Experimental Edition, for Limited Circulation only

CURRICULAR MATERIAL
FOR
DIPLOMA IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (D.El.Ed) COURSE
IN DIETs OF
ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Course Code: 02

EDUCATION, SOCIETY, CURRICULUM AND

LEARNERS
(Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives of Education)

STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING

GOVT. OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
GOHPUR TINALI, VIDYA VIHAR, ITANAGAR
 RESOURCE TEAM

Chief Advisor
GaniaLeij, Jt. Director, SCERT, Itanagar.

Academic Guidance
Dr. JayadebaSahoo,Prof. & Dean, Dept. of Education, RGU, Itanagar.
Dr.Prashant Kumar Acharya, Associate Prof.,Dept. of Education, RGU, Itanagar.

CoreCommittee

G.C.Baral, Vice Principal, SCERT, Itanagar, Academic Co-ordinator.

S.Pradhan,SS, SCERT, Itanagar, Member.
V.R.Sharma, SS, SCERT, Itanagar,Member.

Material Developed By
Shambhu Singh, Asstt. Director,SCERT, Itanagar.

The curricular material has been developed keeping in view the learning needs of the
D.El.Ed Course trainees as per the current PSTE curriculum. While developing the
material authentic textual/reference materials from various sources have been
referred. As far as possible the content of the materials have been presented in an
objective manner. The ideas and opinions as presented in the content of the materials
are entirely of the developer of the material.
 FOREWORD
The Diploma in Elementary Education (D.El.Ed.) curriculum for 2 year PSTE course of the
DIETs in Arunachal Pradesh was revised and updated as an exercise deemed necessary in
the context of National Curriculum framework-2005 and enforcement of Right to
Education (RTE) Act-2009. The curriculum was revised on the basis of recommendations of
the National Council for Teacher Education, National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education (NCFTE) and the guidelines of Bordia Committee Report entitled
“Implementation of RTE, Act and Resultant Revamp of SSA” (2010). Since 2013-14 the
revised D.El.Ed Curriculum is being implemented in all the eleven DIETs of the state.
However, in view of change in the structure and content of the revised curriculum, there
has arisen a pressing need for content specific and contextualized curricular materials
which could be handy for both teacher educators and student teachers of the DIETs in the
state. Further Justice Verma Commission Report on Teacher Education-2012, constituted
by the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India observed,” our prospective teachers are educated
through substandard readymade materials available in the form of ‘guides’ which are
conceptually confusing and regressive in perspectives”. Hence, the commission strongly
recommended for development of learner friendly curricular materials for different types
of teacher education courses.
The D.El.Ed curricular material has been developed in workshop situation with
participation of Resource Persons from Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University,
Itanagar and faculty members of SCERT and DIETs of the state.
I am immensely grateful to the Joint Director, SCERT, Mr. GaniaLeij for his guidance,
Professor JaydevSahu, Dept. Of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar for his
academic support, members of SCERT Academic Team, Assistant Directors, Shri G.C.Baral,
Sri S.Pradhan and Sri V.R.Sharma for supervision and finalisation of curricular materials. I
am specifically thankful to the author on Education, Society, Curriculum and
LearnersCourse code-02, Sri Shambhu Singh, Assistant Director, SCERT, Itanagar for his
efforts in writing the texts of the course materials as per the need of the syllabus.

Lastly, it is hoped that the curricular materials will be highly useful as reference materials for the
teacher educators and student teachers of the DIETs of the Arunachal Pradesh.
Moto Nyori,
Joint Director,
SCERT, Itanagar
i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely glad to express my gratitude to Shri GaniaLeij, Jt. Director, SCERT,

Itanagar, for giving me the opportunity and moral support to develop this Curricular
Material of the D.El.Ed Course.

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the Secretary (Education), the Directors
of Elementary and Secondary Education, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh for their kind
guidance and resource support from time to time.

I am also thankful to Shri G.C.Baral,Asstt. Director (Academic), SCERT for his

commendable effort, guidance and all necessary support in this endeavour.

I also take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all the learned faculty of SCERT for
their suggestions and moral supportin the completion of this work.

I shall be failing in my duty if I do not convey my indebtedness to all the fellow

participants of the workshop and the members of the review team for their valued
suggestions for bringing the material to its present shape.

Shambhu Singh

ii
 INTRODUCTION
Philosophical and Sociological Perspective of Education is one of the foundation
courses of the D.El.Ed. Programme of DIETs in Arunachal Pradesh. This book has been
prepared in accordance with the present curriculum for Pre-Service Teacher Education
(PSTE), Corse Code- 02 , the Course title “Education, Society, Curriculum and Learners” for
Diploma in Elementary Education (D.El.Ed) of DIETs of Arunachal Pradesh. It has been
observed that there is hardly any book available for the D.El.Ed. Course of DIETs of
Arunachal Pradesh which covers the entire syllabi.As a result not only the pupil-teachers
but also the teacher-educators face a lot of problems in the teaching-learning process
withoutproper learning materials. I hope, the present material may fill the gap. It is
remarked that it is not a text book for the D.El.Ed. Course of DIETs but it is only helping
materials.

The course title “Education, Society, Curriculum and Learners” has four units. The
first unit “Philosophical Understanding of Education” deals with the analysis of various
education processes in human society, schooling and education as visualized by different
western and Indian thinkers. The conceptual understanding of the basic assumptions
about human nature, society, learning and aims of education has been explained in the
unit.

The second unit “Education and Society”, attempts to explain the major
characteristics of education in India during the colonial rule, continuities and shifts from
colonial legacy. In this unit, effort has also been made to examine the role of education in
social stratification and social mobility with reference to class, caste, tribe, gender and
religion. Nature of the social system, its stratification and differential access to education
are also discussed in this unit.

The third unit comprises “Learning, Learners and Teaching” which deals with the
concept and nature of Learning and Teaching. Level of learning, relationship with learning
and learner, learning factors that shape the learners identity. This unit also deals with
constructs of childhood.

In the fourth unit “Knowledge and Curriculum” child’s construction of knowledge

through activity and experience has been explained. Going through this unit, pupil-
teachers will develop the concepts of belief, information, knowledge and understanding.
They will learn the process and criteria for curriculum selection and construction. This unit
deals with the knowledge and power representation, inclusion and exclusion of
knowledge of different social groups in curriculum and textbooks.

All possible efforts have been made to collect relevant materials from various
sources for the development of the course materialas per the requirement of the syllabus.
However, the pupil-teachers and teacher educators are suggested to go throughrelevant
reading materials for more comprehensive learning.

Shambhu Singh

iii
 CONTENTS Page
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Foreword i
Acknowledgement ii
Introduction iii

UNIT 1: Philosophical Understanding of Education 1-15

1.1. Exploring and inquiring into nature and need of education
1.2. Various education processes in human society
1.3. Relationship between Schooling and Education
1.4. Schooling and Education as visualized by different Western and Indian thinkers-
Rousseau, Dewey, Montessori, Gandhi, Tagore and Aurobindo
1.5. Understanding the basic assumptions about Human nature, Society, Learning and aims
of Education

UNIT 2: Education and Society 16-22

2.1. Major characteristics of education in India during colonial rule
2.2. India’s contemporary education: continuities with and shifts from colonial legacy
(inbrief)
2.3. Role of education in reproducing dominance and challenging Marginalization (with
reference to class, caste, tribe, gender and religion)

UNIT 3: Learning, Learners and Teaching 23-31

3.1. Concept and nature of Learning
3.2. Different ways of Learning
3.3. Levels of learning- Knowledge, Understanding, Application and Skill
3.4. Meaning of Teaching and its relationship with learning and learner
3.5. Socialization and learning-factors that shape learner’s identity
3.6. Constructs of childhood

UNIT 4: Knowledge and Curriculum 32-40

4.1. Child’s construction of knowledge attaining knowledge through activity and
experience.
4.2. Concepts of belief, information, knowledge and understanding
4.3. Process and criteria for curriculum selection and construction
4.4. Knowledge and power-representation, inclusion and exclusion of knowledge of
different social groups in curriculum and textbooks.

References 41
 UNIT 1
Philosophical Understanding of Education
Course outline

1.1. Exploring and inquiring into nature and need of education

1.2. Various education processes in human society
1.3. Relationship between Schooling and Education
1.4. Schooling and Education as visualized by different Western and Indian thinkers-
Rousseau, Dewey, Montessori, Gandhi, Tagore and Aurobindo
1.5. Understanding the basic assumptions about Human nature, Society, Learning
and aims of Education
Introduction
This unit (Philosophical Understanding of Education) comprises five sub-units which deal with
philosophical understanding of Education. After studying this unit, the student-teachers will be able
to understand Philosophy of Education, Education processes and Views of the few Western and
Indian thinkers about Schooling and Education. They will also be able to understand the basic
assumption about human nature, society, learning and aims of Education.

1.1: Exploring and inquiring into nature and need of education

(a) Nature of education

Education ‘etymologically’ is derived from the two Latin words: ‘Educare’ and ‘Educere’.
‘Educare’ means ‘to nourish’, ‘to bring up’, ‘to raise’. Thus educating a child means to bring him
up or nourish him according to certain aims. ‘Educere’ means ‘to bring forth’, ‘to lead out’, ‘to
draw out’. Accordingly, education means drawing out or leading out what is there inside the
child.

According to;

i) Rig Veda, “Education is something which makes a person self-reliant and self-
less.”
ii) Swami Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of a divine perfection
already existing in man.”
iii) Mahatma Gandhi, “ By education I mean, all round drawing out of the best in
child and man- body, mind and spirit.”

iv) John Dewey, “Education is the process of living through a continuous process of
reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all the capacities in the
individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his
possibilities.”

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 v) Pestalozzi, “Education is a natural, harmonious and progressive development of
man’s innate powers.”
Educationis a dynamic and a life-long process. It is a deliberate and systematic process
which involves various types of experiences gained through interaction with the
environment and influences of care and guidance. Education is also a process of
integrated and harmonious development of a person. It means education takes into
account all aspects of human development, viz; the physical, intellectual, social, moral,
spiritual and aesthetic be development in a balanced manner.
Thus, nature of education may be summed up as follows.
i) Education is an attempt to develop the human beings.
ii) Education is an active and dynamic process.
iii) Education is a process of modification of human behavior.
iv) Education is an act of training.
v) Education is a process of reconstruction through experiences.
vi) Education is a process of integrated and balanced development of human
beings.
vii) Education is emancipation and liberation.
(b)Need of education
Education is needed to serve many purposes in life. Some of the needs of
education are given hereunder.
I. Education as means to acquire knowledge and wisdom: Knowledge gives power
to the weaker intellect, satisfies the hunger of the stronger intellect and gives
harmony to the normal human curiosity. C.E.M Joad regards education as of vital
importance in the spreading of knowledge.

II. Education promotes holistic development of human beings: Intellectual

development is not all development. Besides intellectual development,
other aspects of development such as; physical, emotional, social, and
moral development takes place through education.
III. Education is an essential basis for good life: Willmotthas said, “Education is the
apprenticeship of life. It assumes the full burden of bringing men ‘up-to-date.”
Education helps in there transformation of man as an animal being into a human
being improving the quality of his life.

IV. Education is a need for modification of behaviour: Education is a process of

modification of human behavior. Human beings need education to develop
intelligence and reasoning using which he acquires knowledge, skills that help him
showing rational and responsible behavior in life.

V. Education helps in employability of a person: Earning one’s livelihood is the

basic need of life. Education enables a person with necessary skills and competence
to earn better means of livelihood.

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 VI. Education is a means for preservation, transmission and enrichment of
culture: Mahatma Gandhi believed that culture is the foundation, the primary thing
which should be reflected in the smallest detail of one’s conduct and personal
behavior. Inner culture must be reflected in one’s speech, the way in which a person
treats visitors and guests and behave with others. Education helps in preservation,
enrichment and transmission of culture for future generation..

VII. Education is a need for nation’s future: Education is needed to develop the spirit
of nationalism and the means of promoting peace, harmony and prosperity of the
nation. Nehru rightly said that “no nation can be great whose people are narrow in
thought and action. Similarly, emphasizing the need of education Indira Gandhi said
that, “Education has to be seen in the larger perspective of the nation’s future and
the sort of society which we are planning to build”.

1.2. Various education processes in human society

There are various education processes in human society. These are Formal, In-formal and
Non-formal ways of education. Education has also bipolar and tri-polar processes.

❖ Formal Education: Formal education is a consciously and deliberately planned process

of education with a particular purpose. It is limited to a specific period, extent, stage and
is provided in the framework of certain rules and regulations through a specialized and
formal agency such as school. In the school, planned and guided instruction is given in a
systematic manner. Such education is well defined and based on established curriculum
with certain aims and objectives set by the society and the state. Formal education is
given by qualified, trained and efficient teachers in a well-organized way.

❖ Non-formal Education: Non-formalEducation is an alternative process of education for

those who are either deprived of the formal education or could not take advantage of
formal education. It is semi-structured, partly intentional and partly incidental. It is an
open system of education. People of different age groups are benefitted according to their
needs, interests and aptitudes. Philip H. Comps said, “Non-formal education is any
organized systematic educational activity carried on outside the framework of the
established formal system (School)”. Non-formal education is a life-long process
integrated with life and work. It is self-motivational. The learner is motivated by his
growth and development. His growth in learning makes him confident and self-reliant.
Multiple agencies are involved in non-formal education. Mass media, Non-Government
Organizations (NGOs), open schools, open universities, correspondence education
centers- all can help in providing non-formal education. Sakshar Bharat Mission (SBM)
is also an example of non-formal education system.

❖ In-formal Education: In-formal education is incidental and takes place consciously as

well as unconsciously. It is not pre-planned or deliberate. It takes place through imitation
and interaction. The children learn habits, manners, and patterns. While living with others
or moving in different spheres like home, society, groups etc. There is no prescribed
course, no fixed time-table, no age limit and no formal means of education. There is no
specified agency to impart this education. There is no examination system.
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 Informaleducation exerts significant influence in the personality development of children.
The transmission of cultural heritage and life experiences takes place in a natural way. In-
formal education is a lifelong process.

❖ Education as a Bipolar Process: In the bi-polar process of education, two persons are
involved, the educator and educand. There is interaction between the two and the result of
their efforts is education. Education is a shared activity or sharing of experiences. John
Adams called it a bipolar process. Ross said, “Like a magnet education must have two
poles”. Education is a conscious and deliberate process in which one personality acts
upon another in order to modify the development of the other through communication
and manipulation of knowledge.

❖ Education as a Tri-polar Process: In the tri-polar process of education, there is

involvement of the teacher, the taught and the environment. In this process, the role of the
teacher is to create situations and provide opportunities for learner’s actual participation.
John Dewey rightly remarked, “All education proceeds by the participation of the
individual in the social consciousness of the race”. The whole environment of the
individual becomes the source of education. The teacher consciously designs and plans
educational experiences on the basis of the learner’s environment for active participation
and effective learning of the learners.
1.3. Relationship between Schooling and Education
Schooling is the process of being formally educated at school. Education is the process of
acquiring knowledge and developing skills and attitudes. It may be formal, non-formal and
informal. Thus, education is a lifelong process. Many people use the two terms, education and
schooling interchangeably; others subsume schooling under education.

Schooling basically refers to the education system (schools, colleges, training centers,
universities etc.) where in-house education, training, professional and personal development
occur.

Education is the process of exploring alternative ways of thinking, doing, believing and
expressing one’s self. It is the process through which one forms one’s own opinion and judgment
independently.

Schooling is a process in which institutionalized education is provided in a structured

manner by the teachers through following specific curriculum, text books etc. Schooling is about
following norms and standards of behaviour as prescribed in the curriculum set by the
Governments and examination boards etc. schooling is time bound. Every stage of schooling has
fixed duration of time such as Primary, Upper Primary, Secondary level etc. After completion of
every stages of schooling students are certified on the basis of their performance. The end results
of schooling are literates and responsible citizens

Education is a natural, continuous and lifelong process. The scope of education is vast
and varied. It provides the individual abundant opportunities to explore, analyse and imbibe
knowledge and acquire wisdom freely on his own. The end results of education are good
citizens, cultured individuals and good human beings.

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There must be integration between schooling and education. Schooling and education should be
complementary and supplementary to each other. The system of schooling needs to be based on
the real life experiences of a child for all round development of his/ her personality.

1.4. Schooling and Education as visualized by different Western and

Indian thinkers- Rousseau, Dewey, Montessori, Gandhi, Tagore and
Aurobindo
(A) Rousseau:
Jean Jaques Rousseau (28 June 1712- 02 July 1778) was a German philosopher, writer and
composer of the 18th century. His novel Emile (on Education) is a treatise on education for
citizenship.
Schooling:

Rousseau objected to the system of school education. He contended that the child is born
innocent and pure, that he is only defiled and distorted by the defective environment of the
school. According to him there cannot be one suitable environment for the child. It is defective
and impure. It is better to separate the child from his parents, take him away from school, and
leave him by himself in a natural environment. The educator’s only task is to look after the child,
because in natural surroundings the child will himself look after the development of his natural
abilities. Even if schools are created, they can be utilized by stressing the natural surroundings
instead of insisting on creating a social environment.

Education:

According to Rousseau, “Education is the child’s development from within”. In his book ‘Emile’
(The ideal child) Rousseau wrote, “The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man,
and we expect to train a young child by making him reason; this is beginning and the end; this is
making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would not need to be
educated”.

Rousseau regarded Emile as an ideal child and divided her education in different stages (namely,
infancy- from birth to five; childhood- from 5 to 12; pre-adolescence- from 12 to 15;
Adolescence- from 15 to 18 and Young adulthood- from 18 to 20)

Education for Infancy: During this stage the main stress is laid on the physical
development of the child. He remarked, “A feeble body makes a feeble mind. All wickedness
comes from weakness. Give his body constant exercise, make it strong and healthy”.

Education for Childhood: He pleaded that the principle of negative education should be
applied during this period. Negative education consists in the free development of one’s organs
and the exercise of senses. No formal education should be given. “Education consists not in the
teaching of virtue or of truth, but in the preservation of heart from vice and mind from error”.
Education for Pre-adolescence: It is the period of intellectual education- the age of reason
and formal education. Physical Science, Language, Mathematics, Manual work, Social relations,

5
and trade should be taught. Rousseau remarked, “If instead of making a child stick to his books I
employ him in a workshop; his hands work for the development of his mind”. The great secret of
education is to use exercise of mind and body as relaxation to one another.

Education for Adolescence: During this period, a child should be prepared to receive
social training. His moral and religious education also starts. It is at this stage that positive
education takes place. To know the world, the child must travel through different countries and
study their languages and mode of life of the people. Rousseau also recognized the importance of
sex education during adolescence.

Education of Sophy(an ideal girl): Rousseau prescribed a separate curriculum for the
education of females. He regarded women as the chaste guardian of our morals, the sweet
security for our peace. He prescribed passive education for women. His views about girl’s
education are not suitable in the modern era.

Education from Nature: Rousseau was a naturalist. To Rousseau, education comes from
nature, from men and from things. The process of education is the relationship of man to his
physical and social environment. Meaningful education takes place in the process of one’s
interaction with the physical and social environment. Education from men and things should be
subordinated to education from nature.

Rousseau’s concept of Negative Education:

According to Rousseau, education at the early stage ought to be purely negative. It consists not in
teaching virtues or truth but in shielding the heart from vices and mind from errors. Thus
Rousseau was against imparting education to the child of age group 02 to 12 years. No positive
education should be given during the childhood period. There is no need for the tutor to worry
because his pupils can neither read nor write. Rousseau wrote, “Do not save time, but lose it”.
The child will naturally learn through play and through the exercise of his senses. There should
be no book learning and habit formation. No direct moral education should be given. The child’s
mind is premature to receive positive and direct moral education. According to him, “Much more
harm than good is done by your ceaseless preaching and moralizing. Let the child learn through
his contact with nature and through experiences, activities and senses”. He said, “Take the
reverse of the accepted practice and you will almost always do right”.

(B) Dewey
John Dewey (1859-1952), the pragmatist remains one of the greatest thinkers of modern times
who was born at Vermont, a small town in New England in the USA. He had a long and
significant influence on the actual practice of education, not only on American education but also
on the total educational scene in the world.

Schooling:
According to John Dewey, school is a specialized institution. Education is a social process and
the school is a social institution. School provides a specially controlled environment where
children get knowledge for the process of socialization and get acquainted with those ideas,
6
thoughts, faiths, qualities, attitudes, skills etc. School is concerned to bring the child to share the
inherited resources of the race and to use his own power for social ends. Teacher’s role in the
school is to create an environment which will help in the development of the child’s social
personality and enable the child to become a responsible democratic citizen. The educator must
also try and engage the children in activities which help them to think and reason out things for
themselves. According to him, “the school is an idealized society- an extension of home.
Education is a process of living and school is a place where experience of life situations is given
to the children".
School life is a part of social life where the ‘real meaningful activities of race are simplified,
purified and balanced’ for the purpose of children so that they are initiated into social life.

Education:
According to John Dewey, Education is a social necessity. Education proceeds by the
participation of the individual in the consciousness of the race. Dewey has said, “Education is the
development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his
environment and fulfill his possibilities”. It is a process by which civilization is preserved and
developed further. Further he said, “Education must begin with a psychological insight in child’s
capacities, interests and habits”. It is necessary to study the child, his inclinations and instincts.
These capacities and instincts should be brought into exercise in the social situations.
The purpose of education is to create harmony between individual and social development. If we
eliminate the individual factor from society, we are left only with an abstraction; if we eliminate
the social factor from society, we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass. Thus, education is
the process of socialization of an individual.
According to Dewey, “True education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by
the demands of social interests of the child and those of the society.” He also said, “I believe that
education is a process of living and not a preparation for future living”.

(C) Montessori
Maria Montessori (31 August 1870- 06 May 1952) was an Italian physician, and a noted
humanitarian and an educator, best known for her method of teaching. Her educational method is
used today throughout the world.

Schooling:
According to her, education (Schooling) is not what the teacher gives; education is a natural
process spontaneously carried out by the human beings and is acquired not by listening to words
but by experiences in the environment. The task of the teacher becomes that of preparing a series
of activities, spread over a specially prepared environment and then refraining from obtrusive
interference. Teachers can only help the great work that is being done, as servants help the
master. Doing so, they will be witness to the unfolding of the human soul and to the rising of a
new man who will not be a victim of events, but will have the clarity of vision and shape the
future of human society. She mainly focused on teaching the students and the ways to develop
their own skills at a pace they set. Montessori called it “spontaneous self-development.” When a
child is ready to learn new and more difficult tasks, the teacher guides the child’s first endeavors
in order to avoid wasted effort and the learning of wrong habits; otherwise the child learns alone.
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Montessori Method of teaching has enabled children to learn to read and write much more
quickly and with greater facility. The Montessori Method of teaching concentrates on quality
rather than quantity. The success of this school generated a worldwide interest in Montessori’s
method of teaching and opening of a large number of schools.

Principles of Montessori Method:

The first principle of the Montessori Method is to train the pupil to be independent of others in
respect of the ordinary practices of life. It necessitates approaching the child’s mind at a lower
level. Montessori maintains that sense of touch is fundamental. It undergoes great development
during the early years of life. If neglected at this age, it loses its susceptibility to training.

The practices of Montessori Method:

i. The exercises of practical life: The pupils learn the daily practices (such as washing
hands, cleaning nails, dressing and undressing etc. ) being independent of others.

ii. The exercise in sensory training: The materials are used for perception of size and
form, for discrimination of weight, for touch, for sense of temperature, for auditory
acuity and for the colour sense etc.

iii. The didactic Exercises: Didactic exercises such as teaching of reading and writing,
and teaching of number is conducted after the sensory training.
The Montessori Method of schooling is suitable for the children between the age group of three
to seven years.
Education:
Dr. Montessori’s innovative approach was that education should no longer be mostly imparting
of knowledge, but must take a new path, seeking the release of human potentialities. The centre
of gravity of her system of education is the environment. According to Montessori, education is a
process of normal expansion of life of the child through active help.
(D) Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2nd October’1869-30th January’1948) was a great leader,
a practical philosopher and a socio-political reformer of modern India. He was the apostle of
peace and non-violence and champion of freedom movement. He is called the father of the
Nation.

Schooling:
According to Gandhi, a school is a place for making enquiries, experimentations and discoveries.
It is a community centre, a cradle for future citizenship and a place for physical, intellectual,
social, moral and spiritual development.
Mahatma Gandhi advocated the concept of ‘Basic Education’. There should be free, compulsory
and universal education for all children belonging to the age group 7 to 14 years. The educational
curriculum according to Gandhi should consist of the mother-tongue of the students,
Mathematics, Social Studies, Natural Science, Music and Drawing the Hindustani. He
considered Hindustani to be the common language which can be used by both the Hindus and the
Muslims.
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Gandhi was an idealist, a pragmatist and a naturalist. Dr. M.S.Patel wrote, “Gandhi’s educational
philosophy is naturalistic in setting, idealistic in aims and pragmatic in method.” Gandhi was a
naturalist when he advocated that the children should be taught “in an atmosphere free from
super-imposed restriction and interference.” He wanted children to have sufficient freedom for
their natural growth and development but for their fullest development, discipline and training
are essential. Gandhiji’s faith in God or the universal spirit is the idealistic goal in his
educational theory. Spiritual realization is the self-realization which can be achieved through
truth and non-violence and doing service to the mankind. Gandhiji was a pragmatist as he
emphasized on learning by experiences or learning by doing. He advocated that progress in the
school should be pragmatic based on rigorous habits of investigation and experimentation
through scientific thinking.

Education:
Gandhiji said, “By education, I mean all round drawing out of the best in child and man- body,
mind and spirit.” Literacy is not whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is
no harmonious development of all the aspects of human personality- intellectual, physical,
spiritual and so on. He attached great importance to physical development. In his scheme of
education, he made provisions for promoting physical development of children through work,
play, creative and productive activities and through social participation. A sound body has a
sound mind.
He considered educational experiences and activities as the most appropriate means of
intellectual development of an individual. Gandhiji regarded education as a vital means of
spiritual development of the child. According to him, “True education is that which draws out
and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of the children.

(E) Tagore
RabindraNath Tagore (6th May’1861- 7th August’1941) had unique achievements in the field of
literature, philosophy, education and art that earned him universal fame not only in India but also
in the world.

Schooling:
RabindraNath Tagore said, “Our education should be in full touch with our complete life,
economic, intellectual, aesthetic, social and spiritual and our educational institutions should be in
the very heart of our society connected with it by the living bonds of varied co-operation.” His
concept of curriculum was broad based. It consists of subjects, activities and ways of life of
people. He was against bookish learning; however he recommended learning of Language,
Literature, History, Geography, Nature study, Science, Music, Art etc. Like Rousseau, he also
emphasized activities and occupations. Activities like dancing, dramatics, drawing, painting,
handwork, excursions, gardening, music, art etc. find a suitable place in the curriculum of his
scheme of education.
Tagore did not like the traditional methods of class-room teaching. He himself was much
disappointed to see the lifeless, colourless atmosphere and could not approve of the beaten track
of learning. In his words, “the school is a work of art and not a pedagogical laboratory.”That
school had all the characteristics of a garden school ‘Ashram’ like and ‘Gurukul’. He started a
9
school named ‘Shantiniketan’. While starting the school, he had in his mind, the Tapovana, the
forest hermitage of ancient India where the environment was homely, religious, spiritual and
natural. Tagore did not approve of the theory of strict and harsh discipline. He did not want that
the child should be suppressed by an authority. According to his views, teacher’s place is very
prominent; the teacher is a Guru like ancient Indian rishis. According to him, the teacher is
present only to stimulate and guide but it is the child who is to choose and react according to his
natural inclinations. A teacher must have a receptive mind and learning attitude. RabindraNath
Tagore said, “A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can
never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame.”

Education:
RabindraNath Tagore describededucation as a means to develop the personality of the child to its
fullest extent so as to enable a man to live in harmony with all existence. It is to live life as a
whole and live life in abundance. He believed, “Education is reformatory and an expressive
process which seeks to unfold all that is good and noble to individual. True knowledge brings
enlightenment and self-realization.” He expressed his views on education, “Education is a
permanent part of the venture of life. It is not like a painful hospital treatment of curing students
of the malady, their ignorance, but it is a function of the health, the natural expression of their
minds.” Tagore conceived education as dynamic, living and closely associated with life. He said,
“The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but make our life in
harmony with all existence.”

(F) Sri Aurobindo Ghosh

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (15th August’ 1872 – 5th December’1950) was a philosopher, scholar, a
professor of English, a true yogi, a poet, and an educationist. Aurobindo’s philosophy of
education directly emerged from his philosophy of life.

Schooling:
Aurobindo’s theory of Integral Education advocates education through schooling. In the
Aurobindo’s integral school education emphasis is given on the study of human mind. Through
the study of human mind, we can change the man and the society. The human mind consists of
four layers.

i) ‘Citta’ the store house of memory

ii) ‘Manas’ the sixth sense i.e sight, sound, taste, smell, touch and mind that are to be
trained
iii) ‘Budhi’ the intellect which is the real instrument of thought concerned with
ordering of knowledge
iv) Intuitive perfection of truth which makes man “prophet of truth”
Integral education aims at integrated development of physical being ( Tapasya of beauty), Vital
being (Tapasya of power), Psychic being (Tapasya of love) and Mental being ( Tapasya of
knowledge) to bring about a transformation of man into a spiritual being.
According to Aurobindo, “The truth we seek is made of four major aspects Love,
Knowledge, Power and Beauty. These four attributes of the truth will spontaneously express
themselves in our being. The Psyche will be the vehicle of the true and pure love, the mind that
10
of infallible knowledge, the vital will manifest in invincible power and strength and the body will
be the expression of a perfect beauty and a perfect harmony.”
In the teaching-learning process, the teacher’s role is only to help and guide the child in
the pursuit of his knowledge. The teacher is not to impose; he is only to suggest. The knowledge
is within the child. It is revealed through swadharma and swavah. The chief aim of education
should be to help the growing soul to draw out that which is hidden and make it perfect for the
best use. The teacher should become an embodiment of self-control, humility and spiritual
equality between man and man. In the words of Aurobindo, “He is a man helping his brothers, a
child leading children, a light kindling other lights, an awakened soul awakening other souls, at
the highest a power of presence of the divine.” As the child has his own inherent capacities and
special abilities, accordingly education at school should satisfy the needs and interest of the
child. He believed in self-teaching. Aurobindo believed whether distinct teaching in any form of
religion is imparted or not, the essence of religion, to live for God, for humanity, for country, for
others and for oneself must be made the ideal in every school.
Education:
Aurobindo believed that the basis of Education is the study of human mind. No system of
education should be founded merely on the theory of academic perfection. The study of the
human mind is fundamental in education. He believed that true education must take into account
three focal points i) the man; ii) the nation or people and iii) universal humanity.
True education will be that which will be “an instrument for this real working of the spirit
in the mind and body of the individual and the nation.” According to Aurobindo, the first
business of education is to bring out the real man. It can be done by promoting powers of
observation, memory, reasoning etc. Through these, the man within must be touched and brought
out.
He advocated that Education must be according to child’s own nature. No hard things
should be brought into the child’s experience. The child can gather the best information if his
mind is trained.
Aurobindo laid stress on moral education. For this purpose the child must habituate
himself to the right emotions, the noblest associations, the best mental, emotional and physical
habits.

1.6. Understanding the basic assumptions about Human Nature, Society,

Learning and Aims of Education
(a) Human Nature
Human nature is the fundamental dispositions and traits of human beings. Human learns from
the environment. It is human nature that exclusive possession of anything makes a person proud
and he feels himself superior. He wants to prove his identity among peers whereas he becomes
isolated. On the other hand, if things are constructed by him, it is the human nature to share
knowledge, ideas and views among his peers and in the society. That is why; learning by doing is
the best approach in the teaching learning process. Different philosophical thoughts hold
different views about human nature which, in fact, is composed of heterogeneous elements,
rational, non-rational, intellect, emotions, his animal-self and his spiritual-self etc. Educational

11
aims have often been decided keeping in view one or the other element which comprises human
nature.

The idealists believe that human nature is essentially rational, good and above all spiritual. They
believe that education should aim at exaltation of the spiritual-self and subordination of lower
animal-self to the former. According to this view, education should aim at unfolding the divine
in child and man.
According to Plato, “Man’s mind is always active. Man is attracted towards all things that he
sees in his surroundings and he runs after them. The educator should pay attention to the objects
which surround the child. Such objects should be beautiful so that the child is attracted to them
and his curiosity is aroused. For this reason, the child should be kept in a beautiful environment.
In fact, the human individual requires such an environment not only in infancy but through his
entire life because the process of education is never complete.”
The Naturalists like Rousseau regard man as essentially animal, consisting of instincts, feelings,
emotions and impulses.” Thus education should aim at giving opportunities to the child for self-
expression and self-gratification. According to him, human nature is sacrificed by the demands
for development of an intellectual culture. Human nature is in constant conflict with expectations
of society. Virtue confers stability and unity upon the human existence because it subordinates
the idle speculation to the active needs of the normal life; it includes strength and vigor to the
soul; allows for all expression of man’s genius; existence is solid and permanent.
The original nature of man is good but corrupted by society. To be good is to exist according to
ones intrinsic potentiality of one’s nature. Man’s egotistic nature prevents him from regaining the
simplicity of original human nature. Self-love is always good and spontaneous in its purest state.
It is a source of all genuinely natural impulses and emotions.
Natural order affects all aspects of human existence; brings individual into contact with his own
inner self, physical environment and his fellow man. All passions are good if they are under our
control; all are bad if they control us. Human nature is not fully mature until it becomes social.
Rational man always has an awareness of common good and the need to live in harmonious
relationship with his fellowmen.

(b) Society
Society is an enduring and co-operating social group whose members have developed organized
patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. A society evolves on the basis of
common interests, beliefs or profession of the people for fulfillment of common ends.

An individual is basically a biological entity. It is education that transforms him into harmonious
personality, gives him character, moral and aesthetic sense and thus makes him fit to live in
society. Education is an essentiality for the development of a society. Hence social organization
becomes an essential component and active participant in the process of education. Society
provides directions, channels, goals, materials for educational activities. In return, it expects
education to contribute to its progressive development. All forms of education (formal, non-
formal, and in-formal) take place in the society.
Society is the source of all human values. The individual accepts the social ideals as his own.
The individual realizes his best by being socialized. The function of education is to enable the
individual to develop himself fully according to the means compatible with the interests of the
12
society. According to John Dewey, all education proceeds by the participation of the individual
in the social consciousness of the race. He believed that a socially efficient individual would be
able to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities. Individuals are indispensible for the
progress of the society. Without individuals, society is insignificant. Individual and society are
complementary.

According to J.S.Ross, individuality is of no value and personality is a meaningless term apart

from the social environment in which they are developed and made to manifest. Self-realization
can be achieved only through social-service and social values are established through free
individuals who have developed valuable individuality.

Thus in a democratic society, social control and individual initiative supplement each other.
Education ignites the individual flame, feeding it with the oil of the society, to illuminate the
social horizon and dispel the prevailing darkness.

(c) Learning
Learning is an act of experiencing. Learning is the knowledge or skill acquired by instruction or
study. Learning is also modification of a behavioral tendency through experience. In a broad
sense, the nature of learning is a process of acquisition of new behaviour for strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience with a view to modifying the behaviour.
Learning includes a wide variety of changes such as; change in perceptions, adjustment with
others, use of new skills, and inculcation of healthy habits and fostering of right attitude.

Learning as per the NCF-2005, builds the inherent capabilities of the learners’ to draw
upon and construct their own knowledge, to develop their capacities, in relating to the
environment around, both physical and social, and to the task on hand. For this to happen,
opportunity to try out, manipulate, make mistakes and correct oneself are essential. This is as
true of learning language as it is of a craft skill or a discipline.

The formal process of learning that school makes possible can open up new possibilities
in of understanding and relating to the world. Schools as institutions provide new opportunities
for all learners to learn about themselves, others, and society, to access their inheritance and
engage with it irrespective of and outside the access provided y one’s birth into a family and
community.

Children learn only in an atmosphere where they feel they are valued. Our schools still do
not convey this to all children. The association of learning with fear, discipline and stress, rather
than enjoyment and satisfaction is detrimental to learning. Children need to feel that each one of
them, their homes, communities, languages and cultures, are valuable as resources for
experiences to be analyzed and enquired into school; that their diverse capabilities are accepted;
that all of them have the ability and the right to learn and to access knowledge and skills; and
that adult society regards them as capable of the best.
Learning takes place both within school and outside school. Learning is enriched if the
two arenas interact with each other. Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage
with concepts and deepen understanding, rather than remembering only to forget after
examinations. At the same time, learning must provide variety and challenge, and be interesting

13
and engaging. Boredom is a sign that the task may have become mechanically repetitive for the
child and of little cognitive value.
In constructivist perspective, learning is a process of construction of knowledge. Learners
actively construct their own knowledge by connecting new ideas to the existing ideas on the
basis of materials/activities presented to them (experiences).
Learning takes place through interactions with the environment around nature, things and
people, both through language, physical activity of moving, exploration and doing things, on
one’s own, with one’s peers or in the company of adults, using language-to read, to express or
ask, to listen and to interact- are the key processes through which learning occurs.
Much of our school learning is still individual based. The teacher is seen as transmitting
‘knowledge’ which is usually confused with information to children, and organizing experiences
in order to help children learn. But interaction with teachers, with other peers of the same age
group, as well as those who are older and younger can open up many more rich learning
possibilities.
Wordsworth, R.S, “Any activity can be called learning that so far as it develops the individual (in
any respect good or bad) and makes his behaviour and experience different from what would
otherwise have been.
Thus, Learning is a natural process. It is a lifelong process. Learning to learn is the most
important factor in the teaching-learning process.

(d) Aims of Education:

Education is a human necessity and like an ornament that adores human life. It is a living activity
directed to some goal. It is an activity with well defined aim. An aims means a foresight in
advance, of the end, the consequences, the fruits of action: It is a foreseen end, it gives a
direction to the activity and influences each step towards the end.
Idealistic thinker has faith in the glory and grandeur of human life and in its elevation. It
provides human life and education with very high aims. These aims are:
i) Idealism believes in the concept of ‘Universe as Home’. Education, therefore, should be
universal based on the teaching of universal truth, from the standpoint of rationality of the
universe.
ii) The aim of idealistic education is the preservation as well as enrichment of culture.
iii)Idealism emphasizes character building and character formation. Therefore, according to
idealistic views, moral, intellectual and aesthetic aspects of his personality should be
promoted.
Aim of education as naturalist: Self-expression and self-preservation are the main aim of
education. Other aims are redirection of human instincts, struggle for existence, education
according to nature of child, autonomous development etc. In short, education is the process of
development of the child into joyous, rational, harmoniously balanced, useful and mature child.

Pragmatism and aims of education: According to Pragmatism, there is no ultimate aim of education.
They are never pre-determined. They go on changing according to place, time and situations. According
to Ross, “The general aim of education is just the creation of new values; the main task of education is
to put educand into a position to develop values for him.” Education is intended to direct the desires,
impulses and interests of the child in such a way that he may be able to satisfy his wants in adjustment
and solve his present day problems.
In the opinion of Rousseau, education aimed at the natural development of the child’s inner faculties
and powers. Education should help the child to remain alive. To live is to work, to develop and to
properly utilize the various other powers of the body.
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In the opinion of Maria Montessori, aim of education is to unfold of the human soul and to rise
of a ‘New Man’ who will not be a victim of events, but will have the clarity of vision to direct
and shape the future of human society. “Aim of education should no longer be mostly imparting
of knowledge, but must take a new path, seeking the release of human potentialities.”
According to John Dewey, the aim of education is the development of child’s powers and
abilities. It is impossible to lay down any definite principle for a particular kind of development,
because this development will differ from one child to the next, in conformity with the unique
abilities of the individual.
Gandhiji wanted that education should help one to become self-supporting in later life. Education
must enable every individual to earn his living independently. He emphasized culture- its
preservation and enhancement. On being asked, “what is your goal of education?” he replied,
‘Character Building’, I would try to develop courage, strength, virtue, the ability to forget oneself
in working towards great aims. This is more important than literacy.” Through Education,
Gandhiji wanted to develop the whole man. He wanted to train the hand, heart and head of the
child. “By an all-round development he means the education of heart, head, body and spirit.”
Gandhiji laid greater stress on the cultivation of moral, spiritual, social, ethical and aesthetic
values. Like an idealist, he emphasized self-restraint, self-realization, self-insight and self-
analysis.
RabindraNath Tagore attached much importance to the healthy physical development of children
in early years.. He equally stressed the development of the power of thinking and power of
imagination of the mind. He believed that the emancipation of the intellectual from inertia and
dead habits should constitute a real element in the intellectual make up of an individual. He also
stressed inner discipline, attainment of ideal of peace and tranquility, a simple way of life and
naturalness.. According to him, education must lead to harmonious development of all human
faculties. Tagore said,” Mankind must realize a unity, wider in range, deeper in sentiment,
stronger in power than ever before.”
By education, Sri Aurobindo means that which will offer the tools where by one can live “for the
divine, for the country, for oneself and for others, and this must be the ideal in every school
which calls itself national.” According to him, education attempts at an all-round, balanced
harmonious and integrated development of the individual. The Physical, social, emotional,
intellectual and spiritual life and powers of the Childs should be tapped and unfolded in an
integrated way.
Aims of education according to NCF-2005: The first aim is to commitment to democracy and
values of equality, justice, freedom, Concern for other’s well-being, secularism, respect for
human dignity and rights. Education should aim to build a commitment to these values which are
based on reason and understanding. Sensitivity to other’s well-being and feelings, together with
knowledge and understanding of the world, should form the basis of a rational commitment to
values.
Learning to learn and the willingness to unlearn and relearn are important as means of
responding to new situations in a flexible and creative manner. Education must develop the
ability to work, participate in economic processes and social change. Education must provide the
means and opportunities to enhance the child’s creative expression and the capacity of aesthetic
appreciation
15
 UNIT 2
Education and Society
Course outline
2.1. Major characteristics of education in India during colonial rule
2.2. India’s contemporary education: continuities with and shifts from colonial legacy (in
brief)
2.3. Role of education in reproducing dominance and challenging marginalization (with
reference to class, caste, tribe, gender and religion)
Introduction
This Unit (Education and Society) comprises three sub-units which deal with the historical
perspectives of Education in India during colonial rule and India’s contemporary education.
After learning this unit, student-teachers will be able to understand the role of education in the
society for reproducing dominance and challenging marginalization. Student-teachers will
develop their capacity to communicate meaningfully on issues such as; power, disparity of
experiences and identities.
2.1. Major characteristics of education in India during colonial rule
Education and Society are closely interlinked. They affect each other. The relationship between
educational system and society is mutual; sometimes the society influences changes in
educational system and at other times the educational system influences changes in the society.
The education system which is a sub-system of the society has to take into consideration the
hierarchies of caste, economic status and gender relations, cultural diversity and uneven
development which deeply influence access to education and participation of children in schools.
During colonial rule, Indian society was suffering from many social evils such as the system of
caste, creed, untouchability etc. The main features of education in India during the colonial rule
are discussed as hereunder.
i) Aim of Education
In early colonial period, attempts were by the Christian Missionaries to ‘give the natives useful
knowledge as well as religious instruction for moral improvement.” During that period,
elementary education aimed at meeting the educational needs of the upper and middle class
people like landlords, well-to-do farmers, merchants etc. A huge group of common population
received little or no education. Women education was very much neglected. A large group of
aborigines consisting of the tribal population and the untouchables amongst the Hindus remained
totally excluded. The concept of universal education was not known. During the colonial rule,
articulating the main aim of education Lord Macaulay said, “the aim of education in India is to
anglicize the Indians through English education and to make black-coloured Indian English in
their way of living, behavior, thought, culture, traditions and morality”. Therefore, the purpose of
education during the period of colonialisation in India was to create a group of working class
who would to serve as the connecting link between the British Government and the general
public. Later on, the aim of education became broader as the Wood Despatch reflected it that the
aim of education should be ‘to impart useful knowledge to the Indian people to raise their
intellectual, moral and economic status.'

16
 ii) Education for Upper Class People
The British in order to show that they were really interested in good administration
and public welfare, emphasized on education for upper class people to create an elite
group, who would be given a few jobs to influence the general people for accepting the
British rule in the country.
iii) Education for Religious Groups

The Britishers, in order to win the sympathy and support of the influential Hindus
and Muslims, encouraged establishment of educational institutions on religious lines. For
example, Calcutta Madrasa was opened in 1780 to educate the higher class Muslims and
to make them faithful supporters of the British Government. Similarly, Benares Sanskrit
College was opened in 1791 to please the Hindus. In this way, the divide and rule policy
of the English made differences in education among the religious group in India.
iv) The Role of Missionaries

During the colonial rule, the Missionaries got a good opportunity to preach and
convert in the garb of spreading education in India. The Missionaries gave the incentives of good
services and good education for converting Indians to their own faith. Educational efforts of the
Missionaries were religion-motivated. Despite these efforts, only some lower class people could
be influenced by these Missionaries and bulk of the Indian population remained unaffected by
them.
v) Curriculum

The wood despatch recommended inclusion of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian in the
curriculum along with English, western literature and science. In the Calcutta Madrsa, a 7 year
curriculum was introduced consisting of Law, Philosophy, Logic, mathematics, astronomy and
grammar along with Islamic theology. Through Sanskrit medium, Hindu religious principles,
jurisprudence and other subjects were taught in Benares Hindu College.

vi) Medium of Instruction

During the colonial period, it was very difficult to decide whether the medium of instruction
should be English or any Indian language as there were many developed languages in the
country- such as Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Guajarati, Marathi, Bengali, Odia,
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and many others.
In 1834, Lord Macaulay- a member of the Governor General’s council and the President of the
committee of Public Instruction argued that Indian were not so keen to receive free education in
Indian languages as they were to receive education in English even on payment of fees. He
remarked that Indians themselves wanted to learn English. If English was made the commercial
language, India would have better foreign relationship with other countries.

The Wood Despatchhonoured the sentiment of the Indian people in order to win their
cooperation and recommended that Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian should be included in the
curriculum along with English.
vii) Women Education
Before the Indian Education Commission (Hunter Commission) of 1882, women education was
totally neglected. The commission gave suggestions to promote women education in the country.

17
The commission had recommended that the curriculum for girls should be different from that of
boys because of differences in the nature of their life and duties. The Calcutta University
Commission (1917-1919) also emphasized on women education in the university.

viii) Education for Aboriginals and Tribals

During colonial rule, education of aborigines and Tribal people remained neglected.
The Hunter Commission, however, suggested that special provision should be made for
education of the aborigines and Tribal people. Accordingly, special type of schools
should be opened in their areas keeping in view the geographical and social conditions
and traditions of the people.

ix) Free and Compulsory Education

A number of attempts were made during the colonial period to make education free
and compulsory. For example, three educationists, namely William Adams, Capt. Wanate and
T.C.Hope urged the government to declare primary education compulsory. Sir Ibrahim
Rahimtoola and Sir ChimanLalSetal were responsible for giving birth to a movement to make
primary education compulsory. Maharaja Sir Sayaji Rao Gaikwad, the ruling Prince of Baroda
state, took the initiative and introduced compulsory education in 52 villages of his state in 1893
which covered all the boys within the age group 7 to 12years and all the girls in the age group 7
to 10 years age. A number of unsuccessful attempts were made during the colonial rule to make
primary education free and compulsory by different Indian leaders such as Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, Vithal Bhai Patel etc. But no visible changes could be possible due to the ‘divide and
rule policy’ of the British and indifferences among the people of India (high class, middle class
and low class). Education for low class family was out of reach due to social as well as economic
status.

2.2. India’s Contemporary Education: Continuity with and shifts from

Colonial legacy (in brief)
Education is a dynamic process of human development and empowerment. Basic education to
every child is an essential precondition for human resource development. Education in general
and elementary education in particular deserves highest priority on the grounds of social justice
and democracy for raising the competence and productivity of every individual. Quantity as well
quality of education are the key areas in which a country like India faces unprecedented
challenges in finding solutions because of its vastness and socio-cultural diversities.
In spite of various efforts made during the colonial period by both Indians and the
English, the literacy rate of adult population at the time of Independence in 1947 was less than
15%. Colonial period was marked by educational inequalities in different regions, rural-urban
divide, gender disparity as well as difference in enrolment of children from different
class/caste/tribal groups. The standard of education was not at all satisfactory especially at the
school stage with too much emphasis laid down on English and too little stress on Mathematics,
Science, Social Sciences and Indian languages.
The genesis of the movement for free and compulsory education can be traced back
to as early as 18th century. After independence, as per the constitutional provision, under the
Directive Principles of State Policy, Article 45 in Part IV, the target of universal, free and
18
compulsory education should have been achieved by 1960. Unfortunately, the target could not be
achieved even today in spite of various efforts. Then the constitutional amendment by inserting
Article 21A in Part III, elementary education became the fundamental right to free and
compulsory education for the children of age group 6 to 14 years. The RTE Act 2009 is a
commendable effort on the part of the government which entitles the children to right to
education as a fundamental right.
In the contemporary system of education, a number of programmes/schemes such as
the SarvaSikshaAbhiyan (SSA), Mid-Day Meal (MDM) scheme, Non-formal Education (NFE),
Early Child Care and Education (ECCE), Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS),
RastriyaMadhayamicSikshaAbhiyan (RMSA), Sakshar Bharat Mission (SBM) etc. have been
introduced at different points of time which have resulted in rapid expansion of literacy and
education promoting sustainable development and inclusive growth in the country.
The SSA was launched in the year 2000-01 to achieve the goal of Universalization
of Elementary Education (UEE). The SSA has laid special focus on disadvantaged groups of
children in 6-14 age group like children from rural and difficult areas, children from SC, ST,
Minorities communities, children with disabilities, girls and all out of school children.

The MDM scheme was launched in 1995 for providing nutritional support to
primary school children. Its main objective was to improve to universalization of primary
education by enhancing enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving the
nutritional status of children in primary classes.
NFE was introduced in 1977-78 on a pilot basis to focus on out-of school children in the age
group 6-14 years who remained outside the formal system due to soci-economic and cultural
reasons. The NFE programme was revised in 2000 and renamed as Education Guarantee Scheme
(EGS) and Alternative and Innovative Education (AIE). The EGS and AIE schemes was initiated
to support diversified strategies for out of school children including bridge courses, back-to
school camps, seasonal hostels, summer camps, mobile teachers and remedial coaching.

As per the Census report of India, in 1961, the literacy rate of male and female in
Arunachal Pradesh was 12.24% and 1.42% respectively and total literacy rate was 7.13%.
Whereas, the male and female literary rate of India in 1961 was 40.4% and 15.34% respectively
and the total literacy rate was 28.31%.
In 2011, the literacy rate of male and female in Arunachal Pradesh rose to 73.69% and 59.57%
respectively and the total literacy rate rose to 66.95% whereas, the male and female literary rate
of India in 2011 was recorded as 82.14% and 65.46% respectively and the total literacy rate was
74.04%.
the enrolment of girls at the primary and upper primary stages has increased significantly over
the years but a significant gender gap still exists. At the primary level, the gender gap is almost
30% and at the upper primary stage, it is 26%. Therefore, education of girls, especially those
belonging to SC, ST and the deprived groups is the primary focus in SSA. Two major
interventions in this regard are National Programme on Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya (KGBV).
In the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992, specific responsibilities
have been assigned to the Panchayat Raj Institutions to join hands with government for
decentralization of powers for effective functioning of educational institutions.

19
 At the secondary stage, the RashtriyaMadhyamicSikshaAbhiyan (RMSA) has been
introduced for universalisation of secondary education with due emphasis on the quality of
education and vocationalisation of education. For the adult population belonging to the age group
of 15-35, Sakshar Bharat Mission was also launched with its main focus on enhancing women
literacy.

The contemporary Indian system of education has gone through several changes
through enunciation of National Policy of Education implemented at different points of time and
introduction of National Curriculum Frameworks (NCFs) developed as per the need of time. The
National Curriculum Frameworks provided a common curricular guidelines for development
school curriculum and text books in adherence to appropriate pedagogical principles and
common core values. In this process the new concept and practice of evaluation in the form of
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) has been introduced in India’s contemporary
system of education
In conclusion, it can be said that India’s contemporary education is aimed at
improving literacy, universalizing both elementary and secondary education to promote an
equitable and just society free from ignorance and prejudices. It is also aimed at removing
poverty and economic disparity, strengthening national as well as international solidarity and
enriching human resources for sustainable development.

2.3. Role of education in reducing dominance and challenging

Marginalization (with reference to Class, Caste, Tribe, Gender and Religion)
Education, during the colonial period was used as a tool of dominance in India which
helped in creating a social divide of privileged and unprivileged. The marginalized sections of
the society did not have access to education therefore did not have the opportunity of socio-
economic development. Education is the most important and dynamic force in the life of an
individual influencing his social and economic development. Therefore, the education system
which is a sub-system of the society has to take into consideration different factors like caste,
class or social position, economic status, gender relations, religion, cultural diversities etc which
deeply influence one’s access to education. Education is the process of preparing people to fit
into complex social structure through the process of socialization. It helps the child to train for
future role of adult life. Education is the process that enables individual to live together in the
society.

Caste
Caste is based on the traditional notions of ‘Varna’ and ‘Jati’. Varna is a broad reference
category that indicates a group’s position in the traditional fourfold hierarchical system based on
the principle of purity and pollution. The four categories of Varna are the Brahmin, the
Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra. In ancient times, the Varna was categorized according to
their different work culture in the society.. Description of Indian society in terms of varna model
is incomplete without a reference to ‘Jati’. The concept of jati captures the existence of
multiplicity of social groups within and outside of varna model. Jati denotes an endogamous
community with a less defined ritual status and some occupation traditionally linked to it.
Interestingly, there are numerous sub-divisions within jati which are again differentiated in terms
of purity and pollution which is complicated to understand in Indian social culture.
International Commission on Education,1991 submitted a report entitled “Learning: The
Treasure within in 1996” and highlighted Four Pillars of Education- Learning to know, Learning
20
to do, Learning to live together and Learning to be. The role of education is to improve
socialmobility. Social mobility in the modern western context is individual centric but mobility
in the Indian context is group centric. Unlike in the western societies where the social structure is
class based, the structure of the Indian society is caste based. Thus the status of one’s caste at the
time of birth remains until one’s death. The Indian society for a long time is struggling to
become a developed country due to prevalence caste system. In the present Indian context, since
the occupation is not fixed for any caste or creed, persistence of disparity among various
disadvantaged groups presents a disturbing trend which is detrimental to the process of social
mobility. As the status of one’s caste of an individual cannot be changed during the entire span
of one’s life, education can play a catalytic role in developing a positive attitude towards each
and every caste leading to social convergence.

Class
The Indian society is not only infested with the caste system but is also plagued by class
divisions. The problem of class division has been aggravated due to rapid industrialization,
urbanisation and modernisation of the society. On the basis of the economic status of people, the
Indian society at present may be broadly divided into three social classes namely; upper class,
middle class and lower class. The land-lords, well-to-do farmers, industrialists, merchants, high
paid employees, high ranked officers in different jobs constitute the upper class people. Their
economic status is much more in comparison to the common people in the society. The lower
class people are mostly agricultural and industrial labourers, low paid employees and the daily
wages earners. These people are mostly below the poverty line and categorized as BPL class
people. The people in between the upper class and the lower class with average income are
categorized as the middle class people. Education plays a crucial role in the socio-economic
upliftment of people which ultimately determines their class in the social hierarchy. Social
stratification is social inequality; it manifests itself through many forms such as differential
allocation of income, status and privileges, opportunities for various social utilities etc.
Education is the most important and dynamic force in the life of an individual influencing his
social development and mobility. Education leads to changes in the lifestyles of people and class.
It modifies the attitude, habits, manners and mode of social living. Education helps in bridging
up the gaps between the classes and paves way for a class less society.

Tribe
Education has brought about changes in the attitudes, values and pattern of behavior of
individuals and groups in contemporary society. But, the process of change is very slow as
educational expansion has not been uniform across diverse caste and tribal groups. Educational
access for the groups that are marginalized in the Indian context remains poor. No doubt that a
considerable improvement has been made among tribal people of India by the process of
education but the marginal representation of students from Tribes is even today, a reality is an
indicator of unequal educational opportunities.
After Independence, due to establishment of a democratic rule, education has played a vital role
in reproducing dominance and challenging marginalization with reference to Tribe. It may be
seen the drastic changes among tribes in political, economic, scientific and moral. Today role
and responsibility of tribes of the nation are equally influences. The active participation of Tribes
in every fields and activities for the development of the nation is the real example of reproducing
21
challenging marginalization only due to educational improvement. Even though, more
sensitization of Tribal people especially of remote/rural areas people is needed with the
expansion of education to change the difference in marginalization of Tribes in comparison to
others.

Gender
Gender is socio-cultural and refers to masculine and feminine qualities, behavioral,
cultural or psychological traits typically associated with one sex and its roles and responsibilities.
Education plays an important contributory role in the social mobility of individuals and groups
with respect to their social position, occupational structure, life styles, habits and manners. No
doubt, education through various processes promotes knowledge and understanding among
people about needful social changes.
There is the male dominated society in India. Earlier, the role of women was usually to act as
housewives. The discrimination in terms of household expenditure on girls especially for
education might be felt. The distinction between the production and reproduction function of
education by using daughters as domestic help. It is therefore, Girls’ education was totally
neglected earlier but education has made changed the scenario of this discrimination between
boys and girls.
In the Wood despatch 1854, for the first time the need for women education was felt for the
prosperity of the country. National policy of Education (NPE’86) has also accepted the general
inequality and remarked “No discrimination will be made in the education of men and women;
difference based on sex will be eliminated”. But no education has made change the notion about
gender’s role and responsibility. It has been accepted by most of the societies that girls’
education is equally important as boys’ education. She is also able to perform any task that a man
can do. Today, she can be a pilot of fighter plane, driver of Metro train, army officer,
administrative officer, politician, educationist and what not. Really, role and responsibility of
gender has been changed due to education. A man can also do the job of household duty and
others like as woman. Education attempts to do a noble and challenging task in reproducing
dominance and challenging marginalization also with respect to gender. Stress has been laid
upon women equality and empowerment through special attention on girls’ primary education,
provision of informal education for drop-out girls, attracting girls towards vocational and
technical education and to pay special attention to the education for women in the age group 15-
35 years. But the process of change is very slow. Through educational behaviour, sensitization is
needed in every society for elimination of gender discrimination.

Religion
Religious rigidity resists the social change. Social group which believe in old religious traditions
oppose any change in religion bindings. For such groups, anything or any action or any change
which is not according to their rigid religious belief would annoy their religious deity.
Sometimes one religious group tries to dominate to other religious group. Each religion is equal
to one another. Education is the only means of sublimating the religious belief and thus putting
to everyone on the path of right thinking.
A really educated people does not discriminate any individuals on the basis of region. Education
is only the means to reproduce the dominance and challenging marginalization.
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 UNIT 3
Learning, Learners and Teaching
3.1. Concept and nature of Learning
3.2. Different ways of Learning
3.3. Levels of learning- Knowledge, Understanding, Application and Skill
3.4. Meaning of Teaching and its relationship with learning and learner
3.5. Socialization and learning-factors that shape learner’s identity
3.6. Constructs of childhood
Introduction
This Unit (Learning, Learners and Teaching) comprises six sub-units which deal with concept of
learning, learners and teaching. It is known that Education is the modification of behavior and
Psychology is the science of behavior. Without learning of psychological facts, student-teachers
can not improve educational practices. After learning this unit, the student-teachers will have the
concept of Learning and teaching. They will be prepared to motivate to constructs childhood
which is the need of the society.

3.1. Concept and nature of Learning:

(a) Concept of Learning:

Learning is the modification of a behavioral tendency by experience (as exposure to

conditioning).
Various theories developed by Psychologists attempt to define the term in different way. A few
are quoted here-
Melvin H.Marx, “Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour which is function of
prior behaviour (usually called practice).”
Hillgard, “Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through reacting
to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the change in activity cannot be
explained on the basis of native tendencies, maturation or temporary state of organism.”
Wordsworth,R.S. “Any activity can be called learning that so far as it develops the individual
(in any respect, good or bad) and makes his behaviour and experience different from what that
would otherwise have been.”
Skinner, “Learning is both acquisition and retention.”
Thus, Learning is the acquisition of habits, skills, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways
of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to
new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour and enables him to satisfy interests
to attain goals.
Learning is not limited to the school. Learning is the life-long process. It is a process by which
learners change their behaviour, improve performance, recognize their thinking or become
familiar with new concepts and information or knowledge.
24
The above definitions emphasizes four attributes of learning as a process-
i. Learning is a permanent change in behaviour. It does not include change due to
illness, fatigue, maturation and use of toxicants.
ii. Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the learner.
iii. It results in some change of enduring nature.
iv. Learning depends on practice and experience.
(b) Nature of Learning:
Yoakman and Simpson have enumerated nine general characteristics of Learning:
I. Learning is Growth: Learning is the mental growth of the learner.
II. Learning is Adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust himself
adequately in new situation. This nature of learning modifies the behaviour of the
learners.
III. Learning is Organizing experience: Learning is not mere adding of knowledge. It
is the reorganization of experience.
IV. Learning is purposeful: All true learning is based on purpose. According to
Ryburn, “This purpose is always connected with the use of some instinctive
power, with the use of the energy with which we are endowed with birth.” All
school activities should be purposeful so that child may feel a real urge for
learning.
V. Learning is intelligent: Meaningless efforts do not produce permanent result. It
cannot assimilate but simply commits to rote memory.
VI. Learning is active: Learning by doing is the main principle of learning. Learning
does not take place without self-activity.
VII. Learning is both individual and social: Learning is more than an individual
activity. It is also a social activity. Individual learns by his family, friends,
relatives, classmates, teachers and society. Without social participation, an
individuals’ learning is meaningless.
VIII. Learning is the product of the Environment: Environment plays an important role
in the growth and development of the individual. In healthy and rich in educative
environment, individual learns more.
IX. True learning affects the conduct of the Learner: After every experience of
learning, it changes the mental structure of learner. This is why, it modify the
behaviour the learner.
A few educationists have also added the nature of learning as Learning is universal and it is a
life-long process.
3.2. Different ways of Learning
There are different theories of learning. They are Behaviorist theory, Cognitive theory,
Constructivist theory of learning etc. According to these theories of learning, there are four ways
of learning- Trial and Error, Imitation, Insight and by conditioned reflex

I) Trial and Error: The theory of trial and error describes the ways of learning. It
was propuonded by E.L.Thorndike by conducting experiments on cats, chickens,
dogs, fish, monkeys and rats. According to this theory, learning is the stamping in of
the correct responses by the learner and stamping out of the incorrect responses
through the process of trial and error.
25
 When we try to learn something new, it is not possible to grasp it all at once. We have to
make attempts more than once. ‘Learning by doing’ is the best attribute in the trial and error
method of learning. With the help of the results of the experiments, E.L.Thorndike laid down the
three law of learning:
(a) The law of readiness: If the learner is ready to learn, he will learn more quickly and
effectively.
(b) The law of frequency or exercise: This law has two aspects- the law of use and the law of
disuse. The law of use involves that if a particular action is performed repeatedly, it becomes a
part of habit. On the other hand, the law of disuse proves that if something is left after learning, it
is forgotten.
(c) The law of effect: It is also called the law of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. A thing which
gives pleasure is easily learnt.

(II) Learning by Imitation:

Normally, the child imitates what others do. He tries to imitate actions of his elders. The child
learns many things, facts and habits that he sees at home, in the school, on the playground, in the
neighbourhood, in the society etc. In fact, imitation is the natural way of learning.
Bottom has mentioned, “Only the imitative individual is capable of learning and the most
imitative is the most educable.”
Imitation is possible with the conscious as well as unconscious mind. Thus child learns many
things without exerting or knowing about it.
(III) Learning by Insight:
The mode of learning by insight is the product of the work of German psychologists namely
Wertheimer Kohler, Koffka and Lewin. Eventually these German psychologists settled in the
U.S.A. Their theory of learning is known as Gestalt Theory of Learning or Theory of Insight.
According to this approach, a thing or an idea cannot be understood by a simple study of its
constituent parts but by studying it as a totality.
Man is a rational animal and so, with the help of his mental capacity, it is possible to him to
understand the situation and learn. Insight is based on imagination, and those who have a good
deal of imagination are able to learn by this method more successfully.
Kohler experimented on chimpanzee to provide situation for insight and found that process of
learning as a synthetic activity brings forth complete solutions of problems. In this process, the
learner perceives the situation as a whole and tries to understand the relationships between
various factors involved in a situation. As a result of the understanding of the relationship, the
learner suddenly grasp of the solution of the problems.
Basic intelligence of the learner is an important factor in insight learning. Insight occurs when
there is an ample scope for observation in a learning situation. The initial efforts in the form of
trial and error open the way of insight learning.

26
 (IV) Learning by conditioned reflex:
This theory was propounded by the contemporary psychologists Pavlov (citizen of Russia) and
John Broadus Watson (U.S.A).
Pavlov carried out an experiment on the dog. He used to bring a bell while giving food to the
dog. When the food was placed before the dog and the bell was rung, the saliva would secrete in
the mouth of dog. After a few days, it was seen that only bell was rung, but the food was not
placed before the dog, the saliva started secreting. Pavlov named it as way of learning by
Conditioned reflex.
J.B.Watson carried out the experiment on a human baby of 09 months old. A rabbit was given to
the baby to play. The baby liked it very much. He was pleased to touch rabbit’s fur. Watson
watched with great interest the peasant responses of the baby. After some times, Watson made
loud noise to create a fearful situation and found fear response of baby. After that, whenever the
rabbit was given near the baby, he was fearful and did not like to touch the rabbit. Through
conditioned reflex, a nine months baby could make fearful a whole variety of stimuli (rat, rabbit,
goats, wools, etc.).
According to Pavlov, “Different kinds of habits based on training, education and discipline of
any sort are nothing but a long chain of conditioned reflex.”
Filsburg has also said, “Granted the conditioned reflex, the feeling and emotional response may
be changed from any stimulus to any other.”
Using this way of learning method, it is possible for children to develop good ideas, good habits
and form good sentiments. For self-control, this way of learning is very useful. Fear complex and
Phobia etc. can be removed with the help of this method of learning.

3.3. Levels of learning- Knowledge, Understanding, Application and Skill

Different psychologists viewed differently. Bloom taxonomy describes six-tier system of
learning: Knowledge, comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. It is the
cognitive domain starting from simplest (knowledge) to the most complex (Evaluation).The first
ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.
From a learning psychological perspective, levels of learning refer to competencies a learner can
achieve.
(I) Knowledge:
Knowledge applies to facts or ideas acquired by study, investigation, observation or experience.
Learning applies to knowledge acquired especially through formal schooling. In this level of
learning, the following processes are involved: Perception, Retention, Recall and Recognition.
Knowledge is the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through
experience or association. Knowledge can be conceived as experience organized through
language, into patterns of thought and patterns of activity.
Thus, knowledge is the ability to recall learned materials. It can range from the recall of simple
facts to complete theories. It represents the lowest level of learning outcome, requiring only that
the student recall previously learned information. Knowledge is regarded as a finished product,
organized in the form of information to be ‘transferred’ to the child’s mind. It is also called
memory level of learning.
[Key words (Verbs): Describe, identify, recall, arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize,
name, order, recognize, reproduce, select, state etc.]
27
(II) Understanding
When learner learns about any object, action or fact with proper understanding, it is called
understanding level of learning. According to Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Comprehension/Understanding is based on knowledge. Understanding determines the meaning
of instructional messages including oral, written and graphic communication. In the
understanding level of learning, Learners are able to comprehend the meaning, translate and
interpret of instructions and problems. They are able to state a problem in their own words.
Understanding is the power to make experience intelligible by applying concepts and categories.
It is the power of comprehending the knowledge. In understanding level of learning, the
following processes are involved:
i) Learners use their previous knowledge to understand the learning objects, action or
facts.
ii) Learners become able to synthesis the learning objects, action or facts.
iii) Learners discover the hidden facts and differentiate them and are able to use it
properly in new situation.
[Key words (verbs): comprehend, convert, defend, distinguish, classify, estimate, explain,
extend, generalize, give an example, interpret, predict, rewrite, summarize, translate, restate,
discuss, express, locate, review etc.]
(III) Application:
In the Application level of learning, learners are able to use a concept in a new situation.
Application is the capacity for practical use. It is an act of putting to use. According to loom’s
Taxonomy, Application is the third level of learning based on knowledge and understanding.
Application is carried out or used a procedure in a given situation. Knowledge is executed and
implemented under this level of learning. Laurillard (1993) has pointed out, through use in
applied contexts; the goal is testing of understanding, often of abstract concept. Learners, who
have gained the application level of learning of any objects, action or facts, are able to implement
the knowledge in new situation.
[Key words (verbs): apply, change, construct, compute, choose, demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write, discover,
manipulate, modify, prepare, produce, relate etc.]
(IV) Skill:
Skill is the learned ability to carry out a task with pre-determined results often within a
given amount of time, energy or both. An ability and capacity acquired through deliberate,
systematic and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job
functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills) and/or people (interpersonal
skills). Skill level learning is based on attaining knowledge, understanding and application level
learning.
Skills can often be divided into domain general and domain specific skills. For example, in the
domain of work, some general skills would include time management, team work and leadership,
self motivation and others, whereas domain-specific skills would e useful only for a certain job.
Skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill
being shown and used. Skill level learning makes child a perfect learner. The learner is able to
analyze, synthesize the learning objects, action or fact. He is able to evaluate his knowledge and
understanding and may apply the knowledge in specific time interval. Skill level learning
improves the critical thinking of learners.

28
 There are different kinds of skills. Some are-
i) Life-skill: Life-skills are problem-solving behaviours that are used appropriately and
responsibly in the management of personal affairs.
ii) People skill: People skills are described as understanding ourselves and moderating our
responses, talking effectively and empathizing accurately, building relationships of trust, respect
and productive interactions.
iii) Social skill: Social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others,
social rules and relations are created, communicated and changed in verbal and non-verbal ways.
The process of such skill is called socialization.

3.4. Meaning of Teaching and its relationship with learning and learner
Teaching:
Teaching involves verbal and non-verbal communication to make the students learn the specific
subject matter. All acts on the part of teacher are to help students in learning. How smoothly and
efficiently the learning takes place depends upon the teaching skills.
The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training. It is interaction between
teacher and learners. It is an art to transact knowledge to learners with effective way. It is a
science to educate learners the fact and causes of different topics of different subjects. In fact,
teaching encourages learners to learn more and more. In teaching, teacher imparts information in
interesting way so that learners can easily understand the information.

Learning:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in the behaviour or response as a result of
experience, practice or training on account of the interaction between the learner and the
environment (usually school and the teacher). As a result, some changes take place in the
individual. The outcomes of learning from learning activities may be changed in attitudes, skills,
social competence as well as abstract and creative thinking. According to Boaz, ”Learning is a
process by which the individual acquires various habits, knowledge and attitude that are
necessary to meet the demands of life in general.

Learner: Learners are those children or person who is ready to gain knowledge or
understanding of or skill in by study, instruction or experience.
Relationshipof teaching with learning and learners: There are very close relationship of
teaching with learning and learners. Bruton has rightly said, “Teaching is the stimulation,
guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.” Also, Learner’s age, intelligence, mental
state, physical state, health and attitude are the important factors that affect the learning.
According to the law of readiness of learning, if learners are not ready to learn, it is impossible to
teach. Natureof thesubject matter, behaviour, personality and ability of the teacher and
teaching technique and methods are the factors that affect learning. Thus, a teacher must learn
the effective method of teaching, principle of learning and level of learners. A teacher cannot
teach successfully if s(he) does not learn, ‘how to learn?’, ‘who to learn?’ and ‘what to learn?’.
Best learning takes place when a teacher is successful in arousing interest among the learners
to learn.

29
3.5. Socialization and learning-factors that shape learner’s identity:
Socialization shapes the learner’s identity. John Dewey believed, “A socially efficient individual
would be able to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.” Individual and society are
complementary. Socialization requires identification- a process that contributes to a sense of
whom one is and who one wants to be. This process is a result of observation, imitation and
interaction with others.
Learner’s identity refers to the organization of the individual’s drives, abilities, beliefs and
history into a consistent image of self. It involves deliberate choices and decisions particularly
about work, values, ideology and commitments to people and ideas.
Learning factors: Learner’s heredity, physical health, mental health, innate capacities and
abilities, will and determination and local environment (Society including school and teacher)
are the learner’s factor that shape the learner’s identity. Home and family are the first social
institutions where a child learns his first lesson of living together, working together and helping
one another.
Biologically, of course, the individual is a self-sufficient unity. It is education that transforms
him into harmonious personality, gives him character, moral and aesthetic sense and thus makes
him fit to live in society.
Child wants social approval of her/his acts, tries many experiments and eager to show her/his
qualities of self-consciousness, cooperation and sacrifice for the friend and society and in return
s(he) wants his identity in the society.
Society is the source of all human values. The individual accepts the social ideals as his own.
The individual realizes his best by being socialized. The function of education is to enable the
individual to develop himself fully according to means compatible with the interests of the
society.
Thus, socialization and learning are the most important factors that shape the learners identity.

3.6. Constructs of childhood:

Human development can be described to occur in stages. These stages are Infancy, childhood,
Adolescence and Adulthood. The period of 3 years to 12 years of age is called childhood.
According to Havighurst, “ at each new stage of development there are certain tasks, skill,
attitudes and understanding that must be met before a person can move on to a higher level of
development. According to him, “…at or about a certain period in the life of the individual,
successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and success with later tasks, while failure
leads to unhappiness, disapproval by society and difficulty with later tasks.”
A construct is that explanation or theory in verbal, graphical or mathematical from of a
phenomenon that can be inferred from its effects or from evidences. Many concepts in
psychology like intelligence, interest, aptitudes, and attitudes are constructs.
Some of the children are deprived of enjoying their childhood. Child labour, child beggar, Girl
child who look after younger siblings to ensure their family’s livelihood may be seen in our
society and nation. What may be the reason of out of school children even after implementation
of RTE Act’2009? The teachers, parents/Guardians, community and society may construct the
30
childhood. Let guide to all children to enjoy their childhood. Let them help to construct
childhood. Consider the following case to construct childhood:
I. The child as Innocent: The image has been constructed to view the child as pure
and innocent with no worries in the world. As educators, we need to provide a
safe and nurturing environment for children. It is our duty to let them explorer,
learn and make mistakes and not to shelter them from reality.
II. The out of control child: The image of the child lighting a fire shows the out of
control construct, as the child demonstrates some of the characteristics associated
with this traits such as aggressive, self-destructive and violent behaviour. As
educators, if we see a child exhibiting this type of behaviour, recognizing the
problems and getting to the source of the problems, may be beyond our control.
However, recommending counseling and being aware of the early signs of
depression or anxiety can help us assist the child in the classroom. Educators
should be mindful that the child might be acting out for a reason.
III. The noble child: The noble child is seen to take on adult responsibilities and
sacrifice for the good of others. These children may have to fend a lot more for
themselves than other children of the same age. They may be cooking for
themselves and other family members or taking responsibilities for household
running in other ways. Implication of the construct on the child to make hard and
often bad decisions due to lack of maturity and being responsible for tasks that is
beyond the child’s capability. In this construction, childhood is not seen as a
different phase to adulthood. Some children have to work, perform household
duties and look after younger siblings to ensure their family’s livelihood. As
educators, it is our duty to be open minded about different cultures and their
expectations of childhood. It is essential that we advocate for all students,
ensuring they are given a chance to learn, participate in society and receive
education.
IV. The Miniature Adult: The image of a child using an iPod and becoming
increasingly angry and frustrated seems to e a common occurrence in today’s
society. The snowballing child control over the adult and considering the
changing social conditions of the twenty-first century. Educators must be mindful
to not encourage this behaviour by bribing their students or offering rewards for
bad behaviour. Instead, educators must advocate for positive behaviours and plan
for activities and learning experience that encourage pro-social behaviour, team
building and remove the child from self-centred thoughts or activities.
V. The commodified child: The child labour is the curse of the nation. The
commodified child is evil derives from the concept of original sign. Children were
often beaten to rid them of evil. This construct displays harsh and unnecessary
discipline which would never be accepted in today’s society. Children should be
given a chance at life to succeed and grow into adult through life experiences and
education. A child’s best interest seems to have been forfeited in favour of adults’
self-interest. Jhon Holt (1974) states much of what adults respond to in children as
cute is not strength or virtue, real or imagined but weakness a quality which gives
us power over them to help us feel superior. Within our social climate, this
construct is fearfully present as reality television, social media and construction of
stereotypes almost encourage child exploitation. As educators, we must see each
child as an individual helping them to develop their own personalities and
abilities.
 VI. The evil child: Children and adolescents, without knowledge or confidence that
comes with age are amongst the most powerless people in 21st century society
(Baker &Gerler, 2008). As educators, we need to provide support for families and
children affected by poverty and focus on teaching parents, Guardians and the
future generation that education will bring the family a better life in the future.
VII. The child as victim: A normal childhood depends where he lives. There are
different cultural approaches for development as different communities of
children in relation to when they are able to engage in particular activities or
being responsible for others (Roguff,2003). The image of young children working
with pitchforks shows the child as victim of the country in which they were born
and is without a voice in this environment. Unfortunately, the adults responsible
for the child are in the same environment also without a voice, suffering alongside
the child (Sorin& Galloway,2006). As educators, we must be open- minded about
how different cultures teach their children and note the difference circumstances
in which they are living.
VIII. The Agentic child: Leon (2012), “The Agentic child construct is relatively new
construct that appeals to me, as I believe children’s voices and opinion should be
heard and considered, as children are our future.” As educators, we must listen to
the voice and opinion of children even in the classroom situation and must try to
give its solution to construct the childhood.
We cannot forget our childhood. We wanted to return back to our most pleasant childhood but it
is impossible to return childhood of Adult. Construct childhood and construct the nation as
children are the future of nation.

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 UNIT 4
Knowledge and Curriculum
Course outline
4.1. Child’s construction of knowledge attaining knowledge through activity and
experience
4.2. Concepts of belief, information, knowledge and understanding
4.3. Process and criteria for curriculum selection and construction
4.4. Knowledge and power-representation, inclusion and exclusion of knowledge of
different social groups in curriculum and textbooks.
Introduction
This Unit (Knowledge and Curriculum)comprises four sub-units which deal with the knowledge
and curriculum. After learning this unit, the student-teachers will have the knowledge of
curriculum construction. They will have the concept of belief, information, knowledge and
understanding. They will be able to construct knowledge through activity and experience. In this
unit, they will learn which kind of knowledge should be included or excluded in the curriculum
and textbooks. Courses in knowledge, identity and power provide a distinct site for student-
teachers to develop their understanding of the dynamics and consequences of power differentials
inequalities and division among social groups and relationship of these issues to the
representation and production of knowledge.

4.1. Child’s construction of knowledge attaining knowledge

through activity and experience:
In Constructivist perspective, learning is a process of construction of knowledge. Construction is
a philosophical view which states that every individual has the capacity to construct knowledge.
Construction indicates that each learner individually and socially constructs knowledge, it means
S(he) learns.
Learners actively construct their own knowledge by connecting new ideas to the existing ideas
on the basis of materials/activities presented to them (experience).
According to the principle of construction for the class room practices, the information may be
shared by the teachers but knowledge generation or understanding is the primary responsibilities
of the individual student. The teacher’s own role in children’s cognition could be enhanced if
they assume a more active role in relation to the process of knowledge construction in which
they are engaged. A child constructs her/his knowledge while engaged in the process of learning.
Allowing children to ask question that require to relate what they are learning in school to things
happening outside, encouraging children to answer in their own words and from their own
experiences rather than memorizing and getting answers right in just one way- all these are small
but important steps in helping children to develop their own understanding. In this process of
activity and experience, every child constructs knowledge on his own. It is not individual
cognition which is the sole generating force in knowledge construction, rather knowledge is
culturally negotiated or generated in cooperation and understanding with others. Knowledge
construction is the primary responsibility of the learners, the teacher acts as a facilitator in the
process.
Inside the classroom, the teacher in her/his own sets detailed learning objectives, plans for

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effective use of time, ensures classroom discipline and arranges the availability of teaching-
learning materials amongst other things to ensure active participation of each and every child.
Children are considered as active participants rather than passive recipients during the learning
process. In this process through activity and experience, children attain better knowledge that
may be used by them in their life-situation.

4.2. Concepts of belief, information, knowledge and understanding:

(a) Belief:
Belief is a state or habit of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in some person or
thing. It is conviction of the truth of some statement or the reality of some being or phenomenon
especially when based on examination of evidence.
Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a conjecture or premise to
be true. Dispositional and occupant belief concerns the contextual activation of the belief into
thoughts (reactive of proposition) or ideas (based on the belief premise).
The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of belief (the
proposition). So like other propositional attitude, belief implies the existence of mental states and
internality, both of which are hotly debated topics in the philosophy of mind, whose foundations
and relation to brain states are still controversial.
e.g; Most of us have belief in the existence of Almighty God who is the super power in the
universe and He is controlling the nature whereas a few have no belief in the existence of God.
Beliefs are sometimes divided into core belief and dispositional belief. Core belief is
actively thought about and Dispositional belief may be ascribed to someone who has not thought
about the issue.
For example, if asked “do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas?” a person might answer that
they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. It is a kind
of dispositional belief.
A belief is a mental state has been seen by some as argumentative. While some have
argued that beliefs are represented in the mind as sentence-like constructs, others have gone as
far as arguing that there is no consistent or coherent mental representation that underlies common
use of the belief concept and that it is obsolete and should be rejected.
Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary approaches to belief in
her controversial book saving Belief:
i. OurCommon-sense understanding of belief is correct- sometimes called the
“mental sentence theory”. In this connection, belief exists as coherent entity, and
the way we talk about it in everyday life is a valid basis for scientific Endeavour.
Jerry Foder is one of the principle defenders of this point of view.
ii. Our common-sense understanding of belief may not be entirely correct, but it is
close enough to make some useful predictions- This view argues that we will
eventually reject the idea of belief as we use it now, but that there may be a
correlation between what we take to be a belief when someone says “ I believe
that snow is white” and how a future theory of psychology will explain this
behaviour. Most notably Philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this particular
understanding of belief.
iii. Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong and will be
completely superseded by a radically different theory that will have no use for the

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 iv. concept of belief as we know it- known as eliminativism. Most notably proposed
by Paul and Patricia Churchland argues that concept of belief.
v. Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong; however, treating
people, animals, and even computers as if they had beliefs is often a successful
strategy- The major proponents of this view are Daniel Dennett and Lynne
Rudder Baker. They hold that beliefs are not a scientifically valid concept, but
they don’t go as far as rejecting the concept of belief as a predictive device.

(b) Information:
Information is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message. Information can be
recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals. Information is any kind of event that affects the state
of a dynamic system that can interpret the Information.
Conceptually, Information is the message (utterance or expression) being conveyed. In general
sense, Information is “knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or
circumstance”. Information cannot be predicted and resolves uncertainty. The uncertainty of an
event is measured by its probability of occurrence and inversely proportional to that. The more
uncertain an event, the more information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event.
The concept that Information is the message has different meaning in different context. Thus the
concept of information becomes closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control,
data, instruction, knowledge, meaning, understanding, mental stimuli, pattern, perception,
representation etc.
Thus information is the facts or details about somebody or something. Information is the
knowledge obtained from investigation, study or instruction. It is the attribute inherent in and
communicated by one of two or more alternative sequences or arrangements of something (such
as Binary digits in a computer programme) that produce specific effects.

(c) Knowledge:
Knowledge is the fact or condition of being aware of something. It is the circumstance or
condition of apprehending truth or fact through reasoning.
Knowledge is familiarity, awareness or understanding of someone or something, such as facts,
information, descriptions or skills, which is acquired through experience or education by
perceiving, discovering or learning. Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical
understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as
with the theoretical understanding of a subject). It can be more or less formal or systemic. In
philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology.
Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, communication,
association and reasoning; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of
acknowledgement in human beings.
The definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among the philosophers in the field of
epistemology. The Philosopher Plato defined Knowledge as ‘justified true belief’. Some claim
that these condition i.e justified, true and belief are not sufficient. There are a number of
alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick’s arguments for a requirement that knowledge
‘tracks and truth’ and Simon Blackburns’ additional requirement that we do not want to say that
who meet any of these conditions’ through a defect, flaw or failure’ have knowledge. Richard
Kirkham suggests that our definition of Knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief
necessitates its truth.

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(d) Understanding:
Understanding is a psychological process to grasp something. It is the power of comprehending
especially the capacity to apprehend general relations of particular facts. Understanding is the
power to make experience intelligible by applying concepts and categories.
Understanding is a process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation or
message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that
object. Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding.
Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge sufficient
to support intelligent behaviour.
Knowledge, Understanding, Application, Skill, Analysis and synthesis are instructional
objectives in the Teaching- Learning process. Knowledge without understanding cannot be
intelligently applied in general life situation. Understanding of knowledge improves the skill of
learners.
Dr. Benjamin S. Bloom (1956) has classified the changes of behaviour in three categories of
domains: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. According to “Taxonomy of Educational
objectives” or Bloom’s Taxonomy”, Knowledge, Understanding, Application, Analysis,
Synthesis and Evaluation are in cognitive domain category.
After understanding of terms, concepts, symbols, definitions, principles, processes etc. the
learners are able to give illustrations, detect errors and correct them, compare, discriminate
between closely related concepts, classify as per criteria, transfer verbal statements into symbolic
statements and vice-versa, estimate the result, interpret and verify. Thus, understanding develops
the intellectual abilities and skills of learners.

4.3. Process and criteria for curriculum selection and construction

The NCERT emerged as a nodal agency at the national level in the area of school education. It
was involved directly in the process of curriculum development and preparation of textbooks.
This was gradually followed by the establishment of the State Institute of Education, State
Textbook Boards, and the State Institute of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) for
providing technical support to research and development activities related to the formulation of
curriculum and the preparation of textbooks at the State/Union territory level.
National curriculum Framework (NCF)-1975, NCF-1988 and NCF-2000 had proposed the
principle for curriculum development to aim at enabling learners to acquire knowledge, develop
understanding and inculcate skills, positive attitudes, values and habits conducive to the all
round development of their personality.
National Curriculum Framework ‘2005’ has proposed five guiding principles for Curriculum
selection and construction. These are connecting knowledge to life outside the school; ensuring
that learning shifts away from rote methods; enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond
textbooks; making examinations more flexible and integrating them with classroom life; and
nurturing an identify soaked in caring concerns within the democratic polity of the country.
Keeping in mind the above facts, there are the following stages for process and criteria for
curriculum selection and construction:

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Step one: Formulation of Objectives
The first step in the compacting process is the formulation of objectives. It may be considered
the following criteria-

• To what extent do these objectives represent new learning?

• Which objectives will help students increase their use of this content Area?
• Which objectives can be applied to the workplace?
• Which objectives deal with developing skills or concepts, as opted to merely
memorizing facts?
• Which objectives are important for high ability students to understand?
• Which cannot be learned without formal or sustained instruction?
• Which objectives reflect the priorities of the school, district or state government,
department of education?
After the objectives are selected, they should be listed by priority. Because of their importance,
the higher ranked items are the ones teachers will concentrate on with the entire class, while the
less relevant ones are prime candidates for compacting.
Step Two: Selection and organization of Appropriate Learning-material
The selection of suitable content depends to a great extent on that basic consideration that
underlie in the formation of objectives. The facts of constructivist approach that ‘Knowledge is
constructed by the child’. It implies that curriculum, syllabi ad text books should enable the
teacher to organize classroom experiences in consonance with the child’s nature and
environment and providing opportunities for all children.
The NCF-2005, has recommended the softening of subject boundaries so that children can get a
taste of integrated knowledge and joy of understanding. In addition, plurality of textbooks and
other materials, which could incorporate local knowledge and traditional skills, and a stimulating
school environment which responds to the child’s home and community environment, are also
suggested.
Step Three: Selection of suitable Learning Experiences
The achievement of the objectives already elicited and further clarified into behaviour
changes depends upon suitable and well organized learning experiences which are presented to
the students in order to produce effective learning. The proper organization of learning
experiences depends a number of factors such as-

▪ Age, needs and previous experiences of the learner

▪ Needs of a particular community
▪ Abilities of the children
▪ Facilities available in the school
▪ Readiness, maturity and capabilities of the child
▪ Attention and interest of the learner

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The following criteria should keep in view while selecting and organizing learning experiences:

➢ Learning experiences should be appropriate to behaviour changes defined under

objectives.
➢ They should be suitable for the content area.
➢ They should be practicable.
➢ They should be adequate and effective.
Step Four: Selection of suitable material for Evaluation of Curriculum
Evaluation and curriculum are regarded as closely related parts of the same educative
process, not as distinct and separate functions. The needs, interests, attitudes and abilities of child
should be kept in mind while selecting suitable material for evaluation of curriculum.

4.4. Knowledge and power-representation, inclusion and exclusion of

knowledge of different social groups in curriculum and textbooks:
Curriculum is the path or way over which a child runs to achieve the aims of education.
According to Cunnigham, “curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artists (the teacher) to mould
his material (the pupil) according to his ideals (aims and objectives) in his studio (the school).”
John Deway emphasized that education takes place in and through the society in which the
teacher and taught both line. Thus it is the society which will determines the aims, content or
curriculum and methods of teaching. Without curriculum, neither the teacher will be able to
impart knowledge effectively nor will the learner be able to learn anything correctly.
The guiding principle to construct curriculum as per NCF-2005 is connecting knowledge to life
outside the school and enriching curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather
than remain textbook centric. Learning to learn and willingness to unlearn and relearn are
important as means of responding to new situations in a flexible and creative manner. The
curriculum needs to emphasize the process of constructing knowledge.
The curriculum needs to provide experiences that build the knowledge-base through a
progressive introduction to the capabilities of thinking rationally, to understand the world
through the disciplines, aesthetic appreciation and sensitivity to others, to work and to participate
in economic processes.
The question, ‘what should be taught to the children? ; Have the knowledge of different social
groups be treated equally in the curriculum?’; ‘What kind of knowledge should be included or
excluded in curriculum and textbooks?’; ‘Which knowledge of different social group should be
included or excluded in curriculum and textbooks?’’Is there Knowledge for disadvantaged group
and special groups included or not in the curriculum?’ The answer of these questions describes
the aim of education as per current needs of the society. We may find the answer of these
questions in brief in the guiding principle of NCF-2005 to construct the curriculum.
Knowledge can be conceived as experience organized through language, into pattern of thoughts.
It can also be conceived of as patterns of activity, or physical dexterity with thought, contributing
to acting in the world, creating and making of things. Knowledge in terms of not only the
‘product’, but also the underlying principles of how it is created, how it is organized, who
accesses it, and what is used for? It suggests that in the curriculum, there must be as much focus
on the process of learning, on how learners engage with and reconstruct knowledge, as on the
content of what is learnt. Areas of Knowledge such as crafts, sports, Information and
communication Technology, Music, art, Health and physical education etc. should be integrated

38
with subjects’ knowledge. It should be included in the curriculum to make the children able to
construct knowledge and explore novel ways of knowing the world.
According to National Curriculum Framework’2005, “Subject based approach to organizing the
curriculum tends to present knowledge as ‘packaged’ usually in textbooks, along with associated
rituals of examination to assess, and marks as a way of judging competence in the subject area.
The knowledge of subject area seems fragmented rather than interrelated and integrated. The
discipline rather than child’s way of viewing the world tends to become the starting point and
boundaries get constructed between knowledge in the school and knowledge outside.
Information takes precedence over knowledge, lending itself to producing bulky textbooks,
quizzing and mechanical retrieval rather than understanding and problem solving. This tendency
of mistaking information for knowledge leads to ‘loading’ the curriculum with too many facts to
be remembered. But guiding principle of NCF-2005 emphasized, “Ensuring that learning is
sifted away from rote method.”
Thus, such type of Knowledge may be excluded from the curriculum and textbooks.
The representation of knowledge in textbooks and other materials to be included in each subject
area requires careful examinations in terms of socio-economic and cultural conditions and goals.
Curriculum should be based on social ideals and values and such subjects should be included in
the curriculum which can socialize the children and help them to understand the social need.
Equal power-representation of each and every category of people as per the needs of the society
and nation should be included in the curriculum.
The main aim of social tendency is to develop society. According to this base, those subjects and
activities should be included in the curriculum, which provide assistance in developing
appreciation of sociability. This tendency emphasizes inclusion of social qualities in children so
that they also contribute their best to social welfare and advancements.
The child’s community and local environment from the primary context in which learning takes
place, and in which knowledge acquires is significance. It is in interaction with the environment
that the child constructs knowledge. NCF-2005 emphasized the significance of contextualizing
education: of situating learning in child’s context and of making a porous boundary between the
school and it’s natural and social environment. This is not only because the local environment
and the child’s own experiences is the best ‘entry point’ into the study of the disciplines of the
knowledge, but more so because knowledge is to connect with the world. It is not a means to an
end, but both means and end. This does not require us to reduce knowledge to the functional and
immediately relevant but to realize its dynamism by connecting with the world through it.
The education system does not function in isolation from the society of which it is a part.
Hierarchies of caste, economic status and gender relations, cultural diversity as well as uneven
development that characterize Indian society, also deeply influence access to education and
participation of children in schools. The cultures of different social groups may be included in
curriculum and textbooks so that the children will be well acquainted with other societies. There
are a lot of good things in different social groups that may be adopted by one another. Especially
in Social science, such type of knowledge may be included to know the culture and civilization
of others.
India is a democratic country. The Constitution of India guarantees equality of status and
opportunity to all citizens. The vision of democracy articulated by the Secondary Education
Commission (1952), “Citizenship in a democracy involves many intellectual, social and moral
qualities…a democratic citizen should have the understanding and the intellectual integrity to sift
truth from falsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the dangerous appeal of fanaticism and
prejudice…should neither reject the old because it is old nor accept the new because it is new,

39
but dispassionately examine both and courageously reject what arrests the forces of justice and
progress…”
Superstition, an irrational attitude of a group, fanaticism etc. of any social group should be
excluded from curriculum. Any knowledge that may hurt any social groups must be excluded
from the curriculum and textbooks. Bias statement that may hurt any social group should also be
excluded from curriculum and textbooks. Living in harmony within oneself and with one’s
natural and social environment is a basic human need.

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