thinkers
Pragmatists focus on action. They like to tackle problems logically one step at a time. They like to
get things done and their approach is often flexible and adaptive. Pragmatists are not as interested in
why things happen or big picture problems as their idealist colleagues. They prefer to make progress
on one task at a time and look at things from a more short-term perspective.

If you are a pragmatist, you will be good at getting things done. However, it can be helpful to
occasionally view things from a wider viewpoint and take in the bigger picture. This can help you
understand where your actions are leading and ensure you are headed in the right direction.
If you work with a pragmatist, try to keep to the subject at hand. If you wander off into big ideas
and long-term plans your pragmatist colleague may become overwhelmed and give up altogether.

Analyst Thinkers
Analysts like to work with measurable facts methodically. They love facts and data, measuring, and
categorizing. They pay attention to detail and are thorough and accurate. Analysts
prefer predictability and rationality and will look for a method, a formula, or a procedure to solve a
particular problem.

If you are an analyst thinker, you will do everything thoroughly and accurately. However, you may
dismiss others whose attention to detail is not so good. This can be a shame because these
people’s ideas are valuable even if their work is not quite as accurate as yours.

If you work with an analyst, then double-check anything you show them for accuracy otherwise you
risk losing their respect. In discussions with them try to be logical and always present a plan for new
ideas as they can then grasp the concept better than if you just give them concepts.

Realist Thinkers
Realists make great problem solvers. They can think through problems quickly and act on the
results to fix whatever is wrong. However, realists easily become bored. They do not find
themselves challenged by run-of-the-mill issues, preferring to get their teeth into bigger problems. At
times, they may appear to be too results-oriented.

If you are a realist, it can be helpful to pause now and then. The first solution is not always the best
and sometimes you need to take in a bit more information before assessing the situation and coming
up with a plan.

If your work with a realist, you need to learn to get to the point quickly. They want you to summarize
the problem and not overload them with lots of details.

Putting the thinking styles to good use

For most people, one or two of these thinking styles dominate. However, fifteen percent of the
population uses all five thinking styles at some point.

Understanding your thinking style can help you broaden your horizons and be more receptive to the
ideas of others. Besides, understanding how others think can help you tailor any information you have
to share with them in such a way that they are most likely to take it on board.

What is critical thinking?

Even if you want to be a better critical thinker, it’s hard to improve upon something you can’t define.
Critical thinking is the analysis of an issue or situation and the facts, data, or evidence related to it.
Ideally, critical thinking is to be done objectively—meaning without influence from personal feelings,
opinions, or biases—and it focuses solely on factual information.

Critical thinking is a skill that allows you to make logical and informed decisions to the best of your
ability. For example, a child who has not yet developed such skills might believe the Tooth Fairy left
money under their pillow based on stories their parents told them. A critical thinker, however, can
quickly conclude that the existence of such a thing is probably unlikely—even if there are a few bucks
under their pillow.
 

6 Crucial critical thinking skills 

While there’s no universal standard for what skills are included in the critical thinking process, we’ve
boiled it down to the following six. Focusing on these can put you on the path to becoming an
exceptional critical thinker.

Identification
The first step in the critical thinking process is to identify the situation or problem as well as the
factors that may influence it. Once you have a clear picture of the situation and the people, groups or
factors that may be influenced, you can then begin to dive deeper into an issue and its potential
solutions.

How to improve: When facing any new situation, question or scenario, stop to take a mental
inventory of the state of affairs and ask the following questions:
Who is doing what?
 What seems to be the reason for this happening?
 What are the end results, and how could they change?

Research
When comparing arguments about an issue, independent research ability is key. Arguments are meant
to be persuasive—that means the facts and figures presented in their favor might be lacking in context
or come from questionable sources. The best way to combat this is by independent verification; find
the source of the information and evaluate it.

How to improve: It can be helpful to develop an eye for unsourced claims. Does the person pose the
argument offer where they got this information from? If you ask or try to find it yourself and there’s
no clear answer, that should be considered a red flag. It’s also important to know that not all sources
are equally valid—take the time to learn the difference between popular and scholarly articles.
Identifying biases
This skill can be exceedingly difficult, as even the smartest among us can fail to recognize biases.
Strong critical thinkers do their best to evaluate information objectively. Think of yourself as a judge
in that you want to evaluate the claims of both sides of an argument, but you’ll also need to keep in
mind the biases each side may possess.

It is equally important—and arguably more difficult—to learn how to set aside your personal biases
that may cloud your judgment. “Have the courage to debate and argue with your thoughts and
assumptions,” Potrafka encourages. “This is essential for learning to see things from different
viewpoints.”

How to improve: “Challenge yourself to identify the evidence that forms your beliefs, and assess
whether or not your sources are credible,” offers Ruth Wilson, director of development
at Brightmont Academy.
First and foremost, you must be aware that bias exists. When evaluating information or an argument,
ask yourself the following:
 Who does this benefit?
 Does the source of this information appear to have an agenda?
 Is the source overlooking, ignoring, or leaving out information that doesn’t support its beliefs
or claims?
 Is this source using unnecessary language to sway an audience’s perception of a fact?

Inference

The ability to infer and draw conclusions based on the information presented to you is another
important skill for mastering critical thinking. The information doesn’t always come with a summary
that spells out what it means. You’ll often need to assess the information given and draw conclusions
based upon raw data.

The ability to infer allows you to extrapolate and discover potential outcomes when assessing a
scenario. It is also important to note that not all inferences will be correct. For example, if you read
that someone weighs 260 pounds, you might infer they are overweight or unhealthy. Other data points
like height and body composition, however, may alter that conclusion.

How to improve: 
An inference is an educated guess, and your ability to infer correctly can be polished by making a
conscious effort to gather as much information as possible before jumping to conclusions. When faced
with a new scenario or situation to evaluate, first try skimming for clues—things like headlines,
images, and prominently featured statistics—and then make a point to ask yourself what you think is
going on.

Determining relevance
One of the most challenging parts of thinking critically during a challenging scenario is figuring out
what information is most important for your consideration. In many scenarios, you’ll be presented
with information that may seem important, but it may pan out to be only a minor data point to
consider.

How to improve: 
The best way to get better at determining relevance is by establishing a clear direction in what you’re
trying to figure out. Are you tasked with finding a solution? Should you be identifying a trend? If you
figure out your end goal, you can use this to inform your judgment of what is relevant.

Even with a clear objective, however, it can still be difficult to determine what information is truly
relevant. One strategy for combating this is to make a physical list of data points ranked in order of
relevance. When you parse it out this way, you’ll likely end up with a list that includes a couple of
obviously relevant pieces of information at the top of your list, in addition to some points at the
bottom that you can likely disregard. From there, you can narrow your focus on the less clear-cut
topics that reside in the middle of your list for further evaluation.

Curiosity
It’s incredibly easy to sit back and take everything presented to you at face value, but that can be also
a recipe for disaster when faced with a scenario that requires critical thinking. We’re indeed all
naturally curious—just ask any parent who has faced an onslaught of “Why?” questions from their
child. As we get older, it can be easier to get in the habit of keeping that impulse to ask questions at
bay. But that’s not a winning approach for critical thinking.

How to improve: 
While it might seem like a curious mind is just something you’re born with, you can still train
yourself to foster that curiosity productively. All it takes is a conscious effort to ask open-ended
questions about the things you see in your everyday life, and you can then invest the time to follow up
on these questions.

“Being able to ask open-ended questions is an important skill to develop—and bonus points for being
able to probe,” Potrafka says.
 
Become a better critical thinker
Thinking critically is vital for anyone looking to have a successful college career and a fruitful
professional life upon graduation. Your ability to objectively analyze and evaluate complex subjects
and situations will always be useful. Unlock your potential by practicing and refining the six critical
thinking skills above.

Most professionals credit their time in college as having been crucial in the development of their
critical thinking abilities. If you’re looking to improve your skills in a way that can impact your life
and career moving forward, higher education is a fantastic venue through which to achieve that. For
some of the surefire signs you’re ready to take the next step in your education, visit our article, “6
Signs You’re Ready to Be a College Student.”

 
Source: https://www.learning-mind.com/five-
thinking-styles/
What is critical thinking? Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and
make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable
phenomena, and research findings.1 
Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate
between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best
solution. Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and
will not need constant handholding. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills
in almost every industry and workplace.2 You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related
keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples
include:
 A triage nurse analyses the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should
be treated.
 A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
 An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to
settle out of court.
 A manager analyses customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a
customer service training session for employees.


Promote Your Skills in Your Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your
critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume.
When describing your work history, including any of the skills listed below that accurately describe
you. You can also include them in your resume summary if you have one.
For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in
project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to
assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two
of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated those skills at work.
Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular
problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical
thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He
or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The
interviewer wants to see you use analysis and evaluation (key parts of critical thinking) approach to
the given scenario or problem.

 Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job
description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Analysis
Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of
data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and
properly explain to others the implications of that information.
 Asking Thoughtful Questions
 Data Analysis
 Research
 Interpretation
 Judgment
 Questioning Evidence
 Recognizing Patterns
 Skepticism

Communication
Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of colleagues.
You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need
to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and
communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.
 Active Listening
 Assessment
 Collaboration
 Explanation
 Interpersonal
 Presentation
 Teamwork
 Verbal Communication
 Written Communication

Creativity
Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the
information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All
of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.
 Flexibility
 Conceptualization
 Curiosity
 Imagination
 Drawing Connections
  Inferring
 Predicting
 Synthesizing
 Vision

Open-Mindedness
To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze
the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.
 Diversity
 Fairness
 Humility
 Inclusive
 Objectivity
 Observation
 Reflection

Problem Solving
Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and
implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want
employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with
practical solutions.
 Attention to Detail
 Clarification
 Decision Making
 Evaluation
 Groundedness
 Identifying Patterns
 Innovation

More Critical Thinking Skills

 Inductive Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning
 Compliance
 Noticing Outliers
 Adaptability
 Emotional Intelligence
 Brainstorming
 Optimization
 Restructuring
 Integration
 Strategic Planning
 Project Management
 Ongoing Improvement
 Causal Relationships
 Case Analysis
 Diagnostics
 SWOT Analysis
 Business Intelligence
 Quantitative Data Management
 Qualitative Data Management
 Metrics
 Accuracy
 Risk Management
 Statistics
 Scientific Method
 Consumer Behavior
 Chapter 11
Science of Managing
Time

Develop a Positive Attitude and Mindset

You probably have an idea of what a positive mindset or positive attitude is already, but it’s always
helpful to start with a definition. 

This definition from Remez Sasson (n.d.) is a good general description:

“Positive thinking is a mental and emotional attitude

that focuses on the bright side of life and expects
positive results.”
Another, the more comprehensive definition comes from Kendra Cherry at Very Well Mind (2017B):

“[P]ositive thinking means approaching life’s challenges with

a positive outlook. It does not necessarily mean avoiding or ignoring
the bad things; instead, it involves making the most of the
potentially bad situations, trying to see the best in other people,
and viewing yourself and your abilities in a positive light.”

We can extrapolate from these definitions and come up with a good description of a positive mindset
as the tendency to focus on the bright side, expect positive results, and approach challenges with a
positive outlook. Having a positive mindset means making positive thinking a habit, continually
searching for the silver lining, and making the best out of any situation you find yourself in. A

successful manager always thinks positively and this is a great asset of a successful manager.   
A positive attitude is never automatic. You have to work at it!
Here's how to become a master of the mind.
A positive attitude--optimism, expectancy, and enthusiasm--makes everything in business easier. A
positive attitude boosts you up when you're down and supercharges you when you're already "on a
roll."
What is attitude? 
a settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
Here's how to cultivate a positive attitude, regardless of what's happening at work, based upon a
conversation with Jeff Keller, author of the bestseller Attitude Is Everything:

Remember that YOU control your attitude

Attitude does not emerge from what happens to you, but instead from how you decide to interpret
what happens to you.

Take, for example, receiving the unexpected gift of an old automobile. One person might think: "It's a
piece of junk!" a second might think: "It's cheap transportation," and a third might think: "It's a real
classic!"

In each case, the person is deciding how to interpret the event and therefore controlling how he or she
feels about it (i.e. attitude).

Adopt beliefs that positively frame events.

Your beliefs and rules about life and work determine how you interpret events and therefore your
attitude. Decide to adopt "strong" beliefs that create a good attitude rather than beliefs that create a
bad attitude. To use sales as an example:

·        Situation: The first sales call of the day goes poorly.

·        Weak: A lousy first call means that I'm off my game and today will suck.
·        Strong: Every sales call is different, so the next will probably be better.
·        Situation: A customer reduces the amount of an order at the last minute!
·        Weak: Customers who change orders can't be trusted.
·        Strong: Customers who change orders are more likely to be satisfied!
·        Situation: A big sales win comes seemingly "out of nowhere."
·        Weak: Even a blind pig finds an acorn once in a while.
·        Strong: You never know when something wonderful will happen!

Create a "library" of positive thoughts.

Spend at least 15 minutes every morning to read, view, or listen to something inspirational or
motivational. If you do this regularly, you'll have those thoughts and feelings ready at hand (or rather,
ready to mind) when events don't go exactly the way you'd prefer.

Avoid angry or negative media.

Unfortunately, the media is full of hateful people who make money by goading listeners to be
paranoid, unhappy, and frightened. The resulting flood of negativity doesn't just destroy your ability
to maintain a positive attitude; it actively inserts you into a state of misery, pique, and umbrage.
Rather than suck up the spew, limit your "informational" media consumption to business and industry
news.

Ignore whiners and complainers.

Whiners and complainers see the world through crap-colored glasses. They'd rather talk about what's
irreparably wrong, rather than make things better. More importantly, complainers can't bear to see
somebody else happy and satisfied.

If you tell a complainer about a success that you've experienced, they'll congratulate them, but their
words ring hollow. You can sense they'd just as soon you told them about what's making you
miserable. What a drag (figuratively and literally)!

Use a more positive vocabulary.

I've written about this before, but the point is worth making again. The words that come out of your
mouth aren't just a reflection of what's in your brain--they're programming your brain how to think.
Therefore, if you want to have a positive attitude, your vocabulary must be consistently positive.
Therefore:

 Stop using negative phrases such as "I can't," "It's impossible," or "This won't work."
These statements program you for negative results.
 Whenever anyone asks "How are you?" rather than "Hangin' in there," or "Okay, I
guess..." respond with "Terrific!" or "Never felt better!" And mean it.
 When you're feeling angry or upset, substitute neutral words for emotionally loaded
ones. Rather than saying "I'm enraged!" say "I'm a bit annoyed..."

Like this post? Sign up for the free Sales Source newsletter.
PUBLISHED ON: FEB 4, 2013
Like this column? Sign up to subscribe to email alerts and you'll never miss a post.
The opinions expressed here by Inc.com columnists are their own, not those of Inc.com.
Characteristics and Traits of a Positive Mindset: 6 Examples

So, now we know what a positive mindset is, we can dive into the next important question: What does
it look like? There are many traits and characteristics associated with a positive mindset, including:

1. Optimism: 
a willingness to make an effort and take a chance instead of assuming your efforts won’t pay off.

2. Acceptance: 
acknowledging that things don’t always turn out how you want them to, but learning from your
mistakes.

3. Resilience: 
bouncing back from adversity, disappointment, and failure instead of giving up.

4. Gratitude: 
actively, continuously appreciating the good things in your life (Blank, 2017).

5. Consciousness/Mindfulness: 
dedicating the mind to conscious awareness and enhancing the ability to focus.

6. Integrity: 
the trait of being honourable, righteous, and straightforward, instead of deceitful and self-serving
(Power of Positivity, n.d.). Not only are these characteristics of a positive mindset, but they may also
work in the other direction—actively adopting optimism, acceptance, resilience, gratitude,
mindfulness, and integrity in your life will help you develop and maintain a positive mindset.
 
A-List of Positive Attitudes
If you found the list above still too vague, there are many more specific examples of a positive
attitude in action.

For example, positive attitudes can include:

1. It is looking adversity in the eye… and laughing.
2. Getting what you get, and not pitching a fit.
3. Enjoying the unexpected, even when it’s not what you wanted originally.
4. Motivating those around you with a positive word.
5. Using the power of a smile to reverse the tone of a situation.
6. Being friendly to those you don’t know.
7. It’s getting back up when you fall. (No matter how many times you fall.)
8. Being a source of energy that lifts those around you.
9. Understanding that relationships are more important than material things.
10. Being happy even when you have little.
11. Having a good time even when you are losing.
12. Being happy for someone else’s success.
13. Having a positive future vision, no matter how bad your current circumstances.
14. Smiling.
15. Paying a compliment, even to a total stranger.
 16. Tell someone you know that they did a great job. (And mean it.)
17. Making someone’s day. (Not just a child’s… adult’s like to have their day be special, too!)
18. It’s not complaining no matter how unfair things appear to be. (It is a waste of time… instead,
do something!)
19. Not letting other people’s negativity bring you down.
20. Giving more than you expect to get in return.
21. Being true to yourself… always (Jarrow, 2012).

https://positivepsychology.com/positive-mindset/

What Is Time Management?

Definition
“Time management” is the process of organizing and planning how to divide your time between
specific activities. Good time management enables you to work smarter – not harder – so that you get
more done in less time, even when time is tight and pressures are high. Failing to manage your time
damages your effectiveness and causes stress.

It seems that there is never enough time in the day. But, since we all get the same 24 hours, why is it
that some people achieve so much more with their time than others? The answer lies in good time
management. The highest achievers manage their time exceptionally well. By using the time-
management techniques in this section, you can improve your ability to function more effectively –
even when time is tight and pressures are high.

Good time management requires an important shift in focus from activities to results: being busy
isn’t the same as being effective. (Ironically, the opposite is often closer to the truth.)

Spending your day in a frenzy of activity often achieves less, because you’re dividing your attention
between so many different tasks. Good time management lets you work smarter – not harder – so you
get more done in less time.
Some of the key benefits of time management are 
 
1. Greater productivity and efficiency.
2. A better professional reputation.
3. Less stress.
4. Increased opportunities for advancement.
5. Greater opportunities to achieve important life and career goals.
 
 
Failing to manage your time effectively can have some very undesirable consequences:
 
1. Missed deadlines.
2. Inefficient workflow.
3. Poor work quality.
4. A poor professional reputation and a stalled career.
5. Higher stress levels.
How to improve time management. There are many ways to improve time management including
planning to start with purpose clarification to goal setting, get rid of time wasters, but the most
effective way to make a habit of making and keep following the To-do list. Whether you decide to
make a list with the help of an app or use you computer system or writing it by hand in a planner or
notebook, it works a great deal. We have found that quite a few people who prefer keeping their to-do
lists with pen and paper are apologetic for what they consider to be a low-tech system but if it works
for them, then it does not matter whether they use technology or not. If writing on paper and crossing
items off your to-do list with a pen feels like a better way to organize and remember things you need
to do, then that may well be the best system for you. There are many good reasons for writing by
hand. 
 
Studies show that people retain information more effectively when they write by hand rather than
type. Some studies also indicate that writing and taking notes by hand helps you learn. 
 
Regardless of which tools you use for noting your ideas and keeping track of your to-do’s, an
important thing to remember is that you should have just one point of collection — that is one place
where you keep your list of tasks and things you need to do. Whether that is an electronic system,
leather-bound planner, or a spiral notebook, keep just one master list, from which you can create your
daily to-do list. Maintaining one point of the collection will help make sure you don’t lose track of
things and forget something you wanted to get done.

 
 Chapter 12
How to Deal with
Stress

Time and Stress management  

 
Many of us experience stress in life, whether this is in the short term from one-off projects or long-
term stress from a high-pressure career. Not only can this be profoundly unpleasant, but it can also
seriously affect our health and our work. However, it is possible to manage stress, if you use the right
tools and techniques.

What Is Stress?
A widely accepted definition of stress, attributed to psychologist and professor Richard Lazarus, is, "a
condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that demands exceed the personal and social
resources the individual can mobilize." This means that we experience stress if we believe that we
don't have the time, resources, or knowledge to handle a situation. In short, we experience stress when
we feel "out of control."

Signs of Stress
Everyone reacts to stress differently. However, some common signs and symptoms of the fight or
flight response include:
1. Frequent headaches.
2. Cold or sweaty hands and feet.
3. Frequent heartburn, stomach pain, or nausea.
4. Panic attacks.
5. Excessive sleeping, or insomnia.
6. Persistent difficulty concentrating.
7. Obsessive or compulsive behaviors.
8. Social withdrawal or isolation.
9. Constant fatigue.
10. Irritability and angry episodes.
11. Significant weight gain or loss.
12. Consistent feelings of being overwhelmed or overloaded.

Consequences of Stress
Stress impacts our ability to do our jobs effectively, and it affects how we work with other people.
This can have a serious impact on our careers, our general well-being, and our relationships. Long-
term stress can also cause conditions such as burnout, cardiovascular disease, stroke, depression, high
blood pressure, and a weakened immune system. (Sure, if you're stressed, the last thing you want to
think about is how damaging it can be. However, you do need to know how important it is to take
stress seriously.)

This also means that different people handle stress differently, in different situations: you'll handle
stress better if you're confident in your abilities if you can change the situation to take control, and if
you feel that you have the help and support needed to do a good job.

You need to understand stress for two reasons, your performance and your team member's
performance. You have access if you are stressed or your team members are stress. How to deal with
it has three approaches.
 
How to Manage Stress

The first step in managing stress is to understand where these feelings are coming from. Keep a stress
diary to identify the causes of short-term or frequent stress in your life. As you write down events,
think about why this situation stresses you out. Then, consider using some of the approaches below to
manage your stress. You'll likely be able to use a mix of strategies from each area.

1. Action-Oriented Approaches
With action-oriented approaches, you take action to change stressful situations.

Managing Your Time

Your workload can cause stress if you don't manage your time well. This can be a key source of stress
for very many people. Time management tools such as To-Do Lists, Action Programs, and
Eisenhower's Urgent/Important Principle to manage your priorities. Furthermore, another technique
called Job Analysis to think about what's most important in your role, so that you can prioritize your
work more effectively. This helps you reduce stress because you get the greatest return from your
efforts, and you minimize the time you spend on low-value activities. Similarly, avoiding multitasking
at certain times, and don't use electronic devices for a while before going to bed, so that you use this
time to "switch off" fully.

Other People

People can be a significant source of stress. Our guide to Managing Conflicting Priorities helps you
juggle multiple requests, while our articles on Assertiveness, Managing Your Boundaries, Dealing
with Unreasonable Requests, and Saying "Yes" to the Person, but "No" to the Task will help you
ensure that your needs are respected.

Working Environment

Workspace stress can come from irritating, frustrating, uncomfortable, or unpleasant conditions in the
workplace. Take action to minimize stress in your working environment.

2. Emotion-Oriented Approaches

Emotion-oriented approaches are useful when the stress you're experiencing comes from the way that
you perceive a situation. (It can be annoying for people to say this, but a lot of stress comes from
overly-negative thinking.)

To change how you think about stressful situations:

1. Use Cognitive Restructuring, the ABC Technique, and Thought Awareness, Rational
Thinking, and Positive Thinking to change the way that you perceive stressful events.
2. Use Affirmations and Imagery to overcome short-term negative thinking, so that you feel
more positive about stressful situations.

3. Acceptance-Oriented Approaches

Acceptance-oriented approaches apply to situations where you have no power to change what
happens, and where situations are genuinely bad. Use techniques like meditation and physical
relaxation to calm yourself when you feel stressed. Take advantage of your support network – this
could include your friends and family, as well as people at work and professional providers, such as
counsellors or family doctors.

Get enough exercise and sleep, and learn how to make the most of your downtime, so that you can
recover from stressful events. Learn how to cope with change and build resilience, so that you can
overcome setbacks.

Key Points
We experience stress when we feel threatened, and when we believe that we don't have the resources
to deal with a challenging situation. Over time, this can cause long-term health problems; and it can
also affect the quality of our work and our productivity.

To control your stress, conduct a job analysis, so that you know your most important priorities at
work. Learn good time management strategies, so that you can handle your priorities effectively. Try
to let go of negative thinking habits, and become a positive thinker by using affirmations and
visualization.

Also, create defences against stressful situations that you cannot control – use your network, be sure
to get enough exercise and sleep, and learn how to relax.
Chapter 13
Workplace
Spirituality