SCHOOL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

CHIEF EDUCATIONAL OFFICER

CHENNAI DISTRICT

HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

PHYSICS

LEARNING MATERIAL

2022 -23
 Conceived and scripted by

Name of the Head Master/

Name of the School
Teacher

Dr. R.C. Sripriya PA to CEO

Santhome Hr. Sec. School,

Mr. C. Paul Amalan
Chennai – 4

K. Ramiah Chetty ARC GHSS,

Mrs.B.Shivabala
Chennai-1

Mr. M. Karunanithy SKPD ( B) Hr. Sec. School, Chennai-7

St. Paul's Hr. Sec. School, Vepery,

Mr. G. Abiramaeswaran
Chennai-7

Mr. N. Iyngaran KCS Hr. Sec. School, Chennai-21

MMDA Govt. Model Hr. Sec. School,

Mrs. V. Rama
Arumbakkam, Chennai -106

MMDA Govt. Model Hr. Sec. School,

Mrs. T. Venkateshwari
Arumbakkam, Chennai -106

Mrs. R. Punitha JGGGHSS, Virugambakkam, Chennai

 PERSPICUOUS PHYSICS

Under the stewardship of CEO Chennai , we physics

teachers of Chennai have made an earnest attempt to present

12th Standard physics in a student friendly manner for them to

come out successfully with flying colours in their public exam

The two strategies of this venture are, selecting the

topics and exhausting the concepts in it in a very simple way,

so that the students can assimilate it easily in a short duration.

Setting goals is the first step in turning the invisible into

the visible

All the best in all your endeavours

 Index

Page
S.No. Lesson Title
No.

1 1 Electrostatics 1

2 2 Current Electricity 10

3 5 Electromagnetic Waves 16

Dual Nature of Radiation and

4 8 19
Matter

5 9 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 26

 1 . ELECTROSTATICS

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. What is called electrostatics?

 Branch of physics dealing with charges at rest or stationary charges
2. What is Called triboelectric charging?
 Charging the object through rubbing is called triboelectric charging.
3. What is meant by quantisation of charges?
 The charge in an object q = ne.
 Here n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4….. and e is electron charge.
4. State conservation of electric charges.
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed
 In any physical process, the net change in charge will be zero.
5. Write down Coulomb’s law in vector form and mention what each term represents.
 Coulomb’s law in vector form 𝐹⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟̂
 Here, 𝐹⃗ - the force between point charges
 𝑞1,q2 - magnitude of point charges
 r - distance between the two charges
 𝑟̂ - the unit vector pointing along the line joining 𝑞1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2
6. State coulomb’s law in electrostatics.
 The electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two
point charges
 And is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
 i.e 𝐹⃗ 𝛼 𝑟̂
7. Write short notes on superposition principle
 The total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by
all the other charges.
 𝐹 ⃗ = 𝐹⃗ 12 +𝐹⃗ 13 + 𝐹⃗ 14 + ⋯ … . .+ 𝐹⃗ 1𝑛
8. Define electric field. Give its unit.
 The electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit charge placed at that
point.
 Its unit is N𝑪-𝟏 (or) Vm -1.
9. What is meant by electric field lines.
 A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the electric field in some
region of space is called electric field lines.
10. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
 If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric field vectors at that
point.
 If a charge is placed in the intersection point, then it has to move in two different directions
at the same time, which is physically impossible. Hence, electric field lines do not intersect
11. What is an electric dipole? Give the magnitude and direction of dipole moment.
 Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
 The magnitude of dipole moment is equal to the product of the magnitude of one of the
charges and the distance between them. (i.e) 𝑝 = 2qa.
 Direction is from –q to +q

1|Page
12. Define Electrostatic potential. Give its unit.
 The electrostatic potential at a point is equal to the work done by an external force to bring a
unit positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to that point in the region of the
external electric field.
 Its unit is volt (V).
13. Define potential difference. Give its unit.
 The electric potential difference is defined as the work done by an external force to bring
unit positive charge from one point to another point against the electric field.
 Its unit is volt (V)
14. What is an Equipotential Surface?
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same electric
potential.
15. What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
 The work done to move a charge between any two points on the equipotential surface is
zero.
 The electric field must always be normal to an equipotential surface.
16. Give the relation between electric field and electric potential.
 Electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential. (i. e ) 𝐸 = −
17. Define Electrostatic potential energy. Give its unit.
 Electrostatic potential energy for system of charges is equal to the work done to arrange the
charges in the given configuration.
 Its unit is joule ( J ).
18. Define Electric flux. Give its unit.
 The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field lines
is called electric flux.
 Its unit is 𝑵𝒎𝟐𝑪-𝟏
19. State Gauss law in electrostatics.
 The total electric flux through a closed surface 𝜙𝐸 =
 Here Qenclosed is the net charge enclosed by the surface.
20. Define electrostatic energy density.
 The electrostatic potential energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy
density.
21. What is dielectric (or) insulator?
 A dielectric is a non-conducting material and has no free electrons.
 Examples: Ebonite, glass and mica.
22. What are non polar molecules? Give examples.
 A non polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and negative charges
coincide.
 It has no permanent dipole moment. Examples : O2, H2, CO2.
23. What are polar molecules ? Give examples.
 A polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and the negative charges are
separated.
 They have a permanent dipole moment. Examples : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3.
24. Define (electric) polarisation?
 (Electric) Polarisation is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the
dielectric.
25. Define electric susceptibility. Give its unit.
 Electric susceptibility is defined as polarization per unit external electric field. 𝑃⃗ = 𝜒𝑒 𝐸⃗ 𝑒𝑥.
 Its unit is 𝑪2 𝑵-1𝒎-2.

2|Page
26. What is dielectric breakdown.?
 When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart
so that the bound charges become free charges.
 Then the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is called dielectric breakdown.
27. What is dielectric strength?
 The maximum electric field, the dielectric can withstand before it breakdown is called
dielectric strength.
 E.g. dielectric field strength of air is 3×106 Vm-1.
28. What is an electrostatic induction?
 The phenomenon of charging without actual contact of charged body is called electrostatic
induction.
29. Define capacitance of a capacitor. Give its unit.
 The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on either
of the conductor plates to the potential difference existing between them. (i.e) 𝐶=𝑄/𝑉
 Its unit is farad (F) or CV-1.
30. Write a note on electrostatic shielding.
 It is the process of isolating a certain region of space from external field. 𝐸⃗ inside is zero.
 A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external electrical disturbance
is kept inside the cavity of a charged conductor. This is called electrostatic shielding. (e.g)
Faraday cage.
31. What is corona discharge (or) action at points ?
 Leakage of electric charges from the sharp edge of the charged conductor is called corona
discharge or action at points.
32. Why is it safer to be inside a car than standing under a tree during lightning?
 The metal body of the car provides electrostatic shielding, since the electric field inside is
zero.
 During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the car.

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Distinguish between Coulomb force and Gravitational force.

S.No. Coulomb forces Gravitational force

1 Force between two charges Force between two masses
2 Force can be attractive or repulsive Force is only attractive
3 Force always greater in magnitude Force always lesser in magnitude
4 Force depends on nature of the medium Force independent of the medium
2. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed in the uniform
electric field.
 Consider an electric dipole AB placed in an uniform
electric field 𝐸⃗ at an angle 𝜃.
 The force on +q = q𝐸⃗ ; The force on -q = − q𝐸⃗ .
 Due to these two forces the dipole experiences a
torque.
 Torque (𝜏) = qE x 2a sin𝜃.
 Since ( p = 2qa): 𝜏 = pE sin𝜃.
 In vector notation, 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗×𝐸⃗
3. List the properties of electric field lines.
i) They start from positive charge and end at negative charge.
ii) The electric field is tangential to the electric field line at that point.
iii)If E is greater field lines are closer. If E is lesser field lines are far apart.
3|Page
 iv) Electric field lines do not intersect each other.
v) From a charge the number of electric field line is N =
4. Obtain an expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
 The electric potential at the point is defined
as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point against
the electric force.
 Consider a point charge +𝒒 at origin. Let P
be a point at a distance r from the origin.
 Electric potential at P, 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸⃗ .𝑑𝑟⃗.
 By definition, at P the electric field, 𝐸 = 𝑟̂
 V=−∫ 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
 V=
5. Obtain Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law.
 Consider a point charge +q. C-is a point at a
distance of r from the charge. qo is test charge.
 Coulomb force between the charges,
𝐹⃗= 𝑟̂
 From Gauss’s law, the electric flux 𝜑 =
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ∮ 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ∮ 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝐴⃗
 ∮ 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 4πr2
 ⸫𝜑 =
 This is Gauss’s law.
 Thus we can obtain Gauss’s law from
Coulomb’s law.
6. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors
Applications of capacitor:
i) Flash capacitors are used in digital camera.
ii) It is used in heart defibrillator.
iii) Capacitors are used in automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
iv) Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations and to increase the efficiency of power
transmission.
Disadvantage:
Even after the battery or power supply is removed, it causes unwanted electric shock.
7. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
 Consider a capacitor consisting two parallel plates of area A and
separated by a distance d.
 Capacitance of capacitor C= . Q =charge, V= potential
difference.
 Charge Q= σA. (⸪ surface charge density σ = )
 Potential difference between the plates V=Ed= d. (⸪ E = )
 Substitute for Q and V
C= =

4|Page
8. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor.
 The work done to transfer 𝑑𝑄 charge; dW = VdQ = dQ. ( ∵ 𝑉 = )
 The total work done to charge a capacitor ;W= ∫ 𝑑𝑄 =
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of the capacitor
U= (or) CV2
9. Discuss the various properties of conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.
 The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor, whether the conductor is solid or
hollow.
 The charges must reside only on the surface of the conductors. Qnet inside is zero
 The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor. E = ,
σ = surface charge density.
 The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and inside of the conductor.
10. Explain the process of electrostatic induction.
 Charging without actual contact is called electrostatic induction.
 An uncharged conducting sphere at rest on an insulating stand.
 Suppose a negatively charged rod is brought near the sphere without touching.
 As a result, nearer surface of the sphere becomes positively charged and other side becomes
negative.
 The other side of the sphere is connected to the ground through a conducting wire and then
removed.
 Now the charged negative rod is taken away from the conductor. The positive charges
remains and gets distributed uniformly on the surface.
11. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric field is induced inside a dielectric.
 A dielectric is a non-conducting material and has no free
electrons.
 When an external electric field is applied, the electrons
are not free to move anywhere but they are realigned in
such a way that an internal electric field is created
 The created electric field is tend to cancel the external
electric field.
 The magnitude of the internal electric field is smaller than
that of external electric field.
 The net electric field is not zero. 𝐸⃗ net = 𝐸⃗ ext - 𝐸⃗ int
12. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a conductor and the principle behind the
lightning conductor.
Qty Sphere A Sphere B
Charge q1 q2
Radius r1 r2
Potential VA = VB =
 When spheres are connected by conducting wire, then VA = VB
 = ; =
 σ1r1 = σ2r2; in general σr=constant.
 Principle of lighting conductor is electrostatic induction and
action of point.
13. Discuss the basic properties of electric charges.
 Write Answers of 2 mark questions 5 and 6
 Write Answers of 3 mark question 1
 F = 𝜀 FO, F > FO, 𝜀 > 1
5|Page
14. Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its various aspects.
 Write Answers of 2 mark questions 3 and 4
 Charges are an inherent property of particles. Unit is coulomb.
15. Obtain an expression for potential energy due to a collection of three point charges which
are separated by finite distances.
 Potential energy general equation U = .
 Potential energy due to q1 and q2, U12 = .
 Potential energy due to q2 and q3, U23 = .
 Potential energy due to q1 and q3, U13 = .
 Total potential energy U = U12 + U23 + U13
 U= + +
16. Obtain electrostatic potential energy of dipole in a uniform electric field.
 Electrostatic potential energy for system of charges is
equal to the work done to arrange the charges in the
given configuration.
 The work done by the external torque to rotate the
dipole from angle θ′ to θ is
W = ∫ 𝜏 𝑑𝜃
 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 W = ∫ 𝑝𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
 W = - pECos𝜃 + pECosθ′
 If the initial angle is θ′ = 90O , then the potential energy stored in the system is
U = - pECos𝜃

5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its axial line.

 AB – dipole, O – it’s midpoint, C – a point on
axial line
 AB= 2a, OC = r
 Electric field at C due to +q, 𝐸⃗ + = ℇ ( ) 𝑝̂
 Electric field at C due to −q, 𝐸⃗ − = - ℇ ( )
𝑝̂
 The total electric field at ‘c’ due to dipole is 𝐸⃗ tot = 𝐸⃗ + + 𝐸⃗ −
𝐸⃗ tot = ℇ (
− )
𝑝̂
ℇ ( )
𝐸⃗ tot = ℇ ( )
𝑝̂
⃗
 If r>>a then 𝐸⃗ tot = ℇ
[∵ 𝑝⃗ = 2aq𝑝̂ ]
 𝐸⃗ tot is along 𝑝⃗
2. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
equatorial line.
 AB – dipole, O – it’s midpoint, C – a point on
equatorial plane. AB= 2a, OC = r
 Electric field at C due to +q, 𝐸⃗ = ℇ ( )
.
 Electric field at C due to −q, 𝐸⃗ = ℇ ( )
.

6|Page
  Here , 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗
𝐸⃗ Sin𝜃 & 𝐸⃗ Sin𝜃 are equal and opposite, so they cancel each other.
𝐸⃗ Cos𝜃 & 𝐸⃗ Cos𝜃 are equal and same direction, so they add up together.
𝐸⃗ tot = -2 𝐸⃗ Cos𝜃 𝑝̂
 Here, Cos𝜃 = ⃗
/ ; Therefor 𝐸 tot = - 2 / 𝑝̂
( ) ℇ ( )( )
𝐸⃗ tot = - ℇ ( ) /
𝑝̂
⃗
 If r>>a then , 𝐸⃗ tot = - ℇ
, [∵ 𝑝⃗ = 2aq𝑝̂ ]
 𝐸⃗ tot is opposite to 𝑝⃗
3. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential due to electric dipole.
 AB – dipole, O – It’s midpoint, P – point at any point.
 AB= 2a, OP = r, AP = r2, BP=r1.
 Electric potential at P due to +q , 𝑉1 = ℇ
 Electric potential at P due to −q , 𝑉2 = - ℇ
 Electric potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is
V=
ℇ
- ℇ
V= ℇ
−

∴ = 1+ and ∴ = 1−
1 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
By substuting, V = ℇ
1+ − 𝑟
1−
𝑟
⃗. ̂
V= ℇ
= ℇ
(Since p=2qa) (or) V= ℇ
ϴ = 0o V= ℇ
o
ϴ = 180 V=− ℇ
o
ϴ = 90 V=0
4. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire.
 Consider an infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear
charge density 𝜆. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝜆 = .
 Gaussian surface : A cylinder of length L and radius r.
 The total electric flux is
𝜑 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ .
Curved Top Bottom
Surface Surface Surface
Surface 𝜽 Cos𝜽 ∫ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑨⃗
o
Top 90 0 0
o
Bottom 90 0 0
Curved 0o 1 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴
 Therefore 𝜑 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = E (2πrL)
 According to Gauss’s law 𝜑 =
 By applying Gauss’s law; E (2πrL) =
E= : 𝐸⃗ = 𝑟̂
 The direction of is perpendicular to wire. If 𝜆 > 0, then pointing outward, if 𝜆< 0 inward.

7|Page
5. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an charged infinite plane sheet.
 Consider an infinitely charged plane sheet of uniform linear
of surface charge density σ. 𝑖. 𝑒 σ = .
 Electric field : Let E be the electric field at P which is at a
distance r from the sheet.
 Gaussian surface : a cylinder of length 2r and area of cross
section A
 The total electric flux is
 𝜑 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ .
Curved Surface p p’
Surface 𝜽 Cos𝜽 ∫ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑨⃗
o
Curved 90 0 0
P 0 1 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴
P’ 0o 1 ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴
 Therefore 𝜑 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = = EA+EA = 2 EA
p p’

 According to Gauss’s law 𝜑 =

𝛔 𝛔
 By apply Gauss’s law: 2EA = . Therefore E = 𝟐𝜺 ;In vector form 𝐸⃗ = 𝟐𝜺 𝑟̂ .
𝒐 𝒐
6. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an uniformly charged spherical shell.

At a point outside the shell At a point on the surface of At a point inside the shell
the shell
Gaussian Surface : Sphere Gaussian Surface : Sphere Gaussian Surface : Sphere
with r with r with r
R- Radius of spherical shell, R- Radius of spherical shell, R- Radius of spherical shell,
r>R r=R r<R

Substitute r = R

According to Gauss’s law According to Gauss’s law

∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
Since 𝜃 = 0, E = constant, Since 𝜃 = 0, E = constant,
A=4πr2, 𝑄 =Q A=4πr2, 𝑄 =0
2 2
E(4πr ) = E= E(4πr ) =
E= E=0

8|Page
7. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series
and in parallel.
Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel
C1,C2 and C3 are connected in series. CS is C1,C2 and C3 are connected in parallel. CP is
equivalent capacitance equivalent capacitance

Each capacitor has same amount of charge Each capacitor has same potential difference
(Q). But V across each will be different. (V). But Q will be different.
V = V1 + V2 +V3 Q = Q1 + Q2 +Q3
V = : V1= ; V2= ; V3= Q = CpV; Q1 = C1V; Q2 = C2V; Q3 = C3V.

= + + CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V

CP = C1 + C2 + C3
= + +
The reciprocal of the equivalent The equivalent capacitance is equal to the
capacitance is equal to the sum of the sum of the individual capacitance.
reciprocal of each capacitance.

8. Explain in detail the effect of introducing a dielectric medium between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor, when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery.
Quantity Connected Battery and before After disconnecting Battery and
introducing dielectric after introducing dielectric
Charge Qo Qo
Voltage Vo V
Electric Field Eo E
Capacitance Co = C=𝜀 = 𝜀 Co
 Effect of di electric medium between the plates
Quantity Value Effect of dielectric when 𝜺𝒓 >1
Electric Field E= E < E o, Decreased.
Potential Difference V= V < Vo, Decreased.
Capacitance C = 𝜀 Co C > Co, Increased.
Energy U= U < Uo, Decreased.

9. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator.

 Principle : Electrostatic induction and Action at points.
 Construction :
 A is a hollow spherical conductor.
 B and C are pulleys and they are connected by a silk belt
 D and E are metallic combs
 The comb D is at a positive potential of 104 𝑉.
 The upper comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side of the hollow metal sphere.

9|Page
  Working of comb D:
 Due to action of point air near comb D gets ionized.
 The positive charges are repelled to the belt.
 And negative charges are attracted towards the comb
D.
 The positive charges are carried by the belt and reach
comb E.
 Working of comb E:
 Due to electrostatic induction ,the comb ‘E’ get
negative charges and the sphere gets positive charges.
 Due to action at points at ‘E’ ,descending belt has no
charge.
 Charge leakage:
 Beyond 107𝑉 of the sphere, the charges start leaking.
 It is prevented by enclosing the sphere with a gas filled
chamber.
 Application:
 Used to accelerate positive ions (protons and deuterons) in nuclear disintegrations.

************
2. Current electricity
2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Define electric current and give its unit

 The rate of flow of charges through a given cross Sectional area in a conductor.
 Unit is A
2. Why is nichrome used as heating element in electric heater?
Nichrome has
 high specitic resistance (𝜌)
 high melting point
 heated to very high temperature without oxidation.
3. Electric Current is a Scalar. Why?
 It does not obey to vector laws even through it has magnitude and direction.
4. Define current density and give its unit
 Current flowing per unit area of cross section of the conductor J= I/A; Unit Am-2
5. Give microscopic form of ohm’s law
 Current density is directly Proportional to applied electric filed
 JE; J=E;  Conductivity.
6. Give macroscopic form of Ohm’s law
 V= IR; V-Potential difference; I-Current; R-Resistance
7. Define Electrical resistivity & give its unit.
 Resistance offered to the current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross
section.
8. Define temperature Co-efficient of resistivity and give its unit
 The ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in tempenture to its resistivity at 0o C
 Its unit is /oC
9. State Kirchuff’s first rule (Current law or junction)
 The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in a circuit is zero.
 At junction ∑ 𝐼 = 0

10 | P a g e
10. State Kirchoff’s second rule (voltage law or loop law)
 The algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each part of the circuit is
equal to the total emf included in the Circuit
 ∑ 𝐼𝑅 = ∑ 𝐸
11. State the Principle of potentiometer.
 The emf of a cell is directly proportional to balancing length. ie.. E ∝ 𝑙
12. Define internal resistance of a cell?
 The resistance given by the ions of the electrolyte to the flow of electric charges inside the
cell.
13. What is known as superconductivity? (or) state critical temp
 It is the property of the materials whose resistance become zero below certain temperature
called critical Temp (or) Transition temp.
 The materials at this temperature are called super conductor.
14. State Joule’s law of heating
 Heat produced due to the flow of current in a conductor is directly proportional to
 square of the current (H∝I2)
 Resistance of the conductor (H∝R)
 time of flow (H∝t)
15. What is seebeck effect?
 When the junctions of the two dissimilar metals are kept at two different temperatures, an
emf (potential Difference) is developed. This phenomenon is called Seebeck effect.
16. What is Peltier effect?
 When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at
one junction and absorbed at the other junction.
17. What is Thomson effect?
 When electric current is passed through a conductor in which two points are at different
temperature, heat is either evolved or absorbed throughout the conductor.
18. State the applications of seebeck effect.
 Seebeck effect is used in
 electric generators (to convert heat energy into electric energy)
 automotive thermo electric generators to increase fuel efficiency
 thermo couple & thermopiles to measure the temperature difference between two objects.
19. Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility.
Drift velocity Mobility
The average velocity gained by the electrons Drift velocity per unit electric field (E)
inside the conductor when it is subjected to
an electric field (E)
It is unit is m/s (or) ms-1 Its unit is m2V-1s-1

20. What are ohmic and non-ohmic material

Ohmic materials Non-ohmic material
V-I graph in a straight line V-I graph is non – linear (not straight)
Obey to ohm’s law Does not obey to ohm’s law.
They have constant resistance (R=V/I) They don’t have constant resistance

21. Differentiate Joule’s heating effect and peltier effect

Joule’s heating effect Peltier effect
It is irreversible It is reversible
H I2 (Heat produced is directly HI (Heat Produced per time is directly
proportional to square of the current) proportional to current)
Independent of the direction of current Depends on the direction of current
11 | P a g e
22. Differentiate electric energy and electric power.
Electric energy (U) Electric Power (P)
Work done (W) by the cell to move the Electric energy delivered per unit time
charge from one and to another of the 𝑃=
conductor
SI unit is Joule. Its unit is Joule/second (or) watt
Its practical unit is kilowatt-hour (Kwh) Its practical unit is horse power (HP)
1 kwh = 3.6x106 J 1 H.P = 746 w.

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Obtain the macroscopic form of ohm’s law from its microscopic form Microscopic form
 Microscopic form
 By ohm’s law J =  E ---------1
 Current density J = ---------2
 Sub 2 in 1; = E
 Electric field E =
 Therefore = 
 V= =I
 V = IR. This is the macroscopic form of ohm’s law
2. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and parallel resistor network
Resistances connected in series
 R1, R2 and R3 are resistances connected in series
 V - Potential difference applied; I-Current in series
 I – Same; but V – different
 V=V1+V2+V3
 IRS=IR1+IR2+IR3
 Effective Resistance RS = R1+R2+R3
Resistances connected in Parallel
 R1, R2 and R3 are resistances connected in Parallel
 V - Potential difference applied; I-Current in series
 V – Same; but I – different
 I = I1+I2+I3
 = + +
 = + +
3. Explain the determination of internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter.
 When the electric circuit is open, reading in the voltmeters (v) is equal
to emf () of the cell.
 V =   1
 When the electrical circuit is closed (current I is drawn), By including
external Resistance R
 Potential drop across R ; V=IR ------ 2
 Due to internal resistance r the reading in Voltmeter is V which is less
than 
 = V + Ir
12 | P a g e
  Ir = -V ----------- 3
 gives; =
 r= R
4. Explain the Principle of a Potentiometer.
 Primary circuit: The battery (Bt), key (k) and Potentiometer
wire (CD) are Connected in Series to form Primary Circuit.
 Secondary circuit: The Positive terminal of a cell of emf 𝜀 is
connected to the point C and negative is connected to the
Jockey J through a galvanometer G and a high resistance
HR. This forms a secondary circuit.
 Contact is made at any point J on the wire. If potential
difference across CJ = emf () of the cell, no current will
flow through the galvanometer and it will show zero deflection.
 CJ = balancing length.
 Potential difference across CJ = Irl
 I – Current, r- resistance/length and l – balancing length
 emf of the cell = potential difference across CJ
 =Irl
  ∝ l. (Since I, r are constants)
 emf of the cell is directly proportional to its balancing length
5. Explain series and Parallel Connections in cells.
Cells in Series
 n cells having internal resistance r and emf  are connected in
series.
 Total emf = 
 E = n 1
 Total internal resistances = r+r+r+..........+r = nr (Since all ‘r’ in series)
 Total resistance in the circuit = nr + R ------ 2
 Current in the circuit =
 Substitute 1 and 2
I= -------------- 3
 Case : 1; If r<<<R, nr is neglected. So I =
 Case : 2 If r>>>R, R is neglected. So, I =
Cells in Parallel
 n cells having internal resistance r and emf  are connected in
parallel
 Since all the cells are connected in Parallel, total emf = 
 Reciprocal of the total internal resistance
 = + +…………+ (n terms) =
 Total resistance in the circuit =
 Total Current in the circuit I =
 I=
 Case 1: If r >>R, I =
 Case 2: If r <<R, I =

13 | P a g e
5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Describe the microscopic model of correct and obtain general form of ohm’s law
 n-number of electrons /volume in a conductor
 A-Area of cross section of the conductor
 Vd- Drift velocity of electron
 dt-time taken to travel the distance ‘dx’
 Number of electrons available in the volume element
 Total Electrons in the volume element (Adx)
N = nAdx = nA(Vd dt) = nAVd dt ---- 1
 Total charge in the Volume element
dQ=Ne=nAVd dt e 
 Current I =
 I = nAeVd
 Current Density J = = neVd = = neE
 𝐽⃗ = 𝐸⃗
 But Conventionally we take the direction of current density as direction of the electric field.
2. State and explain Kirchoff’s rules.
Kirchoff’s First rule:
 The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of the circuit
is zero.
 Current entering into the junction is taken as +ve (Positive) and
leaving the junction is taken as – ve (negative)
 It is obeying the statement of the law of conservation of electric
charges
 I1+I2-I3-I4-I5=0.
Kirchoff’s second rule
 In a closed circuit, the algebraic
sum of the products of current and
resistance of each part of the circuit
is equal to the total emf included in
the circuit.
 This rule obeys the law of
conservation of energy.
 The product of current and
resistance is taken as +ve when we follow the direction of current.
 The Product of the current and resistance is taken as –ve when we follow the direction
opposite to the direction of current.
 The emf of the cell 𝜀 is considered as positive (+ve) when we proceed from –ve to +ve
terminal.
 The emf of the cell 𝜀 is considered as Negative (–ve) when we proceed from +ve terminal
to –ve terminal.
3. Explain the determination of unknown resistance using meter bridge
Construction :
 A uniform wire of manganin AB of one meter length is
stretched along a meter scale on a wooden board between
two copper strips.
 In the gap G1 unknown resistance P and in the gap G2
standard resistance Q is connected.
 A Jockey is connected to the terminal E on the central

14 | P a g e
 strip through the galvanometer (G) and a high resistance (HR)
 A Lechlanche cell and a key are connected between the ends of the bridge wire.
Working
 The Position of the jockey on the wire is adjusted so that the galvanometer shows Zero
deflection.
 The resistance corresponding to AJ (l1), and JB (l2) of the bridge wire form the
( )
resistances R and S of the Wheatstone’s S bridge. = = ( ) =
 Unknown resistance P=Q
 The end resistance due to the bridge wire soldered at the ends of the strips can be
eliminated if another set of reading is taken with ‘p’ and ‘Q’ interchanged and average
value of ‘P’ is found.
 Specific resistance of the material of the wire  =
4. Obtain the Condition for bridge balance in Wheatstone’s bridge.
 The bridge consists of four resistances P,Q,R and S connected
as shown in figure.
 The galvanometer G is connected between the point B and D
 The battery is connected between the points A and C
 The current through the galvanometer G is Ig and its resistance
is G.
 Applying Kirchoff’s current rule to junction B and D
respectively.
At B I1-IG-I3 = 0 ------- 
At D I2+IG-I4 = 0 ------- 
 Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage rule to the loop ABDA
I1P+IGG – I2R = 0 ------- 
 Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage rule to the loop BCDB
I3Q – IGG – I4S = 0 ------- 
 Substitute IG=0 in , ,  & 
I1 = I3 ---------- 
I2 = I4 ---------- 
I1P = I2R ---------- 
I3Q = I4S ---------- 
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 gives =
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5. How the emf of two cells are compared using potention
 Primary circuit: Potentiometer wire (CD) is connected in series with
Battery (Bt), Key (K) and Rheostat (Rh).
 Secondary Circuit: The end C of Potentiometer wire in connected to
a terminal M of a DPDT switch and another terminal N is connected
to a Jockey (J) through a Galvanometer (G), a high resistance HR
 The cells whose emf 1, and 2 to be compared are connected to the
terminal M1, N1 and M2 N2 of the DPDT switch.
 I – Steady current Passing through the Potentiometer wire, r-
resistance per unit length of Potentiometer wire.
 Procedure : 1
Initially the cell of emf  is included in the secondary circuit and the balancing length l1
is found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection.
According to the principle of the Potentiometer 1 = Irl1 ------------ 1
 Procedure : 2
The cell of emf 2 is included in the secondary circuit and the balancing length l2 is found.
15 | P a g e
 According to the principle of the Potentiometer 2 = Irl2 ----------- 2
 gives =
 =
6. Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using Potentiometer
 Primary circuit: Potentiometer is connected in series with battery
(Bt) and Key (K1).
 Secondary circuit: The cell whose internal resistance is to be
calculated is connected in parallel with resistance box R and key
K2 is open.
 According to the Principle of Potentiometer, Balancing length l1,
in determined when key K2 is open.
 According to the principle of Potentiometer, ∝ l1 --------- 
 When the key K2 is closed, the balancing length l2 is determined
 ∝ l2 ------------- 2
 r= R ---------- 3
 Substituting R1, l1, l2 in equation 3, the internal resistance ‘r’ can be calculated.

**********

5 – ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. What are electromagnetic waves?

 Non – Mechanical transverse wave travelling with speed of light in vacuum.
2. What are Fraunhoffer lines? Give its application.
 Dark lines found in solar spectrum.
 It helps to identify elements in Sun’s atmosphere.
3. Give Ampere – Maxwell law.
 E.dl  0 ic  id 
l
ic - conduction current

∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 𝑖 + 𝜀 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ id – displacement current

4. Give the equations of Electromagnetic waves.
 Ex = Eosin (kz - ωt), By = Bosin (kz - ωt)
5. What is the Velocity of Electromagnetic wave in a medium?
E
v  o  C Ratio of amplitudes of Electric and magnetic field in it.
B0 .

16 | P a g e
6. Give the source and use of the following:
(i) Radiowaves, (ii) Microwaves (iii) Infrared (iv) Visible light (v) Ultra violet (vi) x-rays
(vii) Gammarays

S.No. WAVE SOURCE USE

1. Radio Wave Accelerated charge in Radio, Television, communication in
wires UHF
2. Micro Wave Vacuum tubes Radar, Microwave oven, wireless
communication
3. Infrared Hot bodies, molecular Energy to satellites, TV remote, Heat
transition therapy, photography, Dehydrated
fruits
4. Visible light Incandescent object, Study of molecular structure, vision,
excited atoms in gases photo.
5. Ultra violet Sun, ionized gases Sterilize surgical instruments, Burglar
alarm, Detect finger prints, invisible
writing.
6. X- rays Electron transition Detect fractures, diseased organ,
Electron deceleration formation of bones and stones, flaws
and holes in metal.
7. Gamma Nuclear transition Radio therapy for cancer, tumor, kill
Rays microorganism in food industry.

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. What is Maxwell’s modification in Ampere’s circuital law?

 Ampere’s circuital law → B.dl   o ic , ic – conduction current
 l

 Maxwell introduced displacement current

 Ampere Maxwell law →  B.dl  o ic  id  , id – displacement current
l

 id is due to time varying electric flux.

 id   0 d ,  B.dl  0  ic   0 d 
dt  l  dt 
 ⸫ Magnetic field can be either due to ic or id.
2. What is displacement current? Obtain an expression for it.
Displacement current is due to time varying electric flux in a region.
d d  q  1 dq 1
     id
dt dt   0   0 dt  0

⸫ id   0 dE
dt
3. What is Maxwell’s law of induction?
d
 Faradays EMI,  E.dl   B  time varying magnetic flux producing E
l
dt
 Similarly Maxwells’ modification B.dl  0 0 dE  time varying electric flux producing B
 l
dt
4. Give importance of Maxwell’s correction.
 Radiations from sun travel through empty space and reach us.
 There are no charges, no current in empty space.

17 | P a g e
  Ampere’s law → B is due to conduction current
 Then Radiation won’t be there in space
 Maxwell’s modification → B can also be due to time varying electric flux.
 Thus time varying B produces time varying E → Faraday’s EMI
 Similarly by time varying E produces time varying B → Maxwell’s modification explains
propagation of EM wave.

5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Write down Maxwell’s equations in integral form

Eqn. Law Equation Significance
No.
I Gauss’s law in Q Isolated positive charge or negative
electrostatics  E.dA  nc
s
charge exist
0

II Gauss’s law in No isolated magnetic pole exist.

magnetism  B . dA
s
 0

III Faraday’s law d Line integral of electric field around any

of EMI  E.dl   dt  
l
B
closed path = - (Rate of change of
magnetic flux)
IV Ampere -  B.dl   i 0 c  id  Line integral of magnetic field around
Maxwell law l
any closed path = µ0 (conduction current
d E
id   0 + displacement current)
dt

2. List down the properties of electromagnetic waves.

 Source → accelerated charge
 No medium required for propagation
 Transverse wave.
 Speed of EM wave = speed of light = c = = 3X 108 ms-1
c
 For a medium, relative permittivity is  r , relative permeability is  r ; n    r  r
v
 Not deflected by E and B
 Show interference, diffraction, polarization
 Carry energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.
 EM wave falls on surface and it is absorbed
Energy delivered is U, momentum imparted is p =
 EM wave is reflected from surface, momentum delivered
∆𝑃 = - =
3. Describe production of electromagnetic waves by Hertz experiment.
Construction:
 2 small spherical metals as electrodes
 These are connected to larger spheres
 Ends are connected to induction coil to produce EMF.
 Air between electrodes gets ionized to produce spark
 This discharge of electricity affects another set of ring shaped
electrodes at far distance
 If receiver is rotated 900, no spark is seen.
 This confirms EM waves are transverse
18 | P a g e
  Speed of EM Wave = 3 x 108ms-1 in vacuum.
4. What is emission spectrum? Classify with example
 Spectrum of self-luminous source.
Classification – continuous, line, band.
Continuous Line Band
 Light from incandescent  Light from hot gas is  Several number of
lamp is passed through passed through prism. closely spaced spectral
prism lines overlap to form
bands with dark spaces.
 Splits into 7 colours  Sharp lines of definite  It has sharp edge at one
 Contains all visible wavelength end and fades out at
colours from violet to red  Due to excited atoms of another
 Ex: spectrum from element  Due to excited
carbon arc.  Characteristic of element molecules.
 Ex: spectra of Atomic  Characteristic of
H2 molecules
 Ex: spectra of Ammonia
gas
 Use: Study structure of
molecules.

5. What is absorption spectrum? Classify with examples.

 Light is allowed to pass through a medium or absorbing substance, then the spectrum
obtained is absorption spectrum.
 Classification – continuous, line, band.

Continuous absorption Line absorption Band absorption

 White light is passed  Light is passed through  Light is passed through
through blue glass, it cold gas, it is obtained iodine vapour, dark
absorbs all colours  Eg: light is passed bands on continuous
except blue. through sodium vapour, bright background is
continuous spectrum obtained.
with 2 dark lines in  Eg: white light passed
yellow region is through dilute blood or
obtained. chlorophyll.

**********

8. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Why do metals have a large number of free electrons?

 In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to the nucleus.
 Even at room temperature, there are a large number of free electrons which are moving in a
random manner.
2. Define work function. Give its unit.
 The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is called work function of the metal.
 Unit : eV (or) electron volt

19 | P a g e
3. What is surface barrier?
 The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface
is called surface barrier.
4. What do you mean by Electron Emission? Explain briefly various methods of Electron
emission?
 The liberation of free electrons from any surface of a substance is called Electron Emission.
S.No. Types Process Example
I Thermionic A metal is heated to a high temperature Electron
Emission microscope
Ii Field Emission A very strong electric field is applied Field emission
across the metal. Display
Iii Photo electric A suitable frequency of Electromagnetic Photo diodes
emission radiation incident on the metal.
iv Secondary A beam of fast moving electrons strikes Photo multiplier
Emission the surface of the metal tubes

5. Define electron volt (eV).

 It is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a
potential difference of 1 Volt.
 1eV =1.6×10-19 ×1V=1.6×10-19 J
6. What is photo electric effect?
 The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when
electromagnetic radiations of sufficiently high frequency are incident on it, is called
photoelectric effect.
7. Define stopping potential.
 It is the minimum value of negative potential that must be applied to the anode to
make the photo electric current zero.
8. Define threshold frequency.
 For a given metallic surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only if the
frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called Threshold
frequency.
9. What is meant by dual nature of radiation?
 Light behaves as a wave during its propagation and behaves as aparticle during its
interaction with matter.
10. What are matter waves? (or) What are Debroglie waves?
 The wave particle duality of radiation was extended to matter by De Broglie.
Accoring to De Broglie hypothesis all material particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons in motion are associated with waves. These waves are called De Broglie
waves (or) matter waves.
11. What is photo cell? What are its types?
 It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It works on the
principle of photo electric effect.
 Three types : Photo emissive cell, photo voltaic cell, photo conductive cell.
12. Give the definition of intensity of light according to quantum concept and its unit.
 According to quantum theory, number of photons incident per unit area per unit time, with
each photon having same energy.
 Unit: Wm–2

20 | P a g e
13. Why do we do not see the wave properties of base ball ?
 According to debroglie wavelength of matter waves
 = h/m v (ie)   1/m
 Since mass of ball is higher, the wavelength is shorter.
14. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a charged particle of
charge q and mass m, when it is accelerated through a potential V.
 =
15. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength  associated with a particle of mass m in
in terms of its kinetic energy K.
=
√
16. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How are the de Broglie
wavelengths associated with them related?
 =
√
 Kinetic Energy K equal;  
√
 Mass of alpha particle is high when compared to mass of an electron,
 ⸫ electron > alpha
 A low massive electron has a longer wavelength than an alpha particle.
17. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de Broglie
wavelength. Justify.
 =
√
 Kinetic Energy K equal;  
√
 mp > me ; e > p
 A low massive electron has a longer wavelength than a proton.
18. What is Bremsstrahlung or Braking Radiation?
 The radiation produced from decelerating electron in continuous X-ray spectrum is called
Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation.

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.

 For a given metallic surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency
of incident light is greater than certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.
 For a given frequency of incident light ( above threshold frequency ) , the number of photo
electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity of the incident
light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident light.
 There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.
2. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of electron.
 m = mass of an electron
 electron accelerated through a potential V – volt
 The kinetic energy of the electron is given by ½ mv2 = eV
√
 The speed of the electron is v = .
 De Broglie wavelength of the electron is  =

21 | P a g e
  Substituting for v we get,  

  
√
. 𝐴0
 Substituting the known values, 𝜆 =
√
3. List out the characteristics of photons.
 Each photon will have energy E = hν, h – Planck’s constant, ν – frequency of radiation.
E = hc /  (  – wavelength )
 The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation not by intensity.
 The photons travel with the speed of light.
 They are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
 During photon interaction with matter, the total energy, total linear momentum and total
angular momentum are conserved.
4. Give the applications of photo cells.
 As switches and sensors.
 Automatic lights that turn on in dark.
 Street lights that switch on and off in night or day.
 For reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
 As timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
 To find exposure time in photography.
5. Write a note on Continuous X-ray spectra.
 When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a
target nucleus, the electron either accelerates (or) decelerates.
 The radiation produced from such decelerating electron is
called Bremsstrahlung (or) braking radiation.
 The energy of the photon emitted = The loss of kinetic
energy of the electron.
 hvo = hc/o = eV
vo - Maximum frequency; o - Minimum wavelength
 Substituting the known values, o = Ao
 This is called Duane – Hunt formula.
6. Write a note on Characteristic X-ray spectra.
 When the target is hit by fast electrons, the obtained X-ray
spectra shows some narrow peaks at some well-defined
wavelength.

 The line spectrum showing these peaks is called Characteristic

X-ray spectrum.
 For example, when an energetic electron penetrates in to the
target atom and removes the electrons in K-shell and creates a
vacancy in it.
 So the electrons from outer orbits (L,M,N,O,…) jump to fill
up the vacancy in K-shell.
 The energy difference between the levels is given out in the
form of X-ray photon.
 K-series ( K  , K  , K  , … ) originates due to electronic
transition from L,M,N,O,… shells to K shell.
 L series ( L  , L  , L  , … ) originates due to electronic transition from M,N,O shells to
L shell.
22 | P a g e
7. List out X-ray properties.
 X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength ranging from 0.1Ao to 100Ao.
 They travel along straight lines with the velocity of light.
 X-rays are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
 They pass through materials which are opaque to visible light.
 The quality of X-rays is measured in terms of their penetrating power.
 The intensity of X-rays is dependent on the number of electrons striking the target.
8. List out the applications of X-rays.
 a) In medical field :
 It is used to detect fractures, foreign bodies in medical diagnosis.
 It is used to cure malignant tumours.
 In Industry :
 It is used to check the flaws in welded joints, tennis balls.
 It is used for detection of contra band goods in customs.
 In Scientific research :
 It is used to study the structure of the crystalline materials.

5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Explain the effect of Potential difference on photoelectric current.

 Frequency, Intensity – Constant.
 Positive Anode potential increases, Photo current
increases.
 Finally Photo current reaches saturation.
 When a negative potential is applied to A photocurrent
becomes zero V0 called stopping potential (or) cut off
potential.
 The negative potential when given to the collecting
electrode, photo electrons emitted make the photo
current zero, is called stopping potential.
 The initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron (Kmax)
is equal to the work done by the stopping potential to stop it. (eVo)
 Kmax = ½ m𝑣 2max = eVo
𝑉 =
 Stopping potential and the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of
intensity of the incident light.
2. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with stopping potential.
 The intensity of the incident light is kept constant.
 If frequency of the incident radiation is increased the
kinetic energy of Photoelectrons and hence stopping
potential also increases.
 Stopping potential varies linearly with frequency. Below
certain frequency called threshold frequency no electrons
are emitted. Stopping potential is zero.

3. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with necessary explanation.

 When a photon of energy hv is incident on a metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a
single electron and is utilized in two ways.

23 | P a g e
  Part of the photon energy is used for the ejection of the
electrons from the metal surface and it is called work
function. (o).
 Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (½mv2) of the
ejected electron.
 From the law of conservation of energy,
hv = o + ½ mv2 … (1)
 Here m – mass of the electron and v – velocity.
 At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of ejected electrons will be zero.
hv0 = o … (2)
 Substitute (2) in (1)
hv = hvo + ½mv2 … (3)
 The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it is emitted with maximum
kinetic energy. Therefore, hv = hvo + ½ mv2max … (4)
 Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron Kmax = ½ mv2max
 Then, hv = hvo + Kmax … (5)
Kmax = hv – hvo
4. Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.
Principle :
 Photoelectric effect.
Construction :
 It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
 Two metallic electrodes - Anode and Cathode are fixed.
 The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is coated with a
photo sensitive material.
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire.
 A potential difference is applied between the anode and the
cathode through a galvanometer G.
Working :
 When cathode is irradiated with suitable radiation, electrons are emitted and attracted by
anode and hence a current is produced.
 Current is measured by the galvanometer.
 The magnitude of the current depends on:
 The intensity of incident radiation and
 The potential difference between anode and cathode.
5. Explain the principle and working of electron microscope.
Principle:
 The wave nature of the moving electron.
Construction &Working :
 In electron microscope focusing of electron beam is done
by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by
high potentials.
 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.
 When the beam passes through the sample whose
magnified image is needed, the beam carries the image of
the sample.
 With the help of magnetic objective lens and magnetic
projector lens system, the magnified image is obtained on
the screen.

24 | P a g e
 Uses:
 Its magnification is more than 2,00,000.

6. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment which demonstrated the wave nature of
electrons.
 Experiment demonstrates that electron beams are
diffracted when they fall on crystal.
Construction :
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
battery.
 Electrons are emitted from the hot filament by
thermionic emission.
 They are then accelerated due to the potential difference
between the filament and the anode aluminium cylinder
by a high tension (H.T.) battery.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a single
crystal of Nickel.
Working :
 The intensity of electron scattered by Ni atoms in different directions are measured by the
electron detector which is capable of rotation.
 For a given accelerating voltage (54V), the scattered wave shows a maximum intensity at
an angle of 50o .

 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured as a function of angle  between
the incident beam and the scattered beam.
Conclusion :
 The wavelength of electron
 By experiment (angle = 50 o)  = 1.65 A o
.
 De Broglie equation (V = 54 V)   Ao
√
. o
   A =1.67 A°
√
 This value agrees with experimentally observed
wavelength.

**********

25 | P a g e
 9. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Give the properties of (i) cathode rays (ii) neutrons (iii) neutrino
Cathode rays Neutron Neutrino
 Travel in straight line  Zero charge  Zero charge
 Deflected by 𝐸 and 𝐵
⃗ ⃗  Not deflected by 𝐸 and 𝐵  Antiparticle is antineutrino
⃗ ⃗
 Ionize gas  Inside nucleus stable  Tiny mass
 It speed = c mn > mH  Difficult to detect
 Affect photographic  Based on kinetic energy 3
plates types : slow, fast &
thermal neutrons

2. List down the properties of nuclear force

 Strong force
 short range
 attractive
 Nuclear force is same for p-n, n-n, and p-p
 Force which holds nucleons inside nucleus.
3. Define Half-life.
 Time required for number of atoms initially present to reduce one half of initial amount
0.693
 T1 / 2 

4. Define a) Isotope b) Isobar c) Isotone with an example for each
Elements Atomic No Mass No Example
1 2
Isotope Same Same Different 1 H , 1H

Isobar Different Different Same 16 Si 40 , 17 cl 40

Isotone Different Different Different Same no of neutron 5 B12 , 6 C 13

5. Define Impact parameter

 Perpendicular distance between Centre of gold nucleus and velocity vector of alpha particle
at large distance.
6. What is mean life
 Ratio of sum of life time of all nuclei to total number of nuclei present initialty.
 𝜏=
7. What is nuclear fission
 Breaking up nucleus of heavier atom into 2 smaller nuclei, releasing large amount of energy.
 (eg.) .Atom bomb
8. What is nuclear fusion
 2 lighter nuclei combine to form heavier nuclei releasing large amount of energy.
 (eg.) Hydrogen bomb
9. Define 1 atomic mass unit
 1 amu = (mass of 𝐶 )
10. Define curie
 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 decays / second = activity of 1gm of radium
11. Define binding energy
 Energy required to separate single nucleon from nucleus

26 | P a g e
12. What is mass defect
 Mass defect = Total mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus.
13. Define excitation energy and excitational potential
 Energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to higher energy state.
 Excitation potential = excitation energy per unit charge.
14. Define Ionisation energy and ionization potential.
 Energy required to remove an electron from ground state of an atom (13.6 eV).
 Ionization energy per unit charge is Ionization potential (13.6 V).
15. Explain proton – proton cycle
1 1 2 0
1H + 1H → 1H + 1e + υ
1 2 3
1H + 1H → 2He + γ
3 3 4 1
2He + 2He → 2He + 21H + 27 MeV Energy
16. What are the 2 types of β decay?
β-decay
ZX → Z+1Y + e  
A A 

n → p + e- +  (Atomic number increases by 1 Mass no is same)

β+ decay
A A
ZX → Z-1Y + e  


p → n + e 

((Atomic number decreases by 1 Mass no is same)
17. What is meant by radioactivity?
Spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and ϒ rays by an element
(Z>82) is called radioactivity.
18. Show that nuclear density is almost constant for nucleus.
 S  mass of the nuclei  A.m  2.3  1017 kgm 3
volume of the nuclei 4 3
R0 A
3
 Nuclear density is independent of the mass number A.
19. What is meant by activity or decay rate? Give its unit.
 Number of nuclei decayed per second R = -
 Unit is Becquerel.
20. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?
 Proton – two up quarks and one down quark
 Neutron – one up quark and two down quarks.

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Explain Rutherford model.

 Atom has lot of empty space
 Positively charged nucleus of size 10-14m at the centre.
 Electrons revolve around nucleus
2. Derive distance of closest approach
 Kinetic energy of alpha particle = potential energy of system of alpha and gold nucleus
1 1 (2e)( Ze)
E k  mV 2 
2 4 0 r0
1 2 Ze 2
r0 
4 0 E k

27 | P a g e
3. List down Bohr’s postulates of atom model.
 Coulomb force between nucleus and electron = centripetal force of revolving electron
nh
 Electron revolves in orbits in which its angular momentum = .
2
 Electron jumps from one orbit to another emitting a photon of energy ∆E = h𝜈
4. Give the limitations of Bohr atom model.
 Valid only for H2
 Cannot explain fine structure
 Cannot explain intensity variation of spectral lines
 Cannot explain distribution of electrons.
5. Give features of Binding energy curve.
 Mass no A increases, average binding energy per nucleon BE increases.
 BE becomes maximum for Fe, which is 8.8 MeV
 BE is 8.5 MeV for A = 40 to A=120, which are stable and non-radioactive
 BE decreases to 7.6 MeV for Uranium.
 A < 28, elements combine to form A < 56 →Nuclear fusion
 Heavy element split to form medium A nuclei → Nuclear fission
6. Explain i) α decay with an example
 Unstable nuclei emit α particle.
 Atomic number decreases by 2, Mass no decreases by 4.
 z X A  Az42Y  24He
92 U  90Th  2 He
 238 234 4

7. What is carbon dating?

 Cosmic rays bombard with atoms to form 6C14
 6C14 decays to 6C12
 6C14, 6C12 ratio is constant
 Organism dies, intake of carbon stops
 6C14, 6C12 ratio decreases
 Using this age of organism can be calculated.
8. Derive the energy expression for hydrogen atom using Bohr model.
( Ze)(e)  Ze 2
 Potential energy U n   .....(1)
4 0 rn 4 0 rn
 h2 n2
rn  0 2
mZe
 Z 2 me 4
 Substituting in eqn (1) U n  ........(2)
4n 2 h 2  02
1
 Kinetic energy = mv n2
2
2 4
Z me
 KEn  2 2 2 ...... (3)
8n h  0
 Un = -2KEn ……… (4)
 En = KEn + Un = KEn - 2KEn = -KEn
me 4 Z 2
 En   2 2 2 ........ (5)
8 0 h n
13.6
 Substituting for H2 known values En   2 eV ....... (6)
n
 Negative sign indicate that electron is bound to the nucleus.
28 | P a g e
5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
e
1. Describe J.J. Thomson’s experiment for determination of
m
 Principle : Deflection of electron with E and B
 Construction: Cathode rays are produced in discharge
tube
 It is made into narrow beam by anode disc
 E is provided by parallel plates
 B is provided by magnets
 Cathode rays fall on screen at O to produce
fluorescence.
 Velocity selector: Force due to E = Force due to B
eE = eυB
υ=
 Determination of :
 potential energy = kinetic energy, eV= mv2
 ⸫ = =
 ⸫ = 1.7 X 1011 C kg-1

2. Expression for radius of electron in nth orbit

 Coulomb’s law 𝐹⃗ =− 𝑟̂
→
 Centripetal force 𝐹 = 𝑟̂
 Coulomb force provides centripetal force.
 =
4 0 r2n m n2 m
 rn  
Ze 2 m
4 0
 rn 
mZe 2
m 2 n2 rn2 
 According to Bohr,
nh
m n rn 
2
n2h2
m 2 n2 rn2 
4 2
4 0 n 2 h 2  0 n 2 h 2
  rn  
mZe 2 4 2 mZe 2
a n2 n2
 rn  o , rn
Z Z
 ⸫ for hydrogen n = 1
 r1 = 0.529 A0

29 | P a g e
3. Give the spectral series of H2 atom.
When electron Formula
Series To n Region
jumps from m Wave number
Lyman 2, 3, 4 1 𝜈̅ = R − UV
Balmer 3, 4, 5 2 𝜈̅ = R − Visible
Paschen 4, 5, 6 3 𝜈̅ = R − IR
Bracket 5, 6 4 𝜈̅ = R − IR
Pfund 6, 7 5 𝜈̅ = R − Far IR

4. Obtain the expression for number of atoms present at any instant and also derive the
equation for half-life period.
 Law: Rate of decay at any instant is directly
proportional to number of nuclei at same instant.
- ∝N
= - λ N, λ - decay constant
N t
dN N
 Integrating      .dt ln  - t
No
N 0
No
N
 Taking exponential  e  t , N  N o e  t
No
 N decreases exponentially with time
 Half-life period: Time required for number of atoms to reduce one half the initial amount.
No
t  T1/ 2 , N 
2
No
N  N o e  t ,  N 0 e   T1 / 2 ,
2
e  T1 / 2  2
.
 Taking log, 𝜆𝑇 / = 𝑙𝑛2, 𝑇 / =

5. What is nuclear reactor? Explain its essential parts.

Part Function Material
235
Fuel Fissionable 92 U , Plutonium Polonium
Moderator Slow down neutron Water, heavy water
Control rod Controls reaction rate by absorbing Cadmium, Boron
neutron
Coolant Removes heat generated in core Water, heavy water, liquid sodium
Shielding Protects from harmful radiation Concrete wall

6. How will you determine charge of electron by Millikan’s oil drop experiment
Principle:
 Oil drop can be made to move up or down by
adjusting. Electric field.
Experimental arrangement:
 2 circular metal plates are maintained at 10 KV
potential differences.
 Fine droplet sprayed falls through hole in upper
plate under effect of gravity.
30 | P a g e
 Oil drops acquire negative charge when x-rays is passed through plates.
 When Chamber is illuminated, drops can be observed using
microscope.
Forces on drop :
 gravitational force 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 ↓
 electric force Fe = qE
 buoyant force 𝑓 = 𝜋𝑟 σg ↑
 Viscous force Fv = 6πηrv
 Case (i) under gravity : 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝜐, 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝜐
𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝜐
/
𝑟= ( )
 Case (ii) under electric field : Fe + Fb = Fg
𝑞𝐸 + 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔
𝑞𝐸 = 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
𝑞 = . 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔.
 q can be calculated which is integral multiples of e.
 The charge of electron is calculated e = -1.6 x 10-19 C

************

31 | P a g e