Beyond Sophisticated Stereotyping: Cultural Sensemaking in Context [and Executive

Commentaries]
Author(s): Joyce S. Osland, Allan Bird, June Delano and Mathew Jacob
Source: The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005), Vol. 14, No. 1, Themes:
Forming Impressions and Giving Feedback (Feb., 2000), pp. 65-79
Published by: Academy of Management
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? Academy of Management Executive, 2000, Vol. 14, No. 1

Beyond sophisticated
stereotyping: Cultural
sensemaking in context

Joyce S. Osland and Allan Bird

Executive Overview
Much of our cross-cultural training and research occurs within the framework of bipolar
cultural dimensions. While this sophisticated stereotyping is helpful to a certain degree,
it does not convey the complexity found within cultures. People working across cultures
are frequently surprised by cultural paradoxes that do not seem to fit the descriptions
they have learned. The authors identify the sources of cultural paradoxes and introduce
the idea of value trumping: In a specific context, certain cultural values take precedence
over others. Thus, culture is embedded in the context and cannot be understood fully
without taking context into consideration. To decipher cultural paradoxes, the authors
propose a model of cultural sensemaking, linking schemas to contexts. They spell out the
implications of this model for those who teach culture, for people working across cultures,
and for multinational corporations.
.................... ................... .................... ................... .................... ................... .................... ..... -.............

If U.S. Americans are so individualistic and be- gorize cultures. They violate our conceptions of
lieve so deeply in self-reliance, why do they have what we think particular cultures are like. Con-
the highest percentage of charitable giving in the strained, stereotypical thinking is not the only
world and readily volunteer their help to commu- problem, however. The more exposure and under-
nity projects and emergencies? standing one gains about any culture, the more
In a 1991 survey, many Costa Rican customers paradoxical it often becomes. For example, U.S.
preferred automatic tellers over human tellers be- Americans are individualistic in some situations
cause "at least the machines are programmed to (e.g., "the most comprehensive of rights and the
say 'good morning' and 'thank you."" Why is it that right most valued is the right to be left alone"4) and
so many Latin American cultures are noted for collectivist in others (e.g., school fundraising
warm interpersonal relationships and a cultural events).
script of simpatia (positive social behavior),2 while Long-term sojourners and serious cultural schol-
simultaneously exhibiting seeming indifference as ars find it difficult to make useful generalizations
service workers in both the private and public sec- since so many exceptions and qualifications to the
tors? stereotypes, on both a cultural and individual
Based on Hofstede's3 value dimension of Uncer- level, come to mind. These cultural paradoxes are
tainty Avoidance, the Japanese have a low toler- defined as situations that exhibit an apparently
ance for uncertainty while Americans have a high contradictory nature.
tolerance. Why then do the Japanese intentionally Surprisingly, there is little mention of cultural
incorporate ambiguous clauses in their business paradoxes in the management literature.5 Our
contracts, which are unusually short, while Amer- long-term sojourns as expatriates (a combined to-
icans dot every i, cross every t, and painstakingly tal of 22 years), as well as our experience in teach-
spell out every possible contingency? ing cross-cultural management, preparing expatri-
Many people trained to work in these cultures ates to go overseas, and doing comparative
found such situations to be paradoxical when they research, has led us to feel increasingly frustrated
first encountered them. These examples often con- with the accepted conceptualizations of culture.
tradict and confound our attempts to neatly cate- Thus, our purpose is to focus attention on cultural

65

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 66 Academy of Management Executive February

paradoxes, explain why they have been over- stereotyping for another. For example, when we
looked and why they exist, and present a frame- teach students and managers how to perceive
work for making sense of them. Our intent is to the Israelis using Hofstede's7 cultural dimen-
initiate a dialogue that will eventually provide sions, they may come to think of Israelis in terms
teachers, researchers, and people who work across of small power distance, strong uncertainty
cultures with a more useful way to understand avoidance, moderate femininity, and moderate
culture. individualism. The result is to reduce a complex
A look at the comparative literature reveals that culture to a shorthand description they may be
cultures are described in somewhat limited terms.6 tempted to apply to all Israelis. We call this
There are 22 dimensions commonly used to com- sophisticated stereotyping, because it is based
pare cultures, typically presented in the form of on theoretical concepts and lacks the negative
bipolar continua, with midpoints in the first exam- attributions often associated with its lower-level
ples, as shown in Table 1. These dimensions were counterpart. Nevertheless, it is still limiting in
developed to yield greater cultural understanding the way it constrains individuals' perceptions of
and allow for cross-cultural comparisons. An un- behavior in another culture.
anticipated consequence of using these dimen- Do we recommend against teaching the cultural
sions, however, is the danger of stereotyping entire dimensions shown in Table 1 so as to avoid sophis-
cultures. ticated stereotyping? Not at all. These dimensions
are useful tools in explaining cultural behavior.
Indeed, cultural stereotypes can be helpful-pro-
Sophisticated Stereotyping
vided we acknowledge their limitations. They are
In many parts of the world, one hears a generic more beneficial, for example, in making compari-
stereotype for a disliked neighboring ethnic sons between cultures than in understanding the
group-"The (fill in the blank) are lazy, dirty wide variations of behavior within a single cul-
thieves, and their women are promiscuous." This ture. Adler8 encourages the use of "helpful stereo-
is a low-level form of stereotyping, often based types," which have the following limitations: They
on lack of personal contact and an irrational are consciously held, descriptive rather than eval-
dislike of people who are different from oneself. uative, accurate in their description of a behav-
Professors and trainers work very hard to dispel ioral norm, the first best guess about a group prior
such stereotypes. Rarely, however, do we stop to to having direct information about the specific peo-
consider whether we are supplanting one form of ple involved, and modified based on further obser-

Table 1
Common Cultural Dimensions

Subjugation to nature Harmony Mastery of nature

Past Present Future
Being Containing and controlling Doing
Hierarchical relationships Group Individualistic
Private space Mixed Public
Evil human nature Neutral or mixed Good
Human nature as changeable Human nature as unchangeable
Monochronic time Polychronic time
High-context language Low-context language
Low uncertainty avoidance High uncertainty avoidance
Low power distance High power distance
Short-term orientation Long-term orientation
Individualism Collectivism
Masculinity Femininity
Universalism Particularism
Neutral Emotional
Diffuse Specific
Achievement Ascription
Individualism Organization
Inner-directed Outer-directed
Individualism (competition) Group-organization (collusion)
Analyzing (reductivist) Synthesizing (larger, integrated wholes)

Sources: Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961); Hall & Hall (1990); Hofstede (1980); Parsons & Shils (1951); Trompenaars & Hampden Turner
(1993); Trompenaars (1994). The dimensions are bipolar continua, with the first six containing midpoints.

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 2000 Osland and Bird 67

vations and experience. As teachers, researchers, * lack of cultural experience that leads to misin-
and managers in cross-cultural contexts, we need terpretation and failure to comprehend the en-
to recognize that our original characterizations of tire picture
other cultures are best guesses that we need to . cultural learning that plateaus before complete
modify as we gain more experience. understanding is achieved
* Western dualism that generates theories with
no room for paradox or holistic maps
As teachers, researchers, and managers * features of cross-cultural research that encour-
in cross-cultural contexts, we need to age simplicity over complexity
recognize that our original * a between-culture research approach that is
less likely to capture cultural paradoxes than a
characterizations of other cultures are
within-culture approach.
best guesses that we need to modify as
we gain more experience.
Perceptual Schemas

When outsiders look at another culture, they inev-

For understandable, systemic reasons, business
itably interpret its institutions and customs using
schools tend to teach culture in simple-minded
their own lenses and schemas; cultural myopia
terms, glossing over nuances and ignoring com-
and lack of experience prevent them from seeing
plexities. An examination of the latest crop of or-
all the nuances of another culture.
ganizational behavior and international business
In particular, a lack of experience with the new
textbooks revealed that most authors present only
culture creates difficulties for new expatriates try-
Hofstede's cultural dimensions, occasionally sup-
ing to make sense of what they encounter. The
plemented by Hall's theory of high- and low-con-
situation is analogous to putting together a jigsaw
text cultures.9 Although these disciplines are not
puzzle. Though one may have the picture on the
charged with the responsibility of teaching culture
puzzle box as a guide, making sense of each indi-
in great depth, these are the principal courses in
vidual piece and understanding where and how it
many curricula where business students are ex-
fits is exceedingly difficult. As more pieces are put
posed to cross-cultural concepts. Another handi-
into place, however, it is easier to see the bigger
cap is that many business professors do not re-
picture and understand how individual pieces
ceive a thorough grounding in culture in their own
mesh. Similarly, as one acquires more and varied
disciplines and doctoral programs. One could fur-
experiences in the new culture, one can develop an
ther argue that we are joined in this conspiracy to
appreciation for how certain attitudes and behav-
give culture a quick-and-dirty treatment by practi-
iors fit the puzzle and create an internal logic of the
tioners and students who are looking for ways to
new culture.
simplify and make sense of the world.
The danger with sophisticated stereotyping is
The limitations of sophisticated stereotyping
that it may lead individuals to think that the num-
become most evident when we confront cultural
ber of shapes that pieces may take is limited and
paradoxes. This is the moment we realize our un-
that pieces fit together rather easily. As Barnlund
derstanding is incomplete, misleading, and poten-
notes: "Rarely do the descriptions of a political
tially dangerous. Perhaps because cultural para-
structure or religious faith explain precisely when
doxes reveal the limitations in our thinkinrg, they
and why certain topics are avoided or why specific
are often left unmentioned, even though virtually
gestures carry such radically different meanings
anyone with experience in another culture can
according to the context in which they appear.""
usually identify one or two after only a moment's
Expatriates and researchers alike tend to focus
reflection.
first on cultural differences and make initial con-
clusions that are not always modified in light of
subsequent evidence.'2 Proactive learning about
Why Don't We Know More About Cultural another culture often stops once a survival thresh-
Paradoxes?
old is attained, perhaps because of an instinctive
With one exception,'0 the cross-cultural literature inclination to simplify a complex world. This may
contains no mention or explanation of cultural par- lead us to seek black-and-white answers rather
adoxes. This absence can be explained by: than tolerate the continued ambiguity that typifies
a more complete understanding of another culture.
* homegrown perceptual schemas that result in One of the best descriptions of the peeling away
cultural myopia of layers that characterizes deeper cultural under-

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 68 Academy of Management Executive February

standing is found in a fictionalized account of ex- ture. The various levels he describes reflect differ-
patriate life written by an expatriate manager, ing levels of awareness as more and more pieces
Robert Collins.'3 He outlines ascending levels on a of the puzzle are put into place. Time and experi-
Westerner's perception scale of Japanese culture ence are essential because culture is embedded in
that alternate, in daisy-petal-plucking fashion, be- the context. Without context it makes little sense to
tween seeing the Japanese as significantly differ- talk about culture. Yet just as its lower-order coun-
ent or not really that different at all: terpart does, sophisticated stereotyping tends to
strip away or ignore context. Thus, cognitive sche-
The initial Level on a Westerner's perception mas prevent sojourners and researchers from see-
scale clearly indicates a "difference" of great ing and correctly interpreting paradoxical behav-
significance. The Japanese speak a language ior outside their own cultures.
unlike any other human tongue ... they write
the language in symbols that reason alone
Theoretical Limitations
cannot decipher. The airport customs officers
all wear neckties, everyone is in a hurry, and Another reason for the inattention to cultural par-
there are long lines everywhere. adoxes stems from the intersection between cogni-
tive schemas and theory. Westerners have a ten-
Level Two is represented by the sudden dency to perceive stimuli in terms of dichotomies
awareness that the Japanese are not different and dualisms rather than paradoxes or holistic
at all. Not at all. They ride in elevators, have pictures.'5 The idea of paradox is a fairly recent
a dynamic industrial/trade/financial system, wrinkle on the intellectual landscape of manage-
own great chunks of the United States, and ment theoristsl6 and has not yet been incorporated
serve cornflakes in the Hotel Okura. into cultural theories in a managerial context.
Cross-cultural research is generally held to be
Level Three is the "hey, wait a minute" stage. more difficult than domestic studies. Hofstede's'7
The Japanese come to all the meetings, smile work represented a major step forward and
politely, nod in agreement with everything launched a deluge of studies utilizing his dimen-
said, but do the opposite of what's expected. sions. Hundreds of studies have used one or more
And they do it all together. They really are of Hofstede's dimensions to explore similarities
different. and differences across cultures regarding numer-
ous aspects of business and management. How-
But are they? Level Four understanding rec- ever, Hofstede himself warned against expecting
ognizes the strong group dynamics, common too much of these dimensions and of using them
education and training, and the general incorrectly. For example, he defended the individ-
sense of loyalty to the family-which in their ualism-collectivism dimension as a useful con-
case is Japan itself. That's not so unusual, struct, but then went on to say: "This does not
things are just organized on a larger scale mean, of course, that a country's Individual Index
than any social unit in the West. Nothing is score tells all there is to be known about the back-
fundamentally different. grounds and structure of relationship patterns in
that country. It is an abstraction that should not be
Level Five can blow one's mind, however. extended beyond its limited area of usefulness."' 8
Bank presidents skipping through streets When we fail to specify under what conditions a
dressed as dragons at festival time; single culture measures low or high on any of the com-
ladies placing garlands of flowers around mon cultural dimensions, or to take into consider-
huge, and remarkably graphic, stone phallic ation the impact of organizational culture, it mis-
symbols; Ministry of Finance officials rear- leads rather than increases our understanding of
ranging their bedrooms so as to sleep in a comparisons of culture and business practices.
"lucky" direction; it is all somewhat odd. At Such an approach prevents rather than opens up
least, by Western standards. There is some- opportunities for learning and exploration.
thing different in the air. A final explanation for the failure to address
cultural paradoxes can be traced to the emic/etic
And so on. Some Westerners, the old Japan distinction commonly used in the cultural litera-
hands, have gotten as far as Levels 37 or 38.14 ture. An emic perspective looks at a culture from
within its boundaries, whereas an etic perspective
The point of Collins's description is that it takes stands outside and compares two or more cultures.
time and experience to make sense of another cul- To make between-culture differences more promi-

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 2000 Osland and Bird 69

nent, the etic approach minimizes the inconsisten- culture that reflects individual personality and
cies within a culture. Most cultural approaches in variation.
management adopt a between-culture approach, Unresolved cultural issues are rooted in the def-
playing down the within-culture differences that inition of culture as a learned response to prob-
expatriates must understand in order to work suc- lems. Some paradoxes come from problems for
cessfully in the host country. which there is no clear, happy solution. Cultures
Anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss warned that may manifest a split personality with regard to an
explanation does not consist of reducing the com- unresolved problem.22 As a result, they shuttle
plex to the simple, but of substituting a more intel- back and forth from one extreme to the other on a
ligible complexity for one that is less intelligible.'9 behavioral continuum. U.S. Americans, for exam-
In failing to acknowledge cultural paradoxes or ple, have ambivalent views about sex, and, as one
the complexity surrounding cultural dimensions, journalist recently noted: "Our society is a stew of
we may settle for simplistic, rather than intelli- prurience and prudery."23 Censorship, fears about
gently complex, explanations. sex education, and sexual taboos coexist uncom-
fortably with increasingly graphic films and TV
shows and women's magazines that never go to
Sources of Paradox in Cultural Behavior
press without a feature article devoted to sex. This
Behavior that looks paradoxical to an expatriate in melange is more than a reflection of a diverse
the initial stages of cultural awareness may sim- society that has both hedonists and fundamental-
ply reflect the variance in behavioral norms for ists with differing views of sex; both groups man-
individuals, organizational cultures, subcultures, ifest inconsistent behaviors and attitudes about
as well as generational differences and changing sex, signaling an enduring cultural inability to
sections of the society. In addition, expatriates resolve this issue.
may also form microcultures20 with specific mem- Bipolar patterns make cultural behavior appear
bers of the host culture. The cultural synergy of paradoxical because cultural dimensions are often
such microcultures may not be reflective of the framed, perhaps inaccurately, as dualistic, either-
national culture. These false paradoxes need to be or continua. Cultures frequently exhibit one of
discarded before more substantive paradoxes can these paired dimensions more than the other, but it
be evaluated. is probable that both ends of the dimensions are
Based on an analysis of all the paradoxes we
could find, we have identified six possible expla-
nations for cultural behaviors that appear truly Bipolar patterns make cultural behavior
paradoxical. They are: appear paradoxical because cultural
. the tendency for observers to confuse individual dimensions are often framed, perhaps
with group values inaccurately, as dualistic, either-or
. unresolved cultural issues continua.
* bipolar patterns
* role differences
found in cultures-but only in particular contexts.
. real versus espoused values
For example, in Latin America, ascribed status,
? value trumping, a recognition that in specific
derived from class and family background, is more
contexts certain sets of values take precedence
important than its polar opposite, achieved status,
over others.
which is based on talent and hard work. When it
Confusing individual with group values is exem- comes to professional soccer, however, achieved
plified by the personality dimension labeled status trumps class and ascription.
allocentrism versus idiocentrism, which is the psy- Often some groups and roles appear to deviate
chological, individual-level analog to the individ- from cultural stereotypes. For example, in the
ualism-collectivism dimension at the level of cul- United States, autocratic behavior is frequently tol-
ture.2' Allocentric people, those who pay primary erated in CEOs, even though the United States is
attention to the needs of a group, can be found in characterized as an egalitarian culture. Such be-
individualistic cultures, and idiocentric people, havior may also be an example of a high power
those who pay more attention to their own needs distance context in a low power distance culture:
than to the needs of others, in collectivist cultures. We accept that CEOs possess an unequal degree
What we perceive as cultural paradox may not of power and that they will behave in a different
reflect contradictions in cultural values, but in- manner than most U.S. Americans.
stead may reveal the natural diversity within any There is also a difference between real versus es-

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 70 Academy of Management Executive February

poused values. All cultures express preferences for ticular card trumps the others; in another round, it
ideal behaviors-for what should be valued and how does not. In a given context, specific cultural val-
people should act. Nevertheless, people do not al- ues come into play and have more importance than
ways act consistently with ideal behaviors and val- other values. To a foreigner who does not under-
ues. For example, U.S. Americans may simulta- stand enough about the cultural context to inter-
neously pay lip service to the importance of equality pret why or when one value takes precedence over
(an espoused value), while trying to acquire more another, such behavior looks paradoxical. Mem-
power or influence for themselves (a real value). bers of the culture learn these nuances more or
A final possible explanation of cultural para- less automatically. For example, children learn in
doxes derives from a holistic, contextual view of what context a socially acceptable white lie is
culture in which values co-exist as a constellation, more important than always telling the truth. A
but their salience differs depending on the situa- true understanding of the logic of another culture
tion. Using the Gestalt concept of figure-ground, at includes comprehending the interrelationships
times a particular value becomes dominant (fig- among values, or how values relate to one another
ure), while in other circumstances, this same value in a given context.
recedes into the background (ground).24 In India,
for example, collectivism is figural when individ-
uals are expected to make sacrifices for their fam- A true understanding of the logic of
ilies or for the larger society-such as Hindu sons another culture includes comprehending
who postpone marriage until their sisters marry, or the interrelationships among values, or
daughters who stay single to care for their parents.
how values relate to one another in a
In other circumstances, however, collectivism
given context.
fades into the background and individualism
comes to the fore and is figural when Indians focus
more upon self-realization-for example, elderly
men who detach themselves from their family to A Model of Cultural Sensemaking
seek salvation.25 Taking the figure-ground analogy To make sense of cultural paradoxes and convey a
a step further, depending on the context, one cul- holistic understanding of culture, we propose a
tural value might trump another, lessening the in- model of cultural sensemaking. The model shown
fluence another value normally exerts.26 For exam- in Figure 1 helps explain how culture is embedded
ple, we find it useful to view culture as a series of in context.27 Cultural sensemaking is a cycle of
card games in which cultural values or dimensions sequential events:
are individual cards. Depending on the game, pre-
vious play, and the hand one is dealt, players . Indexing Context. The process begins when an
respond by choosing specific cards that seem most individual identifies a context and then engages
appropriate in a given situation. Sometimes a par- in indexing behavior, which involves noticing or

Indexing Making t Selecting

context schema
Drawing inferences
Noticing cues about based on identity Enacting appropriate
the situation and experiences behavioral scripts

Cultural Cultural
values history

Constellation of The shadow of

values embedded tradition and
in schema inherited mindsets

FIGURE 1
Cultural Sensemaking Model

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 2000 Osland and Bird 71

attending to stimuli that provide cues about the tural history and tradition. Mindsets inherited
situation. For example, to index the context of a from previous generations explain how history
meeting with a subordinate, we consider char- is remembered.29 For example, perceptions
acteristics such as prior events (recent extensive about a colonial era may still have an impact on
layoffs), the nature of the boss-subordinate rela- schemas, particularly those involving interac-
tionship within and without work (golfing part- tions with foreigners, even though a country
ner), the specific topic under discussion (employ- gained its independence centuries ago.
ee morale), and the location of the interaction
(boss's office).
Some Illustrations of Sensemaking
* Making Attributions. The next step is attribution,
a process in which contextual cues are analyzed Sensemaking involves placing stimuli into a
in order to match the context with appropriate framework that enables people "to comprehend,
schema. The matching process is moderated or understand, explain, attribute, extrapolate, and
influenced by one's social identity (e.g., ethnic or predict."30 Let's analyze each of the cultural para-
religious background, gender, social class, orga- doxes presented in the introduction using the sen-
nizational affiliation) and one's history (e.g., ex- semaking model. In the United States, when a
periences and chronology). A senior U.S. Ameri- charity requests money, when deserving people
can manager who fought against the Japanese are in need, or when disaster hits a community
in World War II will make different attributions (indexing contexts), many U.S. Americans (e.g., re-
about context and employ different schema ligious, allocentric people making attributions) re-
when he meets with a Japanese manager than spond by donating their money, goods, or time
will a Japanese-American manager of his gen- (selecting schema). The values underlying this
eration, or a junior U.S. manager whose personal schema are humanitarian concern for others, altru-
experience with Japan is limited to automobiles, ism,3' and collectivism (cultural values). Thus, in-
electronics, and sushi. dividualism (a sophisticated stereotype) is moder-
* Selecting Schema. Schemas are cultural scripts, ated by a communal tradition that has its roots in
"a pattern of social interaction that is character- religious and cultural origins (cultural history).
istic of a particular cultural group."28 They are Fukuyama32 writes that U.S. society has never
accepted and appropriate ways of behaving, been as individualistic as its citizens thought, be-
specifying certain patterns of interaction. From cause of the culture's relatively high level of trust
personal or vicarious experience, we learn how and resultant social capital. The United States
to select schema. By watching and working with "has always possessed a rich network of voluntary
bosses, for example, we develop scripts for how associations and community structures to which
to act when we take on that role ourselves. We individuals have subordinated their narrow inter-
learn appropriate vocabulary and gestures, ests."33 Under normal conditions, one should take
which then elicit a fairly predictable response responsibility for oneself and not rely on others.
from others. However, some circumstances and tasks can over-
* The Influence of Cultural Values. Schemas re- whelm individual initiative and ingenuity. When
flect an underlying hierarchy of cultural values. that happens, people should help those in need, a
For example, people working for U.S. managers lesson forged on the American frontier (cultural
who have a relaxed and casual style and who history). To further underscore the complexity of
openly share information and provide opportu- culture, in the same contexts noted above, the tax
nities to make independent decisions will learn code and prestige associated with philanthropy
specific scripts for managing in this fashion. The (cultural history) may be the primary motivations
configuration of values embedded in this man- for some citizens (e.g., idiocentric, upwardly ambi-
agement style consists of informality, honesty, tious people making attributions) to act charitably
equality, and individualism. At some point, how- (selecting schema), but the value underlying the
ever, these same managers may withhold infor- schema would be individualism.
mation about a sensitive personnel situation be- The Costa Rican example is illustrated in Figure
cause privacy, fairness, and legal concerns 2. When bank tellers interact with clients (indexing
would trump honesty and equality in this con- context) many of them (e.g., members of various
text. This trumping action explains why the con- in-groups, civil servants making attributions) do
stellation of values related to specific schema is not greet customers and make eye contact, but
hierarchical. concentrate solely on their paperwork (selecting
. The Influence of Cultural History. When decod- schema). The values that underlie this schema are
ing schema, we may also find vestiges of cul- in-group-out-group behavior34 and power (cultural

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 72 Academy of Management Executive February

Making attributions Selecting schema

Indexing context Tellers as:
Costa Rican bank .tellers - In-group members dealing with Task-oriented behavior that does
. . 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~not include a pattern of courteous
interact with customers out-group member greeings a n ey contact
- Civil servants greetings and eye contact

Cultural values Cultural history

In-group/out-group State-owned
behavior banks did not train
(collectivism) employees in
and high power customer service
distance
trump simpatia

FIGURE 2
Making Sense of Paradoxical Behavior: Seemingly Indifferent Customer Service in a Culture
Characterized by Positive, Warm Relations

values). In collectivist cultures such as Costa Rica, they should rely on and trust one another. Col-
members identify strongly with their in-group and lectivism trumps high uncertainty avoidance (so-
treat members with warmth and cooperation. In phisticated stereotype) in this context, but uncer-
stark contrast, out-group members are often tainty avoidance is not completely absent. Some
treated with hostility, distrust, and a lack of coop- of the uncertainty surrounding the contract is
eration. Customers are considered as strangers dealt with upstream in the process by carefully
and out-group members who do not warrant the choosing and getting to know business partners,
special treatment given to in-group members (fam- and by using third parties. An additional consid-
ily and friends). One of the few exceptions to sim- eration is that many Japanese like flexible con-
patia and personal dignity in Costa Rica, and tracts, because they have a greater recognition
Latin America generally, is rudeness sometimes of the limits of contracts and the difficulties of
expressed by people in positions of power.35 In this foreseeing all contingencies (cultural history).
context, the cultural value of high power distance Even though U.S. Americans are typically more
(the extent to which a society accepts the fact that tolerant of uncertainty (sophisticated stereo-
power in institutions and organizations is distrib- type), they value pragmatism and do not like to
uted unequally)36 trumps simpatia. Whereas sim- take unnecessary risks (cultural values). If a deal
patia lessens the distance between people, the falls through, they rely on the legal system for a
opposite behavior increases the distance between resolution (cultural history).
the powerful and the powerless. Unlike many other
contexts in Costa Rica, bank telling does not elicit
Working From a Sensemaking Approach
a cultural script of simpatia, and state-owned
banks did not have a history of training employees Sophisticated stereotypes are useful in the initial
in friendly customer service (cultural history) at stages of making sense of complex behaviors
this time. within cultures. However, rather than stereotyping
In the third cultural example, when Japanese cultures somewhere along a continuum, we can
business people make contracts (indexing con- advance understanding by thinking in terms of
text), they (e.g., business people making attribu- specific contexts that feature particular cultural
tions) opt for ambiguous contracts (selecting values that then govern behavior. Geertz main-
schema). The dominant value underlying this tains that "culture is best seen not as complexes of
schema is collectivism (cultural value). In this concrete behavior patterns-customs, usages, tra-
context, collectivism is manifested as a belief ditions, habit clusters-as has by and large been
that those entering into agreement are joined the case up to now, but as a set of control mecha-
together and share something in common; thus, nisms-plans, recipes, rules, instructions (what

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 2000 Osland and Bird 73

computer engineers call 'programs')-for the gov- tering another culture or people not totally in step
erning of behavior."37 with their own culture.40 "They interpret the local
Understanding the control mechanisms within a culture for expatriates and guide them through its
culture requires the acquisition of attributional shoals, as well as providing them with the neces-
knowledge, the awareness of contextually appro- sary encouragement when it feels like the expatri-
priate behavior.38 This is in contrast to factual ates will never 'break the code' of another culture
knowledge and conceptual knowledge. Factual and fit in comfortably."4' Reading an explanation
knowledge consists of descriptions of behaviors from a book or working through a series of cultural
and attitudes. For example, it is a fact that Japa- assimilators is different from receiving an expla-
nese use small groups extensively in the work- nation of an experience the expatriate has person-
place. Conceptual knowledge consists of a cul- ally lived through and now wishes to understand.
ture's views and values about central concerns. Cultural mentors can correct inaccurate hypothe-
Sophisticated stereotyping operates in the realm of ses about the local culture. Expatriates who had
conceptual knowledge. This category of knowl- cultural mentors overseas have been found to fare
edge is an organizing tool, but it is not sufficient for better than those who did not have such mentors:
true cultural understanding. Knowing that the Jap- They were more fluent in the foreign language;
anese are a communal society (conceptual know-
ledge) does not explain the noncommunal activi-
ties that exist in Japanese organizations or when Cultural mentors can correct inaccurate
the Japanese will or will not be communal. For hypotheses about the local culture.
example, why are quality control circles used in
some work settings and not in others? Factual and
conceptual knowledge about Japanese culture they perceived themselves as better adapted to
cannot answer that question; only attributional their work and general living conditions abroad;
knowledge can. they were more aware of the paradoxes of expatri-
Managers can acquire attributional knowledge ate life, indicating a higher degree of acculturation
from personal experience, vicariously from others' and understanding of the other culture; and they
experience, and from cultural mentoring. The per- received higher performance appraisal ratings
sonal experience method involves carefully ob- from both their superiors and themselves.42
serving how people from another culture act and In spite of the benefits of mentoring, few multi-
react, and then formulating and reformulating hy- nationals formally assign a cultural mentor to their
potheses and cultural explanations for the ob- expatriates. Yet another way of developing an ex-
served behavior. When expatriates test their hy- patriate's attributional knowledge is to provide
potheses and find them valid, they form schemas more training in the host country rather than rely-
about specific events in the host culture. ing solely on predeparture culture "inoculations."
One can learn vicariously by reading about Admittedly, there are trade-offs to developing
other cultures, but the best form of vicarious attributional knowledge. The acquisition of cul-
learning is via cultural assimilator exercises.39 tural knowledge takes a good deal of time and
These are critical incidents of cross-cultural en- energy, which is not available to all managers. Nor
counters, accompanied by alternative explana- is it reasonable to expect employees who work
tions for the behavior of people from the foreign with people from various cultures on a daily basis
culture. After choosing what they perceive as the to master each culture. Nevertheless, organizing
most likely answer, trainees then read expert the knowledge they do acquire as context-specific
opinions relating why each answer is adequate schemas can speed up cultural learning and pre-
or inadequate. These opinions are validated by vent confusion and errors in making sense of cul-
cross-cultural experts and include information tural paradoxes.
about the relative importance of cultural dimen- If we accept that cultures are paradoxical, then it
sions or context-specific customs in the culture in follows that learning another culture occurs in a
question. dialectical fashion-thesis, antithesis, and synthe-
A cultural mentor can be viewed as a hybrid of sis. Thesis entails a hypothesis involving a sophis-
vicarious and personal acquisition of attributional ticated stereotype; antithesis is the identification
knowledge-a sort of live cultural assimilator. of an apparently oppositional cultural paradox.
Cultural mentors are usually long-term expatri- Synthesis involves making sense of contradictory
ates or members of the foreign culture. The latter behavior-understanding why certain values are
are often helpful souls who have lived abroad more important in certain contexts. Behavior ap-
themselves and understand the chrllenge of mas- pears less paradoxical once the foreigner learns to

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 74 Academy of Management Executive February

index contexts and match them with the appropri- tural dialogues and cases and learn sophisti-
ate schemas in the same way that members of the cated stereotypes. This helps them gain concep-
host culture do. Collins's description of the West- tual knowledge about different cultures so they
erner's Perception Scale in comprehending Japa- can make between-culture distinctions.
nese culture43 illustrates one form of dialectical Develop students' skills in cultural observation
culture learning, an upwardly spiraling cycle of and behavioral flexibility. One of the difficulties
cultural comprehension. expatriates confront in making sense of a new
culture is the contradiction between the ex-
pected culture, the sophisticated stereotype
Using The Model
taught in predeparture training or gleaned from
Because this cultural sensemaking model provides others, and the manifest culture, the one actu-
a more complex way of understanding culture, it ally enacted in a situation.44 To help students
has clear implications for those who teach culture, become skilled at observing and decoding other
for those who work across cultures, and for orga- cultures, teach them to think more like anthro-
nizations that send expatriates overseas. pologists and give them practice in honing ob-
servational and interpretive skills. To help stu-
dents develop the behavioral flexibility needed
Teaching About Cultural Understanding
to adapt to unanticipated situations, role-play-
Sophisticated stereotyping should be the begin- ing and videos of cross-cultural interactions can
ning of cultural learning, not the end, as is so often be used.
the case when teaching or learning about culture. Have students do an in-depth study or experi-
Recognition of a more complex, holistic, sensemak- ence with one culture. To go beyond sophisti-
ing model of culture allows us to respond more cated stereotypes, students learn the internal
effectively when students or trainees provide logic and cultural history of a single culture.
examples of paradoxes that seem to contradict cul- They acquire attributional knowledge from cul-
tural dimensions. The model also requires a some- tural mentors and/or cultural immersion, in ad-
what different teaching approach. We have devel- dition to extensive research.
oped a sequential method that has been effective Focus on learning context-appropriate behavior
in our teaching: in other cultures and developing cultural hy-
. Help students understand the complexity of potheses and explanations for paradoxical be-
their own culture. To acquaint students with the havior. Once students have mastered the pre-
vast challenge of comprehending culture, we be- ceding steps, the emphasis changes to learning
gin with a thorough understanding of the inter- schemas for different contexts. For example, stu-
nal logic of one's own culture and its socioeco- dent teams are instructed to deliberately dem-
nomic, political, and historical roots. We add onstrate incorrect behavior; they ask others to
complexity by pointing out paradoxes as well point out the mistakes and then replay the scene
as identifying regional, ethnic, religious, orga- using correct behavior. To model the crucial be-
nizational, and individual variations in behav- havior of asking for help in understanding cul-
ior. For example, when Thai students describe tural mysteries,45 students use cultural mentors
their culture as friendly, we ask the following to explain situations they choose to learn about
series of questions: "Are all Thais friendly? Are (e.g., "How do managers in encourage
Thais always friendly? Under what circum- employees to perform at high levels? Why does
stances would Thais not exhibit friendly behav- that work for them?") The variation in the men-
ior? Why?" tors' answers ("Some managers are successful
. Give students cultural dimensions and values doing this while others ...") and the qualified
as well as sophisticated stereotypes as basic answers ("This seems to work unless ...; it de-
tools. These dimensions, including the values pends on...") helps students develop more com-
listed in Table 1, can then be used to explain plex understandings of the other culture. To
contrasting behavior from two or more different highlight the message of moving beyond cul-
cultures (e.g., what can sample obituaries from tural stereotypes, use language that focuses on
the United States and Mexico reveal about cul- forming and testing hypotheses about contex-
tural values? What is the typical response of tual behavior: "What are your hypotheses about
businesses in both countries when a member of why a French employee behaves this way in this
an employee's family dies?). Students practice situation? How can you find out if these hypoth-
recognizing cultural dimensions in cross-cul- eses are correct?"

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 2000 Osland and Bird 75

Sensemaking for Individuals Working Across values that underlie most schemas can often pre-
Cultures vent us from making serious mistakes.

After the training program, and once on assign-

ment in a new culture, this cultural sensemaking How Multinational Organizations Can Use the
approach has other practical implications. Sensemaking Model

* Approach learning another culture more like a The cultural sensemaking model also has practi-
scientist who holds conscious stereotypes and cal implications for multinational organizations.
hypotheses in order to test them. One of the key
differences between managers who were iden- * Use cognitive complexity as a selection crite-
tified by their fellow MBA students as the "most rion for expatriates and people in interna-

internationally effective" and the "least interna- tional positions. Avoid black-and-white think-

tionally effective" is that the former changed ers in favor of people who exhibit cognitive

their stereotypes of other nationalities as they complexity, which involves the ability to han-

interacted with them while the latter did not.46 dle ambiguity and multiple viewpoints. This
skill is better suited to a thesis-antithesis ap-
* Seek out cultural mentors and people who pos- proach to understanding the paradoxical na-
sess attributional knowledge about cultures. ture of culture.
Perhaps one of the basic lessons of cross- * Provide in-country cultural training for expatriates
cultural interaction is that tolerance and effec- that goes beyond factual and conceptual knowl-
tiveness result from greater understanding of edge. Predeparture cultural training is comple-
another culture. Making sense of a culture's in- mented by on-site training, which has the advan-
ternal logic and decoding cultural paradoxes is tage of good timing. In-country culture training
easiest with the aid of a willing and knowledge- takes place when expatriates are highly moti-
able informant. vated to find answers to real cultural dilemmas
and when they are ready for greater complexity.47
* Gauge the cultural knowledge possessed by ex-
patriates within a country. The accuracy and
Perhaps one of the basic lessons of cross-
depth of one's cultural understanding is not al-
cultural interaction is that tolerance and
ways linked to the time one has spent in another
effectiveness result from greater country; it depends on the degree of involvement
understanding of another culture. with the other culture as well as cultural curios-
ity and desire to learn. Nevertheless, when com-
* Analyze disconfirming evidence and instances panies determine the optimum length of over-
that defy cultural stereotypes. Even people with seas assignments, they should consider how
a great deal of experience in another culture can much time is generally necessary to function
benefit from analyzing cultural paradoxes. For effectively in a particular culture. If a firm's ex-
instance, the question, "In what circumstances patriates stay abroad for only two years, it is
do Latin Americans fail to exhibit simpatia?" led less likely that a deep understanding of the cul-
to a more complex cultural understanding for ture will be shared among them than if they
one of the authors, who had already spent nine were to stay for longer periods. As long as the
curious years in that region. Once expatriates longer-term expatriates do not stop at a low-
can function reasonably well in another culture, level plateau of cultural learning, mixing short-
it is easy for them to reach plateaus in their term (2-3 years) with longer-term expatriates
cultural understanding and mistakenly assume (6-7 years) with permanent expatriates could
that they comprehend the entire puzzle. This pre- produce more shared organizational learning
sents a danger when expatriates inadvertently about the culture. It is also essential to recognize
pass on inaccurate information about the local that expatriates working for the same organiza-
culture, or make faulty, and even expensive, tion may be at different levels of cultural under-
business decisions based on partial under- standing.
standings. . Act like learning organizations with regard to
. Leam cultural schemas that will help you be ef- cultural knowledge. Multinationals benefit from
fective. Knowing how to act appropriately in spe- formal mechanisms to develop a more complex
cific cross-cultural settings results in self-confi- understanding of the cultures where they do
dence and effectiveness. One cannot memorize all business through such methods as cultural men-
the rules in another culture, but understanding the tors and in-country cultural training. There

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 76 Academy of Management Executive February

should also be mechanisms for sharing cultural 13 Collins, R. J. 1987. Max Danger: The adventures of an expat
knowledge. For example, having returned expa- in Tokyo. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co.
14 Ibid., 14-15.
triates give formal debriefing sessions in which
5 Tripathi, R. C. 1988. Aligning development to values in
they report what they learned in their assign- India. In D. Sinha & H. S. R. Kao (Eds.), Social values and
ment increases the company's collective cul- development: Asian perspectives: 315-333. New Delhi: Sage.;
tural knowledge and eases the expatriates' tran- Wilbur, J. 1995. A brief history of everything. New York: Sham-
sition home by helping them make sense of a bala.
16 Quinn, R. & Cameron, K. S. (Eds.) 1988. Paradox and trans-
highly significant experience.48
formation. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger; Smith, K. K. & Berg, D. N.
1987. Paradoxes of group life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17 Hofstede, op. cit.
8 Hofstede, G. 1994. In U. Kim, H. S. Triandis, C. K&gitcibasi,
Acknowledgment
S. Choi & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Thou-
The authors would like to thank the UCLA CIBER sand Oaks, CA: Sage, xi.
'9Levi-Strauss, C. 1962. La pens6e sauvage. Paris: Adler's
Cross Cultural Collegium for its contributions to
Foreign Books, Inc.
the article. Dr. Osland's research is partially
20Fontaine, G. 1989. Managing international assignments:
funded by a grant from the Robert B. Pamplin Jr. The strategy for success. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Corporation. 21 Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., &
Lucca, N. 1988. Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural
perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personal-
ity and Social Psychology, 54(2): 323-338.
Endnotes
22 Bateson, G. 1973. Steps to an ecology of mind. London:
Paladin
1 This was one of the findings of a class research project on Books.
the acceptance of ATMs by Dr. Osland's graduate students at 23 Haught, J. 1993. What does sex have to do with it? Orego-
INCAE's (Central American Institute of Business Administra- nian, December 29, 1993, D7.
tion) Banking Program in 1991. 24 Tripathi, Marin, op. cit.
2 Triandis, J. C., Marin, G., Lisansky, J., & Betancourt, H. 1984. 25 Ibid.
Simpatia as a cultural script of hispanics. Journal of Personality 26 Bird, A., Osland, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Schneider, S. 1999.
and Social Psychology, 47(6): 1363-1375. Adapting and adjusting to other cultures: What we know but
3 Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture's consequences: International dif- don't always tell. Journal of Management Inquiry, 8(2): 152-165.
ferences in work related values. Beverly Hills: Sage. 27 Context is also embedded in culture, so one could argue
4 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, 478 (1928) (Brandeis, that the entire model is situated within the broader culture. For
J., dissenting). simplicity's sake, however, we chose to focus only on the sen-
5The descriptions of cultural metaphors in Understanding semaking that occurs in deciphering cultural paradoxes.
global cultures: Metaphorical journeys through 17 countries 28 Triandis, Marin, et. al., op. cit.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994) by Martin Gannon and his 29 Fisher, G. 1997. Mindsets: The role of culture and perception
associates, contain passing references to paradoxes, but do not in international relations. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
address the issue directly. 30 Starbuck, W. H. & Milliken, F. J. 1988. Executives' personal
6Parsons, T. & Shils, E. 1951. Toward a general theory of filters: What they notice and how they make sense. In D. Ham-
action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; Kluckhohn, F. & brick (Ed.), The executive effect: Concepts and methods for
Strodtbeck, F. L. 1961. Variations in value orientations. Evanston, studying top managers. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 51.
31 Barnlund, op. cit.
IL: Row, Peterson; Hofstede, op.cit.; Triandis, H. C. 1982. Dimen-
sions of cultural variations as parameters of organizational 32 Fukuyama, F. 1996. Trust. New York: Penguin Books.
theories. International Studies of Management and Organiza- 33 Ibid., 29.
tion, 12(4): 139-169; Ronen, S. & Shenkar, 0. (1985). Clustering 3 Triandis, et al., op. cit.
countries on attitudinal dimensions: A review and synthesis. 35 Osland, J. S., De Franco, S., & Osland, A. 1999. Organiza-
Academy of Management Review, 10: 435-454; Hall, E. T. & Hall, tional implications of Latin American culture: Lessons for the
M. R. 1990. Understanding cultural differences. Yarmouth, ME: expatriate manager. Journal of Management Inquiry, 8(2): 219-
Intercultural Press; Fiske, A. P. 1992. The four elementary forms 234.
of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. 36 Hofstede, Culture's consequences, op. cit.
Psychological Review, 99(4), 689-723; Schwartz, S. 1992. Univer- 37 Geertz, C. 1973. The interpretation of cultures. New York:
sals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical ad- HarperCollins Basic Books, 44.
vances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), 38Bird, A., Heinbuch, S., Dunbar, R. & McNulty, M. 1993. A
Advances in experimental social psychology, 25: 1-66. New conceptual model of the effects of area studies training pro-
York, NY: Academic Press; Trompenaars, F. & Hampden Turner, grams and a preliminary investigation of the model's hypothe-
C. 1993. The seven cultures of capitalism. New York: Doubleday. sized relationships. International Journal of Intercultural Rela-
7Hofstede, op. cit. tions, 17(4): 415-436.
8Adler, N. 1997. International dimensions of organizational 39 The original cultural assimilators were developed by
behavior, 3rd ed. Cincinnati: South-Western, 75-76. Harry Triandis at the University of Illinois. A recent collection is
9 Hall & Hall, op. cit. found in Intercultural interactions: A practical guide, by R. Bris-
10 Gannon, op. cit. lin, K. Cushner, C. Cherrie, & Yong, M., Thousand Oaks, CA:
" Barnlund, D. 1975. Public and private self in Japan and the Sage, 1986 and 1996 (second edition).
United States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 6. 40 Osland, Working abroad, op. cit.
12 Osland, J. S. 1995. The adventure of working abroad: Hero 41 Ibid., 68.
tales from the global frontier. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 42 Ibid., 74.

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 2000 Osland and Bird 77

4 Collins, op. cit. explanations with the same disdain they reserve for stopping to
4 Schermerhorn, Jr., J. & Bond, M. H. 1997. Cross-cultural lead- ask for driving directions.
ership dynamics in collectivism and high power distance set- 46 Ratiu, I. 1983. Thinking intemationally: A comparison of
tings. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 18(4): how international students learn. International Studies of Man-
187-193. agement and Organization, 13:139-150.
45 On occasion we have heard frustrated cross-cultural train- 47 Bird, Osland, et al., op. cit.
ers grumble that some expatriates view seeking out cultural 48 Osland, Working Abroad, op. cit.

Allan Bird, professor at Cali-

Joyce S. Osland, associate pro-
fornia Polytechnic State Uni-
fessor at the University of Port-
versity, worked and lived
land, lived and worked abroad
overseas for eight years. His
for 14 years and continues to
research and consulting focus
work throughout Latin America.
on international HRM, particu-
Her research and consulting fo-
larly managerial effectiveness
cus includes expatriates, Latin
in international contexts and
N American management, and
the performance of Japanese
women leaders. She authored
jpB MNCs. He has authored nu-
TheAdventure of WorkingAbroad,
merous articles and books,
and coauthored Organizational
and recently coedited, with
Behavior: An Experiential Ap-
Schon Beechler, Japanese Mul-
proach and The Organizational
tinationals Abroad: Individual
Behavior Reader. Contact: osland
@up.edu. d i_ and Organizational Learning.
Contact: [email protected].

Executive Commentaries
* ... .... ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... ..... .... ....

June Delano
Eastman Kodak Company

I doubt anyone with cross-cultural experience can nos Aires with colleagues from a different set of
read Osland and Bird's article without remember- countries. It is impossible for these global travel-
ing a moment when careful cross-cultural prepa- ers to remember a sophisticated stereotype for
ration had to be jettisoned. The moment that came each culture they encounter, much less develop a
to my mind was meeting a Japanese colleague on deep understanding of each.
a visit to the United States. Instead of the formality Kodak has also gone beyond traditional cultural
and reserve I expected, he kicked off his shoes, training by addressing multiculturalism from a
tucked his feet under him in a chair, and leaned team perspective. In this regard, we developed a
close to me conspiratorially, saying: "So what is it workbook for leaders managing global teams. The
really like here at corporate headquarters?" His workbook explains in simple terms the roles of
behavior made no sense within my "sophisticated team members and team leaders in different cul-
stereotype" of Japanese culture, but we nonethe- tures using Hofstede's cultural dimensions of hier-
less found common ground and developed a good archy/equality, individualism/collectivism, task/
working relationship. Over time, I came to realize relationship, and risk avoidance/risk comfort. But
that he was a free spirit whose exuberant person- the workbook also offers the following advice,
ality overrode his cultural group norms. which is consistent with Osland and Bird's thesis:
Osland and Bird's model is helpful in explaining
this and other paradoxical experiences, and it Because a team member comes from a coun-
looks as if it has broader application than tradi- try where a particular orientation exists does
tional expatriate training. This is important be- not mean that she will necessarily embody
cause companies like mine, Kodak, have fewer and that orientation. Cross cultural tools are not
fewer true expatriates. Instead, we have people of flawlessly predictive, so be prepared for indi-
many nationalities who lead multicultural teams, vidual surprises and contradictions.
work on multicountry projects, and travel monthly
outside their home countries. In any year, they may Along this line, there is one piece of advice in the
work in Paris, Shanghai, Istanbul, Moscow, or Bue- article I would give greater emphasis to-the caution

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 78 Academy of Management Executive February

to avoid "black-and-white thinkers" for cross-cultural ware or not-for-profit) often override the in-
assignments. When a manager asks for the "rules" fluence of national culture. For example,
for operating in a given culture and then accepts whether working with software engineers
them as gospel, I am suspect of his ability to succeed out of India, the U.S. or Singapore, one will
in that culture or any other culture than his own. I do find that common ground is brought by the
not believe everyone is cut out for cross-cultural technology of the work. Similarly, execu-
work. Kodak screens managers for cross-cultural as- tives from the same company across na-
signments based on their ability to deal with para- tional boundaries seem to exhibit remark-
dox, conflicting realities, ambiguity and contradic- ably similar cultural behaviors. This is
tion. Kodak is pessimistic that managers will be able particularly true in large multinational
to work effectively in a cross-cultural environment if companies that have strongly integrated
they do not have these skills. value systems.
Kodak is prepared to invest resources in build-
ing multicultural proficiency and we have an ur- 2. The complexity of cultures and their ap-
gent need to do so. We are currently conducting parent inherent contradictions make ste-
research on multicultural organization develop- reotypes difficult to decipher. Stereotyp-
ment. If training of our future work force were to ing takes place intuitively and in
reflect the sophistication of Osland and Bird's pro- retrospect. In reality, a number of possi-
cess for teaching cultural understanding, multina- ble explanations can be found to explain
tional corporations would have an easier time with the behavior of a particular individual or
global project teams, multicountry product collective behavior, and not all of them fit'
launches and all other activities in today's global into stereotypes. One experience that
environment. brought this home to me occurred when I
taught courses for Texas Instruments in
the Asia-Pacific region. The primary re-
June Delano is a director of ex- quirement of the Indian participants in
ecutive and management edu-
these training sessions was the clarity of
cation for Eastman Kodak Com-
pany and has worked with concepts. In Singapore, the participants
Kodak managers around the were more interested in specific how-to's.
world. She was formerly head On the surface, this fit in well with the
of organization development for stereotypes that are typically held about
the company, working on large-
India and Singapore-philosophical ver-
scale culture change with CEO
sus action-oriented, respectively. But on
George Fisher. Ms. Delano has
a life-long interest in culture further reflection it became obvious that
and language, as well as expe- the differences in the two groups might
rience living in several coun- also have been because the participants
tries. Contact: jdelano@kodak.
from India were software developers
com.
while those from Singapore were from a
manufacturing environment, or because
Mathew Jacob
the participants from Singapore were fa-
Currimjee Group
miliar with some of the ideas taught,
while for the Indian group they were new.
Osland and Bird hit the nail on the head in recog-
In practice, both groups displayed equal
nizing the reality of paradox as a central tenet of
facility with concepts and actions.
working in cross-cultural environments. After
years of working his this sphere, I have become
3. Words are imprecise. That is, words are
rather cautious using any form of cross-cultural
limited in their ability to actually explain
stereotype. Here are the three rules of thumb I
the dynamics of a situation and are subject
follow when doing so:
to multiple interpretations depending on
who is doing the interpreting.
1. The complexity of cultures that one en-
counters does not fall neatly into catego-
What May Work
ries defined by national boundaries. Fac-
tors such as the kind of work the persons The reality of today's world is that at one level
does, the company the person works for, there is an increasing acceptance of diverse forms
the sector of work (such as textiles or soft- of expression. On another, there seems to be an

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 2000 Osland and Bird 79

exponential growth in what may be called com- finding the vast common ground that exists
mon ground across cultures. As a result, cross- across cultures.
cultural training has become simpler and more
difficult all at once.
What is needed in cross-cultural training is not S . .. :' .'.:...:'E . ..:.:. :. . : ...... :
.:}:' ' ri .; jj .. ........ ..... .......1

Mathew Jacob has worked in the

sophisticated stereotypes but the skills to be sen-
areas of total quality and human
sitive to differences and to recognize cultural as
resource management and orga-
a dynamic process rather than a static set of :; .- : nization development at Xerox,
attributes. Consequently, training for expatriate * I l l ^ 11 Texas Instruments, and Unil
assignments needs to focus more on essentials He is currently the general
like etiquette and protocol, interpersonal sensi- manager of organizational effec-
tiveness and quality with the
tivity, and the capacity to reflect, rather than
=>;e?e};i[ Currimjee Group, a business
revolve around a list of cultural characteristics. conglomerate operating out of
The key to operating in cross-cultural en- AM Mauritius.Contact:mjacob@bow.
vironments today lies in being sensitive to the intnet.mu.

subtle nuances of people and situations, and

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