Questions and Answers

IATA AIRPORT
OPERATIONS E-
TEXTBOOK

Daniela Angeja
TCP - YACL
 YANGON AERODROME COMPANY LIMITED |AIRPORT OPERATIONS
Q&A

Contents
Module I – Introduction.......................................................................................................................11
1. Describe the need for air transportation...................................................................................11
2. List the main providers of air transportation.............................................................................11
3. Describe the history of aviation and airports.............................................................................11
4. Describe the changes of an airport through the history of aviation..........................................11
5. Identify the factors that generate technological changes in airports........................................12
6. What is the main focus of the air transport?.............................................................................12
7. What initiated the birth of the airline industry?........................................................................12
8. List of the three areas of the airport..........................................................................................12
9. Define the term "airport" and name its customers and partners (Unit 1.2)..............................12
10. Air Transportation is provided to meet the needs of passengers and shipers...........................13
11. Name the main electronic approach system in use at many airports........................................13
12. An Airport can be defined as:....................................................................................................13
13. Describe the difference between airport ownership and airport operation (Unit 1.3)..............13
14. Describe the various degrees of involvement in airport activities that airport operators can
pursue14
15. Describe the different types of organizational structures that airport can implement.............14
16. List the key skills required for airport management..................................................................14
17. Describe the need for standardisation in the aviation Industry.................................................14
18. Describe the role of the International Civil Aviation Organization.............................................15
19. Name the organization that develops and promulgates SARP..................................................15
20. Describe the National and international requirements for standardization in airports (Unit 1.4)
15
21. Describe the two types of costs incurred by airports................................................................15
22. Describe the two types of revenues generated by airports.......................................................15
23. Describe how an airport benefits from freedom to set rates....................................................16
24. Describe the most widely used method of financing major capital expenditures.....................16
25. Describe the economic impact of airports on the communities they serve..............................16
26. Name the two main categories of costs that airports incur:......................................................16
27. Name the two main sources of revenue in an airport...............................................................16
28. What are the three beneifts that airports generate for the community they serve?................17
29. Describe what a business plan is...............................................................................................17
30. Describe what a business plan identifies...................................................................................17
31. Define an Airport Master Plan...................................................................................................17
32. Describe the main steps in the planning process.......................................................................17
33. Describe the key elements of the airport business and the impact it has on region(s) the
airport serves (Unit 1.5)........................................................................................................................17

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34. Describe the importance of airport master planning as a long-term management tool (Unit 1.6)
17
35. It is not critical for airports to achieve financial viability...........................................................18
36. The main economic benefits of an airport are:..........................................................................18
37. An airport Master Plan deals with:............................................................................................18
Module 2 – The Airport as an Operational System...............................................................................19
38. Name the main facilities that make up each area of an airport (Units 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)............19
39. List the three components of the movement area....................................................................19
40. The movement area of an aerodrome can be defined as:.........................................................19
41. Which direction should the aircraft face to reduce the ground run required while taking off and
landing?.................................................................................................................................................19
42. Describe the main functions of visual aids and name the main types.......................................19
43. Name the three different purposes that visual aids can serve..................................................19
44. Describe the functions of electronic approach aids and name the main types.........................19
45. An ILS provides pilots with:........................................................................................................19
46. What is the benefit of radars in aircraft guidance?....................................................................20
47. Describe the importance of meteorological services in aviation...............................................20
48. Name four meteorological factors that can affect aircraft........................................................20
49. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:............................................20
50. Describe the objectives of Air Traffic Services and name its physical and service components 20
ATS Units and their Respective Areas of Responsibility....................................................................20
51. Name the obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS).............................................................................21
52. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:............................................22
53. Explain the need for secondary power supply...........................................................................22
54. Apron Management includes:...................................................................................................22
55. The components of the natural environment that airports can affect are:...............................23
56. Allocation of Aircraft Stands can be provided by following agencies:........................................23
57. Describe the importance of obstacle restrictions and describe their main components...........23
58. Describe the functions of airside commercial tenants...............................................................23
59. Define the terminal area and explain its key functions..............................................................23
60. Name the five types of subsystems that make up the terminal area and explain their purpose
24
61. Name the three types of subsystems provided in direct support of transportation functions.. 24
62. Name two types of passengers based on their trip purpose.....................................................24
63. Describe the processing of passengers, luggage and freight.....................................................24
64. Describe the purpose of facilitation and name its main components.......................................25
65. The processing of national and international passengers is:.....................................................26
66. Name the principal types of terminal concepts and explain their advantages and
disadvantages.......................................................................................................................................26

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67. Name key operational procedures and describe their applicability..........................................26

68. Describe the physical and service components that make up the airside of an airport (Unit 2.1).
27
69. Name the three different purposes that visual aids can serve..................................................27
70. An ILS provides pilots with:........................................................................................................27
71. What is the benefit of radars in aircraft guidance?....................................................................27
72. Name four meteorological factors that can affect aircraft........................................................27
73. Name the obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS).............................................................................27
74. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:............................................28
75. Apron Management includes:...................................................................................................28
76. The components of the natural environment that airports can affect are:...............................28
77. Allocation of Aircraft Stands can be provided by following agencies:........................................29
78. Name key operational procedures and their applicability within each area of an airport (Unit
2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)....................................................................................................................................29
79. Name the three types of subsystems provided in direct support of transportation functions.. 29
80. Name two types of passengers based on their trip purpose.....................................................29
81. The processing of national and international passengers is:.....................................................29
82. For each category of terminal concepts (centralised and decentralised), name one advantage
and one disadvantage...........................................................................................................................29
83. Vehicles should not be allowed to park on the curb because:...................................................29
84. Preventative maintenance of terminal mechanical systems should be done:...........................30
85. Name various categories of people who need to travel to and from theairport.......................30
86. List the physical subsystems of the landside.............................................................................30
87. Passengers will select a mode of access based on:....................................................................30
88. Expressed on an hourly basis, the rate charged in long term parking lots is usually:................30
89. If road congestion is frequently observed, the airport operator should:...................................30
90. Landscaping implementation and procedures should take into account:.................................30
91. Describe the overall airport processing functions and their interactions as a system (Unit
2.3.4). 31
92. Define the main operational procedures used on an aerodrome (Unit 2.4)..............................31
93. Describe the international obligation of states in relation to airport certification....................32
94. Describe the obligation of the CAA in covering various aspects of the certification process.....32
95. Describe the obligation of the airport operator in complying with certification requirements.32
96. From an aerodrome certification point of view, obligations of an aerodrome..........................32
97. Describe the importance of aerodrome certification and explain its key processes.................32
98. Define the need for aerodrome certification and explain its key processes (Unit 2.5)..............33
Module 3 - Safety.................................................................................................................................34
99. Distinguish between Safety and Security and different perspectives of Safety........................34
100. Differentiate between various perspectives of Safety...........................................................34

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101. Know the typical risks towards aircraft operations as well as towards human health and
their prevention or mitigation...............................................................................................................34
102. List various risks of aeronautical accidents and their mitigation...........................................36
103. List various risks to occupational safety and their potential prevention................................36
104. Name the main components of a Safety Management System and their content................37
105. Describe the main components of a Safety Management System (SMS), Elaborate on their
objectives and leverages.......................................................................................................................38
106. Describe the importance of special safety planning before undertaking maintenance or
construction on the airside...................................................................................................................38
107. Explain typical components and steps to be undertaking within such a plan and its
execution..............................................................................................................................................39
108. Discuss the importance of construction safety and measures to reduce the inherent risks..39
109. Explain, why driving a vehicle on the airside of an airport requires special training and
special rules..........................................................................................................................................39
110. Explain the rationale behind special driver's training on an airside.......................................39
111. List and describe components on an AVOP training..............................................................40
112. Describe typical FOD and how to prevent or at least reduce risks stemming from FOD.......40
113. Who develops Airside Vehicle Operator Permits (AVOP)?.....................................................40
Module 4: Security...............................................................................................................................41
114. Define civil aviation security..................................................................................................41
115. Explain civil aviation security objectives and general principles............................................41
116. Explain what makes civil aviation a target for unlawful acts..................................................41
117. Name the legal and technical instruments developed by ICAO to prevent and counter acts of
unlawful interference............................................................................................................................41
118. Explain why States must ratify ICAO's technical instruments................................................41
119. Explain the need for States to develop a National Civil Aviation Security Programme..........41
120. Explain the objective and contents of a National Civil Aviation Security Programme............42
121. Explain the responsibilities of a National Civil Aviation Security Authority............................42
122. Explain the role of the National Civil Aviation Security Committee and name the main
organisations that should be represented on it....................................................................................42
123. Experience demonstrates that aircraft in flight constitute the main target of unlawful acts
against civil aviation..............................................................................................................................43
124. Which legal instrument was developed by ICAO that provides States with SARPs?..............43
125. When ICAO was created, the protection of civil aviation was already an important issue....43
126. The National Civil Aviation Security Authority established by each State is often part of:....43
127. Explain the need to develop an Airport Security Programme and name its main elements..43
128. Explain the main responsibilities of an Airport Security Authority........................................44
129. Name the three parallel approaches used as preventative security measures......................44
130. Describe the procedures used to control the access of employees, vehicles, passengers,
checked luggage, and freight aboard aircraft........................................................................................44

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131. Describe the security measures that airport operators should consider when designing a
new or expanded facility.......................................................................................................................45
132. Define the measures that airport operators should establish to respond to acts of unlawful
interference with civil aviation..............................................................................................................45
133. Describe the conflict between security and facilitation.........................................................46
134. Explain ICAO's position relative to facilitation.......................................................................46
135. Explain the importance of security awareness and the need to train airport employees on
security issues.......................................................................................................................................46
136. Name the key components of a security training programme..............................................46
137. What are the three main preventative measures in an airport?...........................................46
138. The essential components of the Airport Security are the protection of airport, aircraft, and
air navigation facilities, and the control of persons and items placed on board aircraft.......................46
139. Opaque security fences are preferred because they prevent view over restricted areas......47
140. The control of passengers is only done in times of a high threat levels.................................47
141. When a passenger does not present himself for boarding, his checked luggage must be:....47
142. In the apparent conflict between security and facilitation, the speed advantage inherent to
air transportation should prevail...........................................................................................................47
143. Explain why aircraft operators should develop their own security programme....................47
144. Name the main components of aircraft operator's security programme..............................47
145. Explain some of the measures that aircraft operators should implement.............................47
146. Explain the need for airports to carry out testing of all aspects of aviation security measures.
48
147. Explain some of the means available to conduct such testing...............................................48
148. A well-known employee presents himself at the access point to a restricted area. He forgot
his restricted area permit at home. Which action on the part of the security guard on duty is
appropriate?.........................................................................................................................................48
149. A security awareness programme should be designed exclusively for airport employees....48
150. Name two actions used to test Equipment............................................................................48
Module 5 – Support Services................................................................................................................49
151. Define the primary support services of an airport (Unit 5.1).................................................49
152. Define the secondary support services of an airport (Unit 5.2).............................................49
153. Explain the objective of aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services.................................49
154. State the maximum response time to be provided...............................................................49
155. Explain what equipment and materials are used to fight aircraft fires..................................49
156. Define the basis for determining the level of protection to be provided at each aerodrome.
49
157. List typical medical services at airports describe the concept of a triage explain the airport's
and medical service provider's roles in emergencies discuss typical concepts of aircraft recovery and
the major tools......................................................................................................................................49
158. Rescue and Fire Fighting services should be provided exclusively on aerodrome property.. 50
159. Rescue and Fire Fighting services should provide a response time not exceeding:...............50

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160. The level of Rescue and Fire Fighting protection to be provided at a given aerodrome is
determined based upon:.......................................................................................................................50
161. The objective of aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services is to:.....................................50
162. Aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services can only be provided by the aerodrome
operator.50
163. Name all secondary support services that airports need to acquire, and briefly describe their
respective use.......................................................................................................................................50
164. Explain how secondary support services can be obtained or generated...............................50
165. Explain how secondary support services are distributed and their costs recovered.............51
166. When developing a water supply strategy, an airport operator should:...............................51
167. Name the two alternatives available to an airport operator to dispose of raw sanitary
sewage. 51
168. Most of the water used by an airport ends up in sanitary sewer pipes.................................51
169. Sanitary sewage must be treated because:...........................................................................51
170. Name four uses that airports have for electricity..................................................................51
171. Name the two methods of recovering electricity costs from tenants....................................51
172. Generally speaking, airports rely on a public utility company to secure a power feed meeting
their needs............................................................................................................................................51
173. Storm water cannot be released uncontrolled into municipal pipes and ditches, or into
natural ditches and streams for the following three reason:................................................................52
174. Fixed communication systems support several types of uses. Name two of them that are
crucial for operations............................................................................................................................52
175. All food waste should be destroyed by incineration..............................................................52
176. Name two types of industrial waste generated by airports...................................................52
177. Airports purchase or lease goods and services from external sources for the three following
reason(s):..............................................................................................................................................52
Module 6 – Airport Issues and Challenges............................................................................................53
178. Explain the challenge that security threats impose on airports and airlines (Unit 6.1)..........53
179. Explain what technological measures are available to reduce risks to civil aviation (Unit 6.1).
53
180. Explain what forces drive demand for air transportation (Unit 6.2)......................................53
181. Explain how the aviation industry copes with times of reduced revenues and increased costs
(Unit 6.2)...............................................................................................................................................53
182. Explain what solutions airports can implement to cope with capacity problems (Unit 6.3).. 53
183. Explain what impacts new aircraft types had on airports over the past few decades and what
future aircraft types will have in the short and long term (Unit 6.4).....................................................53
184. Describe the concept of sustainable development and what measures airports should
implement to meet its objectives (Unit 6.5)..........................................................................................54
185. Describe the impacts of security threats on the aviation industry........................................54
186. Describe the evolution of threats and acts of unlawful interference....................................54
187. Describe how airports are coping with the current security challenge..................................54

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188. Describe what technological tools are available to further increase security while protecting
facilitation.............................................................................................................................................55
189. What is the extra measure some countries have adopted on board their aircraft to provide
more security?......................................................................................................................................55
190. Biometric technology may be used to:..................................................................................55
191. Explain what factors drive the demand for air transportation...............................................55
192. Describe the financial challenges facing airlines and airports over the past few years.........55
193. Explain what factors caused a reduction in airports' operating margins...............................56
194. Name some of the actions taken by airlines and airports to limit the financial impacts of
reduced revenues and increased costs.................................................................................................56
195. Explain why airlines and airports must work as partners for the sake of their financial health.
56
196. What are the three economic challenges faced by airports?................................................57
197. What are the three measures airports have taken to cope with diminishing revenues and
increasing expenditure?........................................................................................................................57
198. Define capacity, congestion and delay...................................................................................57
199. Describe the characteristics of airport demand.....................................................................57
200. Explain why airports do not plan for ultimate peak capacity.................................................57
201. Explain the strategies available to cope with capacity problems...........................................57
202. Explain the technological solutions to deal with capacity issues...........................................57
203. Define capacity cycles and explain where the airport industry currently is...........................58
204. Airport demand can be characterised as:..............................................................................58
205. Faced with a recurring congestion problems, an airport operator should:............................58
206. Name three smart solutions to capacity problems................................................................58
207. List key steps in aircraft technological advances and their main impacts on airport facilities.
58
208. Explain the challenges that known future aircraft will create for airport operators, once they
become operational..............................................................................................................................58
209. Explain what new aircraft technologies are being contemplated for the long term, and their
probable impact on airports.................................................................................................................59
210. What are the three impacts that changes in airplane engines had on airports?...................59
211. Aircraft larger than the A-380 would create further challenges for airport operators, as
another round of facilities increases would be required.......................................................................59
212. Define sustainable development...........................................................................................59
213. Name a few examples of worldwide environmental problems.............................................59
214. Explain what aviation and airport activities may contribute to environmental problems.....59
215. Describe the policies and procedures that airports should implement in support of
sustainable development......................................................................................................................59
216. What does sustainable development mean?.........................................................................60
Module 7 – Future of the Airports........................................................................................................61

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217. Describe how emerging and future technological improvements will affect airports (Unit
7.1). 61
218. Describe how airport ownership and operations are likely to evolve in the future (Unit 7.2).
62
219. Define the concept of uncertainty and how airport operators can cope with this challenge
(Unit 7.3)...............................................................................................................................................62
220. Name technological advances that may be implemented at airports in the future...............62
221. Describe the effect of technological improvements on airports, in the areas of efficiency,
safety, security, and protection of the environment.............................................................................62
222. GPS is a positioning system that relies on:.............................................................................63
223. Name two possible alternatives to glycol aircraft de-icing:...................................................63
224. Prior to the advent of Global Positioning System (GPS) the two common methods of
navigation that pilots frequently used were the and the .....................................................................63
225. Bird hazard reduction using laser technology can be implemented. Circle all answers that
apply. 63
226. Name two possible applications for biometric technology beyond airport security functions.
63
227. Name two possible airport applications of wireless, wearable devices.................................63
228. Name the two new methods of cargo screening?.................................................................63
229. Define the reasons that initiated changes in the ownership and operation of airports........63
230. Describe the current status of airport ownership and operation..........................................63
231. Explain the reasons that will keep an airport ownership and operation from commercialising
and privatising.......................................................................................................................................63
232. Name the airport types that focus on specific target markets...............................................64
233. Name the three reasons that will keep airports from commercialising and privatising:.......64
234. Name two types of market-tailored airports.........................................................................64
235. Define uncertainty and explain how it affects the airport environment................................64
236. Describe how uncertainty evolved over the past few decades..............................................64
237. Explain the measures the airport operators should adopt to reduce the risk of uncertainty.
65
238. Name the type of alternative fuels that may be used for aviation in the future?..................65
239. Name the two factors that create uncertainty in the airport world......................................65

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Module I – Introduction

1. Describe the need for air transportation

R: People have to travel rapidly and safely between two points. Because of distances,
accessibility of regions, time pressure or simple lack of alternatives, Air Transport often
is the only available mode

2. List the main providers of air transportation

R: Air transportation is provided by the cooperation of airlines, airports, air traffic
control agencies and many other support organizations.

3. Describe the history of aviation and airports

R: Aviation is a relatively new industry: according to American history the first sustained,
controlled and powered flight took place only a century ago when, on December 17,
1903, Orville Wright flew his wood and fabric aircraft for 12 seconds over a 37-meter
distance, operating from a sandy strip. According to the world's history, in 1901 Alberto
Santos Dumont, flew in an airship a pre-established circuit (with a gasoline motor),
around the Eiffel Tower. Later on in 1906, with the 14-bis plane, he did the first take-off
with an auto-propulsion engine.
During World War I (1914 to 1918), it became apparent that aircraft could play an
important role in national defence. As a result, this period saw the production of the
first combat aircraft and the construction by countries involved in this conflict of many
military airports. After World War I airport development became a mix of military,
commercial, and private responsibilities. Later on the benefits of flying became apparent
and it was the possibility of carrying mail at several times the speed of a train that
resulted, in 1918, the first intercity airmail service. At the same time, communities
discovered the importance of airports to connect them to the rest of the country.
By the end of WWI (1945), a surplus of air bases, transport aircraft, and qualified
aircrews, made possible the growth of air transport worldwide.

4. Describe the changes of an airport through the history of aviation

R. As the characteristics of aircraft became increasingly demanding, airports had to
construct longer and wider runways, along with higher pavement strength. This trend
lasted until the mid-1970s when new, more powerful engines became available, and the
take-off length required by the heaviest aircraft stabilized, and then gradually
decreased.
Regarding Fight Aids - As the density of traffic increased, Air Traffic Control was created,
to prevent collisions on the ground and in the air, near airports, and to provide a smooth
flow of traffic. With Air Traffic Control came the need for radio communication between
pilots and air traffic controllers. To that effect, radio transmitters and receivers were
installed at airports and on-board aircraft.
Flying under Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) had severe limitations, so a new
way of flying aircraft had to be devised: it was called Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).
Under these rules, pilots do not fly their aircraft by visual reference to the ground, nor
do they maintain adequate separation from other aircraft visually. Instead, they fly
along well-determined air routes defined by ground-based radio beacons, called Airways

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The separation between aircraft was ensured by Area Control Centres (ACC) and
Approach Control Units (APP). Nowadays a majority of commercial aircraft can be
navigated without any terrestrial navigation (like ground-based radio beacons) but
rather make use of very accurate Satellite Navigation
Today, commercial aircraft normally fly IFR. When flying IFR, pilots also need guidance
during the final phase of the flight, called the approach. Various electronic devices
provide such assistance, coupled with visual systems. The most common electronic
system is the Instrument Landing System (ILS), which guides pilots to the runway using
two electronic beams for vertical and lateral guidance. It is combined with lighting
systems such as approach lights. It was first introduced in 1941 and it is in use at the
majority of commercial airports around the world.
Regarding the Terminals – the first terminal buildings were designed only to protect
passengers and employees from the elements; nowadays modern terminals are
sophisticated infrastructures with almost unlimited amenities.
Regarding Security - Aviation security did not become an issue until the 1960s when the
first threats against civil aviation were made. As security became more important, states
implemented measures to prevent unlawful interference with aviation: fencing of
airports, restricted access to aircraft, and screening of passengers, baggage, employees
and cargo.

5. Identify the factors that generate technological changes in airports

R: Technological changes are generated by the following factors: safety, security,
reliability, efficiency, and protection of the environment.

6. What is the main focus of the air transport?

(a) Profit
(b) Customer
(c) Expansion
(d) Employment
“...too the single most important thing that you must keep in mind in your day-to-day
work is that air transport is a service activity with one focus: the customer.”

7. What initiated the birth of the airline industry?

(a) Invention of Airplane 1903
(b) World War I (1914–1918)
(c) World War II (1940–1945)
(d) Contracting some airmail transport to private aircraft operators
“As a result, in 1918, the first intercity airmail service was established. At the same time,
communities discovered the importance of airports to connect them to the rest of the
country”.

8. List of the three areas of the airport

R. The three areas of the airport are: (1) Airside; (2) Landside; (3) Terminal.

9. Define the term "airport" and name its customers and partners (Unit 1.2)

R: Airport is: An Inter-modal processing facility that allows passengers and goods to
transfer between the surface mode and air mode. This facility also provides to its users

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(passengers, shipers and agencies) commercial facilities and service to meet their needs.
It is also a business center with important economic benefits for the area it serves.

Airports have two main customers: The Airliner and Passengers, but not only:
Airport Customers: 1. Airliners, 2. Passengers, 3. Visitors, 4. Concessionaries;
Airport Operating Partners: 1. Ground Handlers (Fuellers, baggage handlers, Catering,
Cleaning Services, etc.), 2. Government Agencies (CAA, MoH, Immigration, Customs,
Agriculture), 3. Air Traffic Services (Air Trafic Service Unit, Control Tower, Air Navigation
Service Provider), 4. Off-Site Associated Partners (e.g. Chamber of Commerce, Tourism
Associations, Media, Suppliers, etc.)

-The names of its customers are:

(1) Airlines
(2) Passengers
(3) Visitors

- Concessionaires are as follows

(a) Restaurants
(b) Bars
(c) Specialty shops
(d) Newspaper stands
(e) Foreign exchange counters

-The names of the operating partners are;

(1) Ground handlers
(2) Government agencies
(3) Air traffic services and
(4) Off- Site associated partners.

10. Air Transportation is provided to meet the needs of passengers and shipers.
(a) True
(b) False
11. Name the main electronic approach system in use at many airports.
R. ILS – Instrumental Landing Sistem

12. An Airport can be defined as:

(a) Strictly an aviation facility
(b) An Inter-modal centre
(c) A commercial enterprise
(d) b and c

13. Describe the difference between airport ownership and airport operation (Unit 1.3)
R. The majority of airports worldwide are publicly owned and operated by
Governments. Nowadays, there is a trend to commercialize the airport operation. The
Commercial agreement between Airport owners and airports operators varies in many
aspects, according to the level of responsibility and involvement of the Operator in the
Airport operations, e.g it can involve only the Airport core functions – e.g. YACL).

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Therefore Airport Owners are the Entities who owns the airport (private or GOV) and
Airport Operators, are the companies who manages the operations of the airport,
according to a pre-stablished agreement, according to the level of management
responsibilities and Customers demand.
14. Describe the various degrees of involvement in airport activities that airport operators
can pursue
R. The Airport Operators may vary greatly. They may be:
1) Fully involved with many aspects of airport activities (e.g., provision and operation
of cargo and passenger terminals, general aviation facilities, baggage and aircraft ground
handling, passengers processing, surface transportation, retail activites, even traffic
control or meteorological services) or;

2) it may carry out only core functions, that is to provide and maintain basic
infrastructure, e.g. runawyas, taxiways, access roads, and utilities; airliners, ground
handling agencies, tenants, concessionaries and contractors would carrie out all other
responsibilities. This option, often includes the construction and operation of terminal
buildings by airliners.
15. Describe the different types of organizational structures that airport can implement
R. All airports, irrespective of their size, have some common functions. However ther is
no unique way of structuring airport organizations. The obvious reason is the size of the
airport. Anyway, irrespective of the size there are several ways of organizing the staff,
either by function or by physical area of responsibility:

16. List the key skills required for airport management

R. The skills required to be an Airport Manager are: 1) Leadership, 2) Vision, and 3)
Understanding the business and the needs of his customers. In all cases, the primary
responsibility is to ensure the safe, secure and efficient operation of his airport and
facilities.

17. Describe the need for standardisation in the aviation Industry.

R: First of all it is important to understand what is Standard. A standard is a specification for
physical characteristics or performance of a facility or personne, the uniform application of
which is recognized as necessary for reasons of safety or regularity of International air
navigation, and its application by all state members is mandatory.
A Recommended Practice is a specification for physical characteristics or performance of a
facility or personnel, the uniform application of which is recognized as desirable.
An aircraft operate beyond the geographical limits of their home states. In order to avoid
confusion and potential risks, it is imperative that pilots fly with the assurance that wherever
they go, they will work on a familiar environement. The goal is to have common coding systems
implemented to provide global consistency

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18. Describe the role of the International Civil Aviation Organization.

R: To Standardize all aspects of Civil aviation among all member states

19. Name the organization that develops and promulgates SARP.

R: ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization develop and adopt (SARP - Standard and
Recommended Practices) statements that must be applied by all member state

20. Describe the National and international requirements for standardization in airports
(Unit 1.4)
R. In order to have common coding systems implemented (standards) to provide global
consistency for aviation, ICAO was created after the Chicago Convention in 1944. Although ICAO
does not have a lot of authority over its member states, and none directly over individual
airports, once ICAO has adopted a SARP, member states must adopt it. This is normally done
through national aviation laws and regulations and also through procedures promulgated by the
authority responsible for civil aviation matters in each country. This is usually the Civil Aviation
agency or equivalent authority.

21. Describe the two types of costs incurred by airports

R. (a) Capital Costs - incurred for the acquisition or construction of durable assets
(i) Construction or expansion of airport infrastructure (runways, taxiways,
terminal buildings, service buildings, roads and parking lots).
(ii) Purchase of heavy equipment and vehicles (trucks and cars).
(b) Operating Costs - incurred in the day-to-day running of the airport.
(i) Maintenance of the above assets.
(ii) Utilities (electricity, water, telephone).
(iii) Materials and supplies.
(iv) Salaries and wages of airport personnel.
Salaries account for a substantial percentage of the total operating costs.

Another, very important separation of costs is:

(a) Aeronautical Costs
(i) All capital costs related to the aviation infrastructure and systems like runways, taxiways,
aprons, service roads, storage areas and terminals.
(ii) All operating costs related to the aviation operation using the aviation infrastructure like duty
officers, maintenance staff, energy, related services.
These costs are the base for setting the Aeronautical Charges to be paid by the airline users.
Usually the airports apply for these charges justified by the aeronautical costs and the relevant
government organisation will approve the level17.

(b) Non-Aeronautical Costs

(i) All capital costs related to all infrastructure and systems that are not directly related to the
aviation operation (general offices, commercial activities)
(ii) All operating costs not related to the aviation operation like car parking management,
additional services, property development, etc.

22. Describe the two types of revenues generated by airports

R. (a) Aeronautical Revenues - is directly generated by aircraft and passenger movements and it
fluctuates with changes in the number of flights:
(i) Landing fees, paid by aircraft operators upon each landing. They are usually based on the
maximum take-off weight of the aircraft.

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(ii) Terminal fees, paid by airlines using terminal building facilities. They are usually based on
the number of passengers on board each departing aircraft.
(iii) Aircraft parking fees, paid by aircraft operators for parking aircraft at the airport. They are
generally based on the size and parking duration of the aircraft.

(b) Non-aeronautical Revenues - is generated by commercial activities such as land leases

and concession rent.
(i) Car parking fees, paid by passengers and visitors who park their vehicle at the airport.
(ii) Land rental, paid by land tenants for the use of airport land.
(iii) Concession fees, paid by operators of restaurants, bars and shops in the terminal
building. They can be based on floor space occupied, or on a percentage of revenues, or a
combination of the two.
(iv) Office and operational areas rent (such as airline office space and ticket counters). They
are usually based on floor space occupied.
(v) Worldwide industry surveys reveal that non-aeronautical revenues account for 54% of
total revenues (Figure 1.5.1), and that there is a trend toward an increase of this percentage.
This means that airport rely more and more on these non-aeronautical revenues because
they are less sensitive to sudden changes in traffic, being generated by such stable activities
as leases. In addition, these non-aeronautical revenues can be used to offset the cost of
providing the aeronautical infrastructure, thereby keeping airline costs lower.

23. Describe how an airport benefits from freedom to set rates

R. Airport operators who have the freedom to set rates are in a better position to respond to the
needs of their customers and to cover their costs.

24. Describe the most widely used method of financing major capital expenditures.
R. When airports do not have sufficient accumulated revenues, they must revert to some type of
financing. The most commonly used is the temporary implementation of an Airport
Improvement
Fee or Passenger Facility Charge. An Airport Improvement Fee must be directly and visibly
linked to a specific airport improvement

25. Describe the economic impact of airports on the communities they serve
R. Airports are important economic generators for the area they serve. They link the community
to the national and international air transportation systems. Enterprises rely on them to connect
to their suppliers and customers. As employment centres, airports contribute to the wealth of
the economy through the salaries and wages that employees spend in the community.

26. Name the two main categories of costs that airports incur:
R. There are two types of costs: operating costs (OPEX), incurred in the day-to-day running of
the airport, and capital costs (CAPEX) incurred for the acquisition or construction of durable
assets.

27. Name the two main sources of revenue in an airport

R. There are two types of revenues: aeronautical and non-aeronautical. The first type is directly
generated by aircraft and passenger movements and it fluctuates with changes in the number of
flights. The second type is generated by commercial activities such as land leases and concession
rent. Airports strive to rely more on the second category (the world average is 54% of total
revenues).

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28. What are the three beneifts that airports generate for the community they serve?
R. Airports generate important benefits for the community they serve: Convenience for
enterprises, employment, and local expenditures.

29. Describe what a business plan is

R. a Business Plan is a road map (a flight plan in aviation terms!) that focuses on the future
growth of the business, anticipates changes, helps control the business, and measures progress
against goals and objectives. Business Planning is a management tool that reduces uncertainty
and the risks associated with it.

30. Describe what a business plan identifies

R. It also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the organisation (the internal factors under
its control), and the threats and opportunities (the external factors not within its control).

31. Define an Airport Master Plan

R. The tool that airports have developed to meet the requirements of facilities planning is called
an Airport Master Plan. The ICAO defines it as “a guide for the development of airport facilities
and for land uses on the airport and in its vicinity”.
An Airport Master Plan is a key tool to ensure the organised development of airport facilities,
and for land use compatibility.

32. Describe the main steps in the planning process

R. The main steps in the planning process are: inventory, forecasts, alternatives, evaluation,
and recommendations.
(a) Inventory - determine what facilities we have, what their capacity is, and what their life
expectancy is.
(b) Develop forecasted demand for the next twenty years, for facilities such as runways,
terminal buildings, parking lots, roads, and utilities (electricity and water supply for
example).
(c) Development of possible alternatives that would resolve the expected capacity shortfall
identified in step b).

(d) Evaluate these alternatives using a set of criteria and rank them in decreasing order of
merit
(e) Recommend from this list of solutions, we would select the highest ranking one and make it
the preferred option for a given facility

33. Describe the key elements of the airport business and the impact it has on region(s)
the airport serves (Unit 1.5)
R. Transportation is key to the economy of any region. It connects suppliers, manufacturers, and
consumers through an efficient distribution process. A local airport represents a gateway to the
national and international air transportation systems. The tourist industry depends on it. Many
businesses consider that having access to an airport is a benefit, not only to passengers and
shippers but also to the general population.

34. Describe the importance of airport master planning as a long-term management tool
(Unit 1.6)
R. An Airport Master Plan adopt a systematic and organised approach in developing their
facilities to meet future requirements. It is a management guide for the long-term
development of the airport, taking into account economic, technological, financial, and

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environmental considerations. The Land Use Plan portion of the Master Plan depicts where
each type of facility will be positioned in order to achieve an efficient and orderly development.

35. It is not critical for airports to achieve financial viability.

(a) True
(b) False

36. The main economic benefits of an airport are:

(a) They link enterprises to their suppliers and customers
(b) They create employment
(c) They generate taxes
(d) All of the above

37. An airport Master Plan deals with:

(a) Physical facilities
(b) Land uses on and off airport
(c) Commercial and level of service issues
(d) a and b

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Module 2 – The Airport as an Operational System

38. Name the main facilities that make up each area of an airport (Units 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3).
R. Airport as a general term, designating the whole of the three areas (airside, terminal, and
landside); ICAO designates those facilities exclusively used for the arrival, departure and
surface movement of aircraft as the Aerodrome (Airside).

39. List the three components of the movement area

The movement area is the part of an aerodrome used for the take off landing - Runways, and
taxiing of aircraft – Taxiway, It consists of the manoeuvring area and the apron(s).

40. The movement area of an aerodrome can be defined as:

(a) Runways, taxiways and aprons
(b) Runways and aprons
(c) Taxiways and aprons
(d) Is the same as the manoeuvring area

41. Which direction should the aircraft face to reduce the ground run required while
taking off and landing?
(a) The aircraft have to face the wind
(b) The aircraft have to go with the wind
(c) The aircraft have to be in 90 degree angle with the wind
(d) The direction of the wind does not have an effect on the length required for the ground run

42. Describe the main functions of visual aids and name the main types
R. Visual aids are devices that provide pilots with visual reference while taxiing, landing and
taking off. The airport operator provides these visual aids. There are four categories of visual
aids:
(a) Indicators and signalling devices.
(b) Paint markings.
(c) Signs.
(d) Lights.

43. Name the three different purposes that visual aids can serve.
(a) To help navigation.
(b) To denote obstacles.
(c) To denote restricted areas.

44. Describe the functions of electronic approach aids and name the main types
R. Electronic aids are used to guide aircraft in flight, during the en route and approach phases.
The most widely used are radars, ILSs, VORs, and NDBs.

45. An ILS provides pilots with:

(a) Visual guidance only.
(b) Visual and electronic guidance.
(c) Lateral electronic guidance only.
(d) Electronic lateral and vertical guidance.

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46. What is the benefit of radars in aircraft guidance?

(a) An Air Traffic Controller can identify an aircraft's position and flight direction and thus
separating one aircraft from the other
(b) A pilot can detect obstacles and bad weather cells in low visibility conditions
(c) It is only used in military aviation
(d) Both (a) and (b).

47. Describe the importance of meteorological services in aviation

Air transportation is highly sensitive to meteorological conditions. It is therefore essential that
pilots, airports, and ATS have access to reliable meteorological observations and forecasts.

48. Name four meteorological factors that can affect aircraft.

(a) Wind direction and speed (cross- or tail wind on runways, headwind while in flight).
(b) Ceiling of clouds and visibility (when landing and taking off).
(c) Icing in flight (ice forming on aircraft surfaces and engines).
(d) Pavement contamination (ice, snow or water on runways and taxiways).
(e) Thunderstorms (lightning strikes in flight and on the ground).
(f) Turbulence (can cause uncomfortable flight up to structural failure of the aircraft).

49. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:
(a) An area control centre
(b) An approach control unit
(c) A control tower
(d) None of the above

50. Describe the objectives of Air Traffic Services and name its physical and service
components
R. The objectives of Air Traffic Services are:
(a) To prevent collisions between aircraft in flight and between aircraft on the ground and
obstacles, including vehicles (control service – Control Tower).
(b) To provide aircraft with advice and information to ensure the safe and efficient conduct of
flights (information service).
(c) To notify and assist agencies involved in search and rescue operations (alert service).
In-flight collisions are avoided by providing longitudinal, lateral, and vertical separation
between aircraft.

ATS Units and their Respective Areas of Responsibility

(a) Control zones, under the responsibility of a control tower (Tower).
(b) Terminal control areas, under the responsibility of an approach control unit (Tower).
(c) Airways, under the control of an area control centre (Radar).

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51. Name the obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS).

In order to achieve a land free from obstacles, airports establish a number of imaginary surfaces,
called Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS)
The path of aircraft needs to be protected from obstacles during the following phases of flight:
(a) Take off and landing run.
(b) Initial climb, immediately after take off.
(c) Final approach, immediately prior to landing.
(d) Missed approach.
(e) Circling.

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52. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:
(a) An area control centre
(b) An approach control unit
(c) A control tower
(d) None of the above

53. Explain the need for secondary power supply

R. Airside facilities and equipment operate with electricity. Since many of them are in support of
air safety, a continuous supply of electricity to these facilities should be available in case a
power failure occurs.

54. Apron Management includes:

(a) Control of aircraft and vehicles operating on the apron

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(b) Allocation of aircraft stands

(c) Monitoring the safe condition of pavements and other surfaces
(d) Monitoring safety of operations

55. The components of the natural environment that airports can affect are:
(a) Air - exhaust gases from aircraft engines. However, studies have demonstrated that the main
source is in fact vehicle engines, such as cars, buses, trucks, and airport equipment.
(b) Water – fuel, oil, and de-icing chemicals spillage
(c) Soil – leaking underground fuel or oil tanks and from slow but repeated fuel or oil leaks from
parked vehicles and equipment.
(d) Fauna
(e) Flora
The main effects come from construction and maintenance activities. Any addition of paved
surfaces such as the extension of a runway, road or car parking lot reduces the amount of grass,
trees and shrubs. This may affect or destroy the natural habitat of animals.

56. Allocation of Aircraft Stands can be provided by following agencies:

(a) The airport Operator
(b) An Airline, if it owns or operates its own Terminal, or uses dedicated stands.

57. Describe the importance of obstacle restrictions and describe their main components
R. Aerodromes and surrounding lands must be free of obstacles, to permit the safe operation of
aircraft and to prevent the aerodrome from becoming restricted or unusable. In order to achieve
these objectives, airports establish a number of imaginary surfaces, called Obstacle Limitation
Surfaces (OLS) originating on the aerodrome and extending well beyond its boundaries.
Above these surfaces consequently is the so called Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ). No object is
allowed to penetrate these surfaces. The path of aircraft needs to be protected from obstacles
during the following phases of flight:
(a) Take off and landing run.
(b) Initial climb, immediately after take off.
(c) Final approach, immediately prior to landing.
(d) Missed approach.
(e) Circling.

58. Describe the functions of airside commercial tenants.

59. Define the terminal area and explain its key functions.
R. The terminal area is that part of the airport where the actual transfer of passengers, luggage,
and freight takes place, between the surface mode and the air mode. Terminal facilities and
services must make this transfer quick, easy, and comfortable.
Functions: Three functions take place within the terminal:
(a) Processing, such as ticketing, check in, government controls, and security screening.
(b) Change of mode, between surface and air.
(c) Change in movement type: outbound passengers arrive at the terminal individually or in
small groups, from different surface transportation types, at different times. They are then
assembled in aircraft-size batches for boarding as a group. The process is reversed for inbound
passengers19.

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60. Name the five types of subsystems that make up the terminal area and explain their
purpose
Subsystems: In order to carry out the above functions, the terminal area consists of a chain of
components arranged in a logical way. We call them subsystems. Each subsystem serves a
specific purpose in the overall terminal system. There are five types of subsystems:
(a) Processing, where passengers and baggage undergo various formalities.
(b) Circulation, where passengers move on foot or are assisted by various mechanical systems
(similarly for check in hold baggage).
(c) Holding, where passengers assemble (again: the same applies in different means for hold
baggage in the baggage system).
(d) Subsidiary, not vital for terminal functions but providing convenience for passengers.
(e) Support (operational and administrative areas), necessary for airlines, tenants, and the
airport operator to carry out their internal activities.

61. Name the three types of subsystems provided in direct support of transportation
functions.
(a) Processing, where passengers and baggage undergo various formalities.
(b) Circulation, where passengers move on foot or are assisted by various mechanical systems
(similarly for check in hold baggage).
(c) Holding, where passengers assemble (again: the same applies in different means for hold
baggage in the baggage system).

62. Name two types of passengers based on their trip purpose

(a) Business Passengers: Business passengers are those travelling for workrelated reasons.
(b) Leisure Passengers: Leisure passengers are those travelling for personal reasons such as
tourism or visit to family and friends.

63. Describe the processing of passengers, luggage and freight

Figure 1 - International Flight Processing

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Figure 2 - National Flight Processing

Figure 3 - The Freight Process

64. Describe the purpose of facilitation and name its main components

R. Definition: Facilitation means the various measures implemented by States, airlines, and
airports, to standardise, simplify, and reduce the amount and complexity of passenger controls
and processing stops at airports.

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The objective of facilitation is to improve the efficiency of control processes, reduce delays and
related costs and of course thus enhancing the passenger's travelling experience. The challenge
is to find a balance between an adequate level of control and processing efficiency.

65. The processing of national and international passengers is:

(a) Exactly the same.
(b) Differs for arriving passengers but never for departing passengers.
(c) Differs for arriving passengers, and in some States for departing passengers.
(d) Differs for departing passengers only.

66. Name the principal types of terminal concepts and explain their advantages and
disadvantages.
R. Terminals can be of centralised or decentralised concept. The main subcategories are: linear,
pier finger, satellite, and open apron. Each concept has advantages and disadvantages. The ideal
concept should allow airlines to carry out an efficient and profitable operation.

67. Name key operational procedures and describe their applicability

R. The Operational Procedures provide practical measures to deal with aerodrome operations,
in regular and irregular conditions. The main procedures deal with safety, emergencies,
security, maintenance, environmental protection, aircraft noise management, apron
management, and aeronautical information publications (AIP).

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68. Describe the physical and service components that make up the airside of an airport
(Unit 2.1).
R. The Physical Componentes of the Airside are: The movement area consists of one or more
runways, of taxiways, and aprons. The manouvering area is part of the movement area and consists of
runways and taxiways. These surfaces are respectively used for the take off and landing of aircraft, for
their surface movement, and for parking, loading and unloading them.

The Service Components are:

Metereological Services – they provide information regarding the weather conditions, once Air
transportation is highly sensitive to meteorological conditions. It is therefore essential that pilots,
airports, and ATS have access to reliable meteorological observations and forecasts., and
Air Traffic Services – They provide information in order to prevent colisions, to aid safe and efficient
conduct of the flights and to notify alert services.

69. Name the three different purposes that visual aids can serve.
(a) They can help Navigation
(b) They can denote obstacles
(c) They can denote restricted areas

70. An ILS provides pilots with:

(a) Visual guidance only.
(b) Visual and electronic guidance.
(c) Lateral electronic guidance only.
(d) Electronic lateral and vertical guidance.

71. What is the benefit of radars in aircraft guidance?

(a) An Air Traffic Controller can identify an aircraft's position and flight
direction and thus separating one aircraft from the other
(b) A pilot can detect obstacles and bad weather cells in low visibility
conditions
(c) It is only used in military aviation
(d) Both (a) and (b).

72. Name four meteorological factors that can affect aircraft.

1. Winds
2. Visibility - Fog
3. Pavement Contamination – Ice, water and snow
4. Ceiling of Clouds – Thunderstorm, turbulence, Cumulo Nimbus, etc...

73. Name the obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS).

R. Runway strip, take off and approach surface, transition surface, and horizontal Surface.

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74. The ATS unit responsible to control air traffic in a control zone is:
(a) An area control centre
(b) An approach control unit
(c) A control tower
(d) None of the above

The objectives of Air Traffic Services are to prevent collisions, to provide aircraft with advice and
information to ensure the safe and efficient conduct of flights, and to assist in search and rescue
operations. The main services they provide are control, information, and alert. The main ATS units are
control towers (responsible for a control zone), approach control units (responsible for a terminal
control area), and Area Control Centres (responsible for airways).

75. Apron Management includes:

1. Control of aircraft traffic and vehicles operating on apron;
2. Allocation of aircraft stands;
3. Monitoring Safety Operations;
4. Monitoring the safe conditions of pavement and other surfaces.

76. The components of the natural environment that airports can affect are:
(a) Air
(b) Water

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(c) Soil
(d) Fauna
(e) Flora

77. Allocation of Aircraft Stands can be provided by following agencies:

R. The airport operator or The Airline that owns or operates its own terminal, or uses
dedicated stands

78. Name key operational procedures and their applicability within each area of an airport
(Unit 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3).
R. The Operational Procedures provide practical measures to deal with aerodrome operations, in
regular and irregular conditions. The main procedures deal with safety, emergencies, security,
maintenance, environmental protection, aircraft noise management, apron management, and
aeronautical information publications (AIP).

79. Name the three types of subsystems provided in direct support of transportation
functions.
R. In order to process passengers and change transport mode and movement type, it was created
sub-systems. Sub-systems are a chain of components arranged in a logical way, inside the terminal
Area. They are divided in processing area, circulation area, holding area, subsidiary and support.

80. Name two types of passengers based on their trip purpose.

R. Business and Leisure

81. The processing of national and international passengers is:

(a) Exactly the same.
(b) Differs for arriving passengers but never for departing passengers.
(c) Differs for arriving passengers, and in some States for departing
passengers.
(d) Differs for departing passengers only.

82. For each category of terminal concepts (centralised and decentralised), name one
advantage and one disadvantage.
(a) Centralised
Advantage: Labour cost reduction
Disadvantage: Passenger’s congestion
(b) Decentralised
Advantage: Passenger’s convenience / easy orientation
Disadvantage: Dupplication of Airline Personnel

83. Vehicles should not be allowed to park on the curb because:

(a) The weight of parked vehicles may cause damage to the structure.
(b) Vehicles are better parked in a pay parking lot.
(c) It causes congestion, which is detrimental to efficient processing.
(d) It interferes with delivery vehicles.

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84. Preventative maintenance of terminal mechanical systems should be done:

(a) During busy periods.
(b) Always at night.
(c) Outside peak times.
(d) Whenever technical personnel is available.

85. Name various categories of people who need to travel to and from theairport.
R. Passengers, greeters and well wishers, visitors, employees, suppliers

86. List the physical subsystems of the landside.

R. Access infrastructure, supporting various access modes: Parking infrastructure, and Commercial
lands

87. Passengers will select a mode of access based on:

R. Purpose of the trip; Socio-Economic and physical Characteristics; Convenience, availability of
competitive alternatives
(50% Auto, 21% Taxi, 18% Rail, 11% Bus/Coach)

88. Expressed on an hourly basis, the rate charged in long term parking lots is usually:
(a) The same as that of short term lots
(b) Lower
(c) Higher

89. If road congestion is frequently observed, the airport operator should:

(a) Ask the police to speed up traffic
(b) Conduct a traffic survey
(c) Immediately widen the road
(d) Reduce the number of flights to decrease demand on roads

90. Landscaping implementation and procedures should take into account:

R. To keep its aesthetical character intact by the degree of public visibility, bird harzard control and
need for watering.

91. Describe the overall airport processing functions and their interactions as a system
(Unit 2.3.4).
R. The landside is that part of an airport that is normally accessible by the public. It is bound by the
airside, the terminal, and the airport boundary. It consists of three physical subsystems: access

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infrastructure, parking infrastructure, and commercial lands. It provides three functions: access to
the airport, parking for all modes, and revenues for the airport operator.

The three components of the total airport operational system must function as one, well-coordinated
entity. All partners providing facilities and services must work as a team to achieve this goal.

92. Define the main operational procedures used on an aerodrome (Unit 2.4).
The main operational procedures are made ensure the continued safety of aircraft operations written in
the Airport Aerodrome Manual and in the Aerodrome Emergency Plan, and they are:
a. Management competence
b. Safety Management System (SMS) includingsafety risk management and change management;
c. Management and Operation of the Airport Operations Control Center (AOCC);
d. Aerodrome Physical Characteristics – Movement Area status and condition;
e. Surface Movement and Guidance System (SMGCS), Visual aids and electrical system;
f. Aerodrome Zoning /Safeguarding – Obstacle and Wild Life habitat control aspects on and
around aerodromes;
g. Apron Management and Operations;
h. Airside Vehicle Operations
i. Runway Srface Conditions (Friction, Removal of Contamination)
j. Aeronautical Information System
k. Low Visiility Operations
l. Rescue and Fire Fighting Operations
m. Handling and storage of fuel and harzardous materials
n. Aerodrome Emergency Plan and Procedures
o. Airport Security Provisions
p. Environmental Issues and Noise Monitoring

93. Describe the international obligation of states in relation to airport certification

R. States are responsible to ensure the safety, regularity, and efficiency of aircraft operations at
aerodromes under their jurisdiction. All public aerodromes must provide uniform conditions for

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aircraft. To achieve these objectives, ICAO requires that aerodromes be certified in accordance with
stringent specifications.
Aerodrome certification is to ensure that aircraft operation safety is continuous. Operators must
consistently apply the requirements to obtain and maintain their aerodrome certificate.

94. Describe the obligation of the CAA in covering various aspects of the certification
process
R. The safety oversight authority is subject to a number of obligations that cover all aspects of the
total certification process. These obligations are:
(a) To process applications for aerodrome certification and to issue certificates.
(b) To notify Aeronautical Information Services of the certified status of the aerodrome and of
changes in aerodrome facilities.
(c) To conduct safety audits and aerodrome inspections.
(d) To evaluate aerodrome emergency exercises.
(e) To provide technical advice during the design and construction of aerodrome projects; to inspect
completed projects for compliance.
(f) To promote compliance with safety requirements through promotion and training.
(g) To take formal enforcement action when required.

95. Describe the obligation of the airport operator in complying with certification
requirements
R. Complying with certification requirements imposes certain obligations on the aerodrome
operator. These obligations are:
(a) To comply with SARPs and with national conditions.
(b) To employ an adequate number of qualified employees to operate and maintain the aerodrome.
(c) To operate and maintain the aerodrome in accordance with the procedures set out in the
Aerodrome Manual.
(d) To arrange for audits of the Safety Management System and for inspections of aerodrome
facilities.
(e) To allow pre-arranged access of the aerodrome by authorised CAA personnel.
(f) To notify the CAA, ATS, and pilots of any planned or unplanned changes to aerodrome facilities,
including OLS that are likely to endanger the operation of aircraft.

96. From an aerodrome certification point of view, obligations of an aerodrome

operator are:
(a) To comply with SARPs and with national conditions
(b) To employ an adequate number of qualified employees
(c) To notify the CAA, ATS, and pilots of any planned or unplanned changes to aerodrome
facilities, including OLS that are likely to endanger the operation of aircraft.

97. Describe the importance of aerodrome certification and explain its key processes

The certification process is complex and rigorous. It consists of a number of mandatory steps in
order to maintain:
(a) The aerodrome operator submits a formal application to the CAA, complete with an Aerodrome
Manual
(b) The CAA assesses the application and evaluates the Aerodrome Manual
(c) The CAA assesses the aerodrome facilities and equipment of the applicant, through an on-site
inspection

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(d) In the European Union also the organisation and operational services are assessed against their
related regulation.
(e) The CAA issues the certificate (or refuses it with notification of corrective actions)
(f) The CAA promulgates the certified status of the aerodrome in the Aeronautical Information
Publications (AIP). This notifies pilots that the said aerodrome is certified.

The CAA may issue an aerodrome certificate for an unspecified period; in this case it remains valid
until it is suspended or cancelled. Alternatively, it can be issued for a specific period. This decision rests
with the CAA.

98. Define the need for aerodrome certification and explain its key processes (Unit 2.5).
R. Aerodrome certification is a standard process, which ensures that aerodromes are operated in a
continued state of air safety. A certificate can only be obtained after a due process demonstrating
to the licensing authority that the aerodrome meets a number of stringent specifications. Then
certificate must be maintained on a permanent basis. Audits and inspections are key instruments in
achieving this objective.

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Module 3 - Safety

99. Distinguish between Safety and Security and different perspectives of Safety
R. Per definition Safety means the absence of accidents through prevention.
Accidents can cause:
(a) Injuries or death of people.
(b) Damage to property
There are several perspectives to safety:
Occupational safety – to protect the passenger, neighbour and staff fromrisks from aviation
activities. Operational safety – to protect aviation from risks stemming from bad conditions, unsafe
acts and procedures, unsuitable infrastructure and human error.

ICAO defines civil aviation security as a combination of measures and human and material resources,
intended to safeguard civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference1.

100. Differentiate between various perspectives of Safety

R. There are several perspectives to safety:
Occupational safety – to protect the passenger, neighbour and staff fromrisks from aviation
activities. Operational safety – to protect aviation from risks stemming from bad conditions, unsafe
acts and procedures, unsuitable infrastructure and human error.
.

101. Know the typical risks towards aircraft operations as well as towards human health
and their prevention or mitigation
R. The typical risks towards aircraft operations are:
(a) Pavement condition, such as the presence of standing water, snow, ice, and rubber deposit, on
runways, taxiways, and aprons. Broken slabs or irregular surfaces can also affect the safety of
aircraft operations.
(b) Obstacles penetrating OLS or located within runway strips. These obstacles can exist due to
several factors: negligence, ignorance, or natural causes.
(c) Temporary obstacles caused by construction or maintenance activities: e.g., cranes, trucks,
trenches, holes, barricades, and earth piles.
(d) Broken or damaged ground facilities such as approach lights, signs, and faded markings.
(e) Presence of debris on all surfaces.
(f) Bird activity on and near airports.
(g) Inadequate maintenance personnel or equipment, caused by lack of training or supervision,
wrong equipment specifications, or lack of performance monitoring.
(h) In-flight emergencies caused by human error, mechanical failures, fire, fuel shortage, or
unlawful acts. Although these factors are unrelated to ground facilities, they require the
deployment of resources by the aerodrome operator.

And to Human Health are:

(a) Exposure to jet blast, jet engine suction and turning propellers.
(b) Exposure to high noise levels.
(c) Exposure to exhaust fumes from aircraft and vehicle engines.
(d) Risk of being hit by aircraft, vehicles and ground support equipment.
(e) Work in inclement weather conditions.
(f) Exposure to lightning strikes.
(g) Moving around on slippery surfaces.

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(h) Risk of falling from elevated devices.

(i) Working around chemicals and other hazardous products (fuel, aircraft lavatory waste, deicing
fluids).
(j) Work in confined spaces (sewer manholes, tanks).
(k) Work around high voltage equipment.
(l) Work under pressure to meet stringent turnaround times for aircraft or to return a critical facility
to operational status.

Their prevention and mitigation measures include:

Towards Aircraft Operations
(a) Ensuring the aerodrome continuously meets all the provisions of its certificate. This means, the
infrastructure is kept according to certification specifications and is well maintained. Any deviations
are analysed and suitable mitigation measure are in place to buffer any potential risks resulting from
such deviation from the design standards.
(b) Carrying out regular inspections and audits of all aerodrome facilities and procedures, paying
particular attention to obstacles, runway pavement condition and friction, visual aids, and
emergency plans. There are detailed regulations in place (both with ICAO and EU, and with the
national Aviation
Authorities) that clearly define the duties of the airport operator both in frequency and content.
(c) Promptly informing all affected parties if any non-compliance is detected.
(d) Taking immediate corrective action to return facility to a safe condition.
(e) Establishing a thorough hazard and risk management to identify potential sources of harm.
(f) Analyzing incidents and accidents in order to better understand the root cause and underlying
contributing factors. This is the base for taking preventative action against future incidents by
managing the known risks.
(g) Ensuring your aerodrome meets the appropriate standards for Rescue and Fire Fighting
Services.
(h) Developing a safety plan for any airside work contract.
(i) Including all of the above procedures in your Aerodrome Manual for ease of reference and audit.

Towards reducing accidents to people:

(a) Be visible: wear approved safety vests everywhere on airside.
(b) Protect your hearing: wear ear plugs or other approved gear.
(c) Protect your head: wear a hard hat while working in construction areas.
(d) Protect yourself against falls: use proper safeguards or a safety harness.
(e) Be aware of your surroundings: watch for aircraft, vehicles and GSE.
(f) Wear protective gear when working with hazardous materials.
(g) Wear safety shoes.
(h) Do not work alone in a confined space.
(i) Use applicable safety procedures when working with electrical equipment.
(j) Wear clothes adapted to weather conditions.
(k) Install a lightning warning device, especially for work around refuelling
activities.
(l) Train employees in safety procedures, promote safety, recognise safe
records, and take disciplinary action when required.

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102. List various risks of aeronautical accidents and their mitigation

(a) Pavement condition, such as the presence of standing water, snow, ice, and rubber deposit, on
runways, taxiways, and aprons. Broken slabs or irregular surfaces can also affect the safety of
aircraft operations.
(b) Obstacles penetrating OLS or located within runway strips. These obstacles can exist due to
several factors: negligence, ignorance, or natural causes.
(c) Temporary obstacles caused by construction or maintenance activities: e.g., cranes, trucks,
trenches, holes, barricades, and earth piles.
(d) Broken or damaged ground facilities such as approach lights, signs, and faded markings.
(e) Presence of debris on all surfaces.
(f) Bird activity on and near airports.
(g) Inadequate maintenance personnel or equipment, caused by lack of training or supervision,
wrong equipment specifications, or lack of performance monitoring.
(h) In-flight emergencies caused by human error, mechanical failures, fire, fuel shortage, or
unlawful acts. Although these factors are unrelated to ground facilities, they require the
deployment of resources by the aerodrome operator.
Their prevention and mitigation measures include:

Towards Aircraft Operations

(a) Ensuring the aerodrome continuously meets all the provisions of its certificate. This means, the
infrastructure is kept according to certification specifications and is well maintained. Any deviations
are analysed and suitable mitigation measure are in place to buffer any potential risks resulting from
such deviation from the design standards.
(b) Carrying out regular inspections and audits of all aerodrome facilities and procedures, paying
particular attention to obstacles, runway pavement condition and friction, visual aids, and
emergency plans. There are detailed regulations in place (both with ICAO and EU, and with the
national Aviation
Authorities) that clearly define the duties of the airport operator both in frequency and content.
(c) Promptly informing all affected parties if any non-compliance is detected.
(d) Taking immediate corrective action to return facility to a safe condition.
(e) Establishing a thorough hazard and risk management to identify potential sources of harm.
(f) Analyzing incidents and accidents in order to better understand the root cause and underlying
contributing factors. This is the base for taking preventative action against future incidents by
managing the known risks.
(g) Ensuring your aerodrome meets the appropriate standards for Rescue and Fire Fighting
Services.
(h) Developing a safety plan for any airside work contract.
(i) Including all of the above procedures in your Aerodrome Manual for ease of reference and audit.

103. List various risks to occupational safety and their potential prevention
(a) Exposure to jet blast, jet engine suction and turning propellers.
(b) Exposure to high noise levels.
(c) Exposure to exhaust fumes from aircraft and vehicle engines.
(d) Risk of being hit by aircraft, vehicles and ground support equipment.
(e) Work in inclement weather conditions.
(f) Exposure to lightning strikes.

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(g) Moving around on slippery surfaces.

(h) Risk of falling from elevated devices.
(i) Working around chemicals and other hazardous products (fuel, aircraft lavatory waste, deicing
fluids).
(j) Work in confined spaces (sewer manholes, tanks).
(k) Work around high voltage equipment.
(l) Work under pressure to meet stringent turnaround times for aircraft or to return a critical facility
to operational status.

Towards reducing accidents to people:

(a) Be visible: wear approved safety vests everywhere on airside.
(b) Protect your hearing: wear ear plugs or other approved gear.
(c) Protect your head: wear a hard hat while working in construction areas.
(d) Protect yourself against falls: use proper safeguards or a safety harness.
(e) Be aware of your surroundings: watch for aircraft, vehicles and GSE.
(f) Wear protective gear when working with hazardous materials.
(g) Wear safety shoes.
(h) Do not work alone in a confined space.
(i) Use applicable safety procedures when working with electrical equipment.
(j) Wear clothes adapted to weather conditions.
(k) Install a lightning warning device, especially for work around refuelling
activities.
(l) Train employees in safety procedures, promote safety, recognise safe
records, and take disciplinary action when required.

104. Name the main components of a Safety Management System and their content
R. A Safety Management System is a set of systematic organisational measures and procedures
designed to manage safety at an aerodrome.
The main components of an SMS are:
a. Statement of the overall safety policy for the aerodrome;
b. Structure and organisation of the SMS, and individual responsibilities;
c. Setting of performance targets;
d. Methods for communicating safety messages;
e. Special safety measures required in critical areas;
f. Measures for the promotion of safety and accident prevention;
g. Internal audit and review system;
h. Inventory of safety-related airport facilities including design, construction and maintenance
of pavements and aerodrome lighting systems;
i. Staff training and competency;
j. Incorporation and enforcement of safety-related clauses in construction contracts

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105. Describe the main components of a Safety Management System (SMS), Elaborate
on their objectives and leverages

The components of an aviation Safety Management System (SMS) are five major pillars:

1. Process documentation – Statement of the overall safety policy for the aerodrome. Executive
Management signs its overall accountability towards “safety first” and demonstrates
management commitment towards allocating sufficient resources to safe performance.

2. Reporting System – Methods for communicating safety messages. This is a key success factor
for an effective SMS as only by effectively conveying relevant safety information to the people
performing safety relevant activities can these colleagues understand the risks and what they
can do to improve safety for themselves and for the operational partners and their equipment,
mainly: the aircraft

3. Risk Assessment – Special safety measures required in critical areas. These are identified
critical areas of infrastructure, risky procedures or unclarity of responsibilities and help keeping
the focus on the most pressing matters for improving safety.

4. Audits – Internal audit and review system. Installing an SMS is the first step. Permanently
improving it is the second and this needs to be accompanied by regular audits and reviews to
check, whether the SMS is still on target, whether relevant partners adhere to the rules and
there is no deviation from the systematic activities towards safer operations

5. Training Culture Communication – Staff training and competency, setting performance targets
and focus on the effectiveness of the SMS, by monitoring the num

106. Describe the importance of special safety planning before undertaking maintenance
or construction on the airside.
R. A Construction Safety Plan is an effective measure to reduce the special risks stemming from
construction- or maintenance work at an airport's airside.

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107. Explain typical components and steps to be undertaking within such a plan and its
execution.
R. the components and the steps of the Construction safety plan are:
(a) Scope of work: what facilities will be affected, what work will be done.
(b) Scheduled date and time of start up and finish.
(c) If the work is to be phased, describe the different phases and timing.
(d) Description of the operational impacts on all affected parties (a runway or taxiway may not
be available, some stands may be temporarily out of service).
(e) Mitigation measures to be implemented in order to reduce such impacts to a minimum (re-
routing around closed areas, alternate parking stands, etc.).
(f) A description of the temporary markings, lights, markers, and other visual aids that will be
installed to meet the provisions of ICAO Annex 14 and national regulations.
(g) Designated areas where the contractor can safely store materials, equipment, and stockpile
earth or gravel.
(h) A guarantee that work will not prevent the Rescue and Fire Fighting Services from meeting
their mandatory response time to aircraft emergencies.
(i) Description of how the contractor's staff will access the construction site (by providing an
escorted bus for example).
(j) Names, telephone numbers and availability of key representatives from the contractor, so
that they can be reached outside of working hours should the need arise.
(k) Notification chain in case of changes in plan.
(l) Requirement and timing to issue notification to affected parties

108. Discuss the importance of construction safety and measures to reduce the inherent
risks
R. A Construction Safety Plan is an effective measure to reduce the special risks stemming from
construction- or maintenance work at an airport's airside.
Construction or major maintenance activities on the aerodrome create potential risks that are
inherent to this type of environment. This is particularly true when work is done by an outside
contractor who may not be familiar with the aerodrome environment.

109. Explain, why driving a vehicle on the airside of an airport requires special training
and special rules
R. The operation of vehicles on airside requires special qualifications on the part of operators.
Since these qualifications are not part of a regular driver's license requirements, airport operators
must develop and implement procedures leading to the issuance of a site-specific Airside Vehicle
Operator Permit. Some airport operators (mainly on complex airports with several runway and
high density traffic) even have a special driver's permit for driving on the manoeuvring area. In
this case the trainee also has to obtain a special aeronautical radio operator certificate to
communicate with ATC's Tower Controller.

110. Explain the rationale behind special driver's training on an airside

R. Once the environment of the airside is completely different from driving in a highway, the
rationale behind special driver’s training on the airside is due to the need of a comprehensive and
decisive Training of Airside Vehicle Operators (AVOP). It is a mandatory prerequisite to safely
drive any vehicle on an airport.
Maintenance and operations activities require the regular presence of vehicles and equipment on
airside for several purposes:
(a) Inspections, maintenance and repairs.
(b) Transport of personnel, parts, equipment.
(c) Aircraft ground handling (baggage, cargo, fuelling, catering, etc.).

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(d) Aircraft guidance by follow me car

111. List and describe components on an AVOP training

R. The training program for all operators should include the following items:
Knowledge: The applicant should be fully familiar with the following information:
(a) Geography of the aerodrome.
(b) Aerodrome signs, markings, and lights Radiotelephony procedures to use trunk radio in
communications with relevant partners.
(d) Rules of traffic services as they relate to priorities.
(e) Other relevant airport rules and regulations.
(f) Special rules that may apply to some specialties such as rescue and fire fighting.
Competency: In addition to theoretical knowledge, the applicant should acquire the following
practical competency:
(a) Proper operation of radiotelephony equipment.
(b) Understanding and complying with ATS instructions and authorisations.
(c) Vehicle navigation on the aerodrome.
(d) Special skills required by particular functions.
(e) Possession of a valid State driver's license.
(f) Possession of a valid State radio operator's license.

112. Describe typical FOD and how to prevent or at least reduce risks stemming from
FOD
The typical FOD are the following objects, and they are regularly found on an aerodrome
(a) Baggage tags
(b) Suitcase caster wheels
(c) Plastic coffee cups
(d) Tools, wrenches
(e) Nuts and bolts
(f) Plastic wrapping
(g) Loose pavement
(h) Aluminium cans and plastic bottles

FOD can be reduced in two ways:

(a) Avoidance - Avoidance is the most effective method
(b) Removal

Prepare and implement an FOD Control Plan in consultation with all affected agencies.
Recommended actions include:
(a) Statistics on reported FOD damage or injuries.
(b) Regular inspection of key areas.
(c) Training and promotion.

113. Who develops Airside Vehicle Operator Permits (AVOP)?

(a) It is part of the international aviation examination
(b) It is part of the national aviation examination
(c) It is developed by airport operators
(d) It is part of the regular driver's license requirements

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Module 4: Security

114. Define civil aviation security.

R. ICAO defines civil aviation security as a combination of measures and human and material resources,
intended to safeguard civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference.

115. Explain civil aviation security objectives and general principles.

R. The objective of Civil Aviation Security is to safeguard people, aircraft, and aviation infrastructure
against acts of unlawful interference

116. Explain what makes civil aviation a target for unlawful acts.
R. Experience demonstrates that aircraft in flight constitute the main target of unlawful acts against
civil aviation: they can be used as a very powerful bargaining tool to obtain something (often a
politically-motivated want) or as a worldwide preceptible statement of terrorism. Consequently, the
control of access to aircraft on the ground is of primary importance.

117. Name the legal and technical instruments developed by ICAO to prevent and
counter acts of unlawful interference.
R. The legal instruments addressing the prevention and repression of unlawful acts:
(a) The Tokyo Convention (1963), dealing with offences committed on board aircraft.
(b) The Hague Convention (1970), dealing with the suppression of unlawful seizure of aircraft.
(c) The Montreal Convention (1971), dealing with the suppression of unlawful acts against civil aviation.
(d) The Montreal Protocol (1988), an addendum expanding on the Montreal Convention and dealing
with the suppression of unlawful acts of violence at international airports.
(e) The Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (Montreal, 1991).
To effectively prevent and respond to acts of unlawful interference, States must ratify these
Conventions and Protocol, and create a national regulatory framework to allow their enforcement
within their territory.

ICAO developed two technical documents that provide States with SARPs and guidance:
(a) Annex 17, Security–Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference.
This document provides technical specifications in the form of SARPs.
(b) Security Manual Against Acts of Unlawful Interference–Document 8973/7.
This document provides States with guidance for the development and implementation of a National
and an Airport Civil Aviation Security Programme.
As signatories to the Chicago Convention, States must comply with the provisions contained in all
Annexes to this Convention. Annex 17 is one of them.

118. Explain why States must ratify ICAO's technical instruments.

R. To effectively prevent and respond to acts of unlawful interference, States must ratify these
Conventions and Protocol, and create a national regulatory framework to allow their enforcement
within their territory.

119. Explain the need for States to develop a National Civil Aviation Security
Programme.
R. In order for States to translate ICAO security requirements into practical and enforceable measures
meeting national needs, the National Civil Aviation Security Programme must be based on a regulatory
framework.

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120. Explain the objective and contents of a National Civil Aviation Security
Programme.
R. This programme is established in accordance with the Government Policy on National Security. Its
objective is to safeguard civil aviation operations against acts of unlawful interference through:
(a) Regulations
(b) Practices
(c) Procedures

The contents are based upon a model programme provided by ICAO:

(a) Programme objective
(b) Definitions
(c) Legislation
(d) Responsibilities
(e) Coordination and Communications
(f) Protection of airports, aircraft, and air navigation facilities
(g) Control of persons and items placed on board aircraft
(h) Security equipment
(i) Personnel
(j) Response to acts of unlawful interference
(k) Evaluation of effectiveness
(l) Programme adjustment
(m) Contingency plans
(n) Financing
(o) Appendices

121. Explain the responsibilities of a National Civil Aviation Security Authority.

R. Each State must create a National Civil Aviation Security Authority responsible to develop, implement,
and maintain all elements of the National Civil Aviation Security Programme. In many States, this
authority is part of the Civil Aviation Authority.
This authority should be equipped with the resources necessary to meet its
objectives. Its responsibilities are to:
(a) Develop and update a programme commensurate with the specific aviation security needs of the
State.
(b) Assess the national threat level, in line with the regional and global context.
(c) Ensure that all airports develop and implement their own Civil Aviation Security Programme.
(d) Carry out audits, inspections and tests.
(e) Adjust the programme following audits, inspections, tests, and actual incidents .

122. Explain the role of the National Civil Aviation Security Committee and name the
main organisations that should be represented on it.
R. Each State must establish a National Civil Aviation Security Committee. If a State has more than one
international airport, individual committees must be established to address the specific needs of each
airport.
National Security Committee should include (but not be limited to) representatives from the following
main organisations:
(a) Civil Aviation
(b) Authority in charge of police functions
(c) National security agency or services
(d) Immigration
(e) Customs
(f) Other border control agencies
(g) Postal services

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(h) Foreign Affairs and External Relations

Other interested parties should be invited on an ad-hoc basis, when appropriate:
(a) Aircraft operators
(b) Airport operators
(c) Air traffic services
(d) Organisations representing employees likely to be affected by acts of unlawful interference against
civil aviation (crew members, security screening personnel, airline agents, etc), who can provide
technical expertise during deliberations.

Study Check 1
123. Experience demonstrates that aircraft in flight constitute the main target of unlawful
acts against civil aviation.
(a) True
(b) False

Study Check 2
124. Which legal instrument was developed by ICAO that provides States with SARPs?
(a) Security Manual Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
(b) Annex 17, Security
(c) Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection
(d) The Chicago Convention, 1944

Study Check 3
125. When ICAO was created, the protection of civil aviation was already an important
issue.
(a) True
(b) False

126. The National Civil Aviation Security Authority established by each State is often
part of:
(a) The Army
(b) The police
(c) The Civil Aviation Authority
(d) The Ministry of Defence

127. Explain the need to develop an Airport Security Programme and name its main
elements.
R. In order to ensure that an authority at each airport serving civil aviation is responsible for
coordinating the implementation of security Controls. According to Annex 17, Standard 4.2.1, each
Contracting State shall require each airport serving civil aviation to establish, implement and maintain a
written airport security programme. This programme, to be approved by the National Civil Aviation
Security Authority, should include the following elements:
(a) Responsibilities of the airport operator
(b) Coordination and communications
(c) Protection of airport, aircraft, and air navigation facilities
(d) Control of persons and items placed on board aircraft
(e) Security equipment
(f) Personnel
(g) Response to acts of unlawful interference
(h) Evaluation of effectiveness of measures
(i) Programme adjustment

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(j) Contingency plans

128. Explain the main responsibilities of an Airport Security Authority.

R. The Airport Security Authority has a number of result-oriented responsibilities:
(a) Coordinate, at the airport level, the implementation of the National Civil Aviation Security
Programme.
(b) Collect and maintain statistics on airport vulnerable points.
(c) Ensure that existing security measures meet the requirements of current and anticipated threat
levels.
(d) Conduct regular and permanent performance monitoring in case, this activities is contracted to third
party service providers.
(e) Conduct regular exercises, tests and inspections.
(f) Report on weaknesses and implement corrective measures.
(g) Report to management on weaknesses requiring outside assistance.
(h) Ensure that all security personnel are qualified and trained.
(i) Provide input into plans for new or expanded airport facilities.

129. Name the three parallel approaches used as preventative security measures.
R. The primary objective of these Preventative Security Measures is to prevent the presence on board
aircraft (and in other vulnerable points) of weapons, explosives, and other dangerous devices, articles or
substances. These prohibited items can be introduced by several means:
1) introduction through collusion in restricted areas for later use;
2) Carried on board of the aircraft, or;
3) Placed inside checked luggage or freight.

The Three Parallel Approaches must be implemented concurrently:

(a) Creation of restricted access areas (the airside plus other vulnerable points), to be protected by
physical barriers.
(b) Procedures to ensure that only authorised people can pass through these barriers.
(c) Procedures to ensure that no unauthorised items can be placed inside checked luggage, freight, or
directly on board aircraft.

130. Describe the procedures used to control the access of employees, vehicles,
passengers, checked luggage, and freight aboard aircraft.
R. The primary objective of these measures is to prevent the presence on board aircraft (and in other
vulnerable points) of weapons, explosives, and other dangerous devices, articles or substances. These
prohibited items can be introduced by several means:
1. Passengers and Carry on Luggage
1.1 The first control is at the time of Check-in, followed by the most important one –
1.2 The Security screening point (performed by certified Security agents).
(a) Walk-through and hand-held metal detectors for passengers.
(b) Radioscopic (X-ray) equipment for carry on luggage.
(c) Explosive vapour detectors for carry on luggage.
(d) Manual search of passengers and carry on luggage
2. Checked Luggage - Only checked or controlled luggage is allowed on board an aircraft. one hundred
percent of originating checked luggage must be screened.
It can be done using the following methods:
(a) Manual search.
(b) Radioscopic inspection (using a portable x-ray machine).
(c) Explosive vapour detection (can be done by specially trained dogs or
automated if the proper technology is installed).
(d) Combination of the above methods.

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3. Passenger-Luggage Match - baggage reconciliation - no checked-in baggage shall be allowed on board

the aircraft, if the owning passenger is not also boarding.
4. Freight - Measures should be established to ensure that freight (including mail) is subject to
appropriate security controls.
(a) Aircraft must operate from within a secure environment.
(b) Freight must be subject to some degree of security control before being loaded on an aircraft.
(c) Consignments of which the security status cannot be readily determined must be subjected to
screening or other additional security measures.
(d) Once a consignment is security cleared, it must be protected from interference.
5. Storage
Airlines and freight forwarders must ensure that their freight facilities are secured, to prevent
tampering. Premises should be guarded or equipped with closed circuit television.
6. Transfer to Aircraft
As described in annex 17, Standard 4.6.2, measures should be taken to ensure the security of freight
from the time it is dispatched to an aircraft, to the time it is loaded. Properly secured vehicles and access
routes (airside roads) should be used.
7. Access to Parked Aircraft
Regular patrols of remote parking areas will deter unlawful acts. Properly positioned closed circuit
television cameras, monitored from a central location, will be helpful. The security around parked and
serviced aircraft is under the responsibility of the airlines.
8. Control of Employees
The Airport Security Authority should establish a permit system to ensure that only employees who
have a justified and frequent need to access airport restricted areas can do so27. A permit will only be
issued after a background check of the applicant confirms that he or she does not constitute a risk for
civil aviation.
9. Control of Vehicles
According to Annex 17–Standard 4.2.3, access of vehicles to restricted areas must be controlled as they
may facilitate unauthorised access.

131. Describe the security measures that airport operators should consider when
designing a new or expanded facility.
R. Whenever the airport operator plans to build, expand or renovate facilities, it should ensure that the
architectural and infrastructure-related requirements necessary for the most efficient implementation
of civil aviation security measures are integrated into the design of the proposed work.
Some requirements to be considered include:
(a) Facilitate prevention of introduction of weapons, explosives, and other dangerous devices on the
airport and on board aircraft.
(b) Facilitate the implementation of emergency plans during an actual act of unlawful interference.
(c) Minimise the effect of an explosion in public buildings, by integrating appropriate building materials
and protection features.
(d) Prevent the mix of screened and non-screened passengers by implementing appropriate building
layouts.

132. Define the measures that airport operators should establish to respond to acts of
unlawful interference with civil aviation.
R. The main response measures to unlawful acts are the activation of the EOC and the implementation
of the Emergency Plan. This plan should contain procedures dealing with the unlawful seizure or
sabotage of aircraft or facilities, threats, armed attacks within airport boundaries and against aircraft
from the vicinity of the airport.

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133. Describe the conflict between security and facilitation.

R. In order to maintain the speed advantage inherent to air transportation, ICAO recommends that,
whenever possible, States arrange for the security measures and procedures to cause a minimum of
interference with, or delay the activities of, international civil aviation. It further states that, in light of
the security vs. facilitation dilemma, security must prevail.

134. Explain ICAO's position relative to facilitation.

R. It further states that, in light of the security vs. facilitation dilemma, security must prevail.

135. Explain the importance of security awareness and the need to train airport
employees on security issues.
R. In order to have qualified, motivated, and alert employees, airports must establish and implement a
solid security training programme. This programme must address all relevant elements of local security
needs, and be tailored to meet the training requirements of various categories of personnel

136. Name the key components of a security training programme.

The level of training required is not the same for these categories, and it should be adapted accordingly.
However, a security training programme should at least cover the following subjects:
(a) Threats against civil aviation.
(b) International and national legal and technical security instruments.
(c) Local preventative and response measures.
(d) Screening equipment and procedures.
(e) Techniques used by terrorists to counter security measures.
(f) Detection of prohibited objects aboard aircraft and in airport facilities.
(g) Detection of suspicious passenger behaviour.
(h) Surveillance techniques.
(i) Exercises, tests, and audits.
(j) Awareness.
In addition to formal and technical training, all airport employees should receive a minimum amount of
exposure to security awareness. Some simple but effective messages may include:
(a) Security is everybody's business. All employees and the public can contribute to it, challenge anyone
who does not look like they belong in the restricted area.
(b) It you find an open door, lock it; deny access to any person without a valid permit and report it for
further investigation by the appointed authority.

Study Check 4
137. What are the three main preventative measures in an airport?
R. The Airport Security Programme must include preventative measures. The main preventative
measures are:
a. the control of access to restricted areas;
b. the control of access to aircraft, and;
c. the control of passengers, luggage and freight.

138. The essential components of the Airport Security are the protection of airport, aircraft,
and air navigation facilities, and the control of persons and items placed on board
aircraft.

Study Check 5

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139. Opaque security fences are preferred because they prevent view over restricted
areas.
(a) True
(b) False

140. The control of passengers is only done in times of a high threat levels.
(a) True
(b) False

141. When a passenger does not present himself for boarding, his checked luggage must
be:
(a) Sent to its normal destination and stored until the passenger arrives.
(b) Immediately unloaded and considered suspect.
(c) Checked and sent to its destination.
(d) Unloaded and stored at the departure airport.

Study Check 6
142. In the apparent conflict between security and facilitation, the speed advantage
inherent to air transportation should prevail.
(a) True
(b) False

143. Explain why aircraft operators should develop their own security programme.
R. Aircraft operators must develop their own Security Programme to prevent and respond to the
unauthorised access to aircraft, and to in-flight threats or incidents.

144. Name the main components of aircraft operator's security programme.

R. The National Civil Aviation Security Authority requires that aircraft operators develop and implement
a security programme meeting the requirements of the National Civil Aviation Security Program.
It should at least include the following components:
(a) Control measures for checked luggage, freight, and mail. This is done in conjunction with the airport
operator.
(b) Control of access to aircraft by unauthorised persons.
(c) Control of passengers while on the apron for the purpose of boarding or deplaning. This is also very
closely co-ordinated with the airport operator.
(d) Measures to be taken by crew members in case of in-flight threats or incidents.
(e) Screening of passengers and carry on luggage (when it is the responsibility of aircraft operators).
(f) Protection of operators' premises and materials.

145. Explain some of the measures that aircraft operators should implement.
1st – the control of the immediate vicinity of parked aircraft;
2nd – The doors of aircraft parked overnight should be locked and mobile stairs removed;
3rd – If the aircraft is parked over night, stand equipped with a passenger bridge, the bridgehead should
be disconnected from the aircraft;
4th – Aircraft should be searched for the presence of any dangerous object before boarding passengers;
5th – Finally, affected aircraft operators should participate in the response to acts of unlawful
interference by participating in the activation and management of the EOC

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146. Explain the need for airports to carry out testing of all aspects of aviation security
measures.
R. All security measures, equipment, plans and procedures, and employees must be regularly tested to
discover weaknesses, and take corrective actions.

147. Explain some of the means available to conduct such testing.

R. Testing can be done through a number of actions. Some examples include:
(a) Employees
(i) Periodic written or oral testing of staff performance, knowledge, and adherence to procedures.
(ii) Pre-arranged presence in a restricted area of authorised people without a visible permit.
(b) Equipment
(i) Calibration of screening equipment with sample metallic or explosive materials.
(ii) Pre-arranged carriage of prohibited objects through screening points by authorised personnel.
This will test the operation of the equipment and the level of alertness of screening personnel.
(c) Plans and Procedures
(i) Small-scale exercises simulating a threat or an act of unlawful interference, with or without
activation of the EOC.
(ii) Full-scale exercises simulating an act of unlawful interference, with activation of the EOC and
deployment of all airport and external resources.
(iii) Inspection of effectiveness of prevention measures against passengers mix.
(iv) Audit of the Airport Security Programme by the National Security Authority, for compliance with
the requirements of the National Civil Aviation Security Programme.

Study Check 7
148. A well-known employee presents himself at the access point to a restricted area. He
forgot his restricted area permit at home. Which action on the part of the security
guard on duty is appropriate?
(a) Allow the employee to access the restricted area under the condition that he presents his permit on
the next day.
(b) Strictly prevent access.
(c) Call his supervisor to seek advice.
(d) Allow access under the condition that he remains in his vehicle.

149. A security awareness programme should be designed exclusively for airport

employees.
(a) True
(b) False

150. Name two actions used to test Equipment.

(a) Calibration of screening equipment with sample metallic or explosive materials.
(b) Pre-arranged carriage of prohibited objects through screening points by authorised personnel. This
will test the operation of the equipment and the level of alertness of screening personnel.

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Module 5 – Support Services

151. Define the primary support services of an airport (Unit 5.1).

R. The primary and vital airport support services are to provide support of air safety, they include:
a. Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Services.
b. Medical Services for injuries related to aircraft operations and for injuries of staff and other
people in the terminals.
c. Aircraft Recovery to clear the relevant manoeuvering area from any stranded aircraft and
return to normal operations after an emergency.

152. Define the secondary support services of an airport (Unit 5.2).

R. The Secondary services that airport operators must arrange for, in order to function as an
enterprise:
a. Airport Maintenance
b. Water and Sewage
c. Energy supply
d. Waste Management
e. Communication

153. Explain the objective of aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services.
R. Objective: The objective of Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting services is to save lives after a
survivable accident. It is achieved by extinguishing fire and by assisting passengers and crew to
evacuate the aircraft safely.

154. State the maximum response time to be provided.

R. The ARFFS is required to be at an emergency site within 180 seconds after the alert at the
maximum, according to the Annex 14, It shall not exceed 3 minutes. In optimum conditions, within
120 seconds after the alert.

155. Explain what equipment and materials are used to fight aircraft fires.
R. The equipment and materials are:
a. Trucks, specially designed for this task and capable of manoeuvring on unprepared surfaces;
b. Water and dry chemical to discharge foam to extinguish fires caused by fuel.

156. Define the basis for determining the level of protection to be provided at each
aerodrome.
R. The length of the longest aircraft regularly serving the aerodrome together with the fuselage
width determine the level of protection required. The applicable category determines the quantity of
water and dry chemical to be made available and the discharge rate of foam that vehicles must be
capable of delivering.

157. List typical medical services at airports describe the concept of a triage explain the
airport's and medical service provider's roles in emergencies discuss typical
concepts of aircraft recovery and the major tools.
R. The purpose of Medical Services is to provide triage, first aid and medical care in order to:
(a) Save as many lives as possible by locating and stabilizing the most seriously injured, whose lives
may be in danger without immediate treatment.
(b) Provide comfort to the less injured and to administer first aid.
(c) Transport casualties to the proper medical facility.

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Regarding the aircraft recovery, it is responsibility of the aircraft owner, to lift and remove the
aircraft from active operational surfaces. Although airlines do not own Recovery Kits, they request
the Airport Operators they serve. Aerodrome operators should have the authority to take action, if
the aircraft owner is not reacting in acceptable speed. Typically such authority is defined (and
signed off by all users) in the airport’s user regulations.
Airports develop aircraft removal plans defining security, equipment, routes for logistics and
transport of the aircraft, persons and organisations to assist or to take charge.

Study Check 1
158. Rescue and Fire Fighting services should be provided exclusively on aerodrome
property.
(a) True
(b) False – Only aircraft and assist passengers & crewmembers

159. Rescue and Fire Fighting services should provide a response time not exceeding:
(a) Ten minutes
(b) Five minutes
(c) Three minutes
(d) One minute

160. The level of Rescue and Fire Fighting protection to be provided at a given
aerodrome is determined based upon:
(a) The annual number of aircraft movements.
(b) The length of the longest aircraft serving the aerodrome regularly.
(c) The number of seats of the largest aircraft serving the aerodrome.
(d) The weight of the heaviest aircraft serving the aerodrome.

161. The objective of aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services is to:
(a) Extinguish building and aircraft fires.
(b) Extinguish aircraft fires.
(c) Extinguish aircraft fires and assist passengers and crewmembers to evacuate safely.
(d) Participate in emergency exercises.

162. Aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting services can only be provided by the
aerodrome operator.
(a) True
(b) False

163. Name all secondary support services that airports need to acquire, and briefly
describe their respective use.
R. An airport can be compared to a town in that it requires some secondary services to function.
These services are of two categories: municipal utilities, and purchased or leased goods and
services.

164. Explain how secondary support services can be obtained or generated.

R. These goods and services are often obtained from external public or private suppliers. In some
cases, however, airport operators generate or complement these outside sources through in-
house expertise.

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165. Explain how secondary support services are distributed and their costs recovered.
R. an airport is generally considered as one large customer who is billed for the whole volume of
services distributed (water, electricity, communications, etc) fed to the airport. Since the airport
operator only consumes part of this total volume, he should recover the amount consumed by
other users. Leases between the airport operator and tenants and concessionaires who consume
water should cover these costs. This can be done either through a fixed charge or through the
installation of a meter (in case of water and electricity) at each tenant and concessionaire
premises.

Study Check 2
166. When developing a water supply strategy, an airport operator should:
(a) Provide potable water to all points.
(b) Provide raw and potable water to all points.
(c) Provide potable water where it is required and satisfy all other water needs with raw water.

Study Check 3
167. Name the two alternatives available to an airport operator to dispose of raw sanitary
sewage.
(a) On airport treatment and release
(b) Discharge of raw effluent into the closest municipal sanitary sewer for treatment.

168. Most of the water used by an airport ends up in sanitary sewer pipes.
(a) True
(b) False

169. Sanitary sewage must be treated because:

Circle all all answers that apply.
(a) It is a public health requirement.
(b) It is an environmental requirement.
(c) It provides the city with tax income.

Study Check 4
170. Name four uses that airports have for electricity.
R. Electricity is required for safety, security, and general operational reasons such as lighting,
heating, cooling, and operating the many pieces of equipment that run on electricity, such as
luggage conveyors, passenger bridges, automatic doors, etc.

171. Name the two methods of recovering electricity costs from tenants.
R. This can be done either through a fixed charge or through the installation of a power meter at
each tenant and concessionaire premises.

172. Generally speaking, airports rely on a public utility company to secure a power feed
meeting their needs.
(a) True
(b) False

Study Check 5

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173. Storm water cannot be released uncontrolled into municipal pipes and ditches, or
into natural ditches and streams for the following three reason:
(a) environmental protection
(b) control of erosion
(c) pipe size limitation, rainwater cannot be released uncontrolled into municipal pipes and
ditches, or into natural ditches and streams.

Study Check 6
174. Fixed communication systems support several types of uses. Name two of them that
are crucial for operations.
R. Airside, you learned that airports rely on a number of communication systems, some of them
being fixed systems others being wireless services like trunk radio, or WiFi Web. They consist of
telephone and fibre optic links antennas and relevant emitting and receiving systems, that must
NOT interfere with critical aeronautical systems like ILS of radar. These systems support
telephone communications, facsimile, Internet, airline reservation systems, Flight- and
Passenger data for processing to all involved organisations (including governmental services),
operational communication, vehicle data exchange; all crucial for operations.

Study Check 7
175. All food waste should be destroyed by incineration.
(a) True
(b) False – only food waste from international flights

176. Name two types of industrial waste generated by airports.

(a) Used oils
(b) Cleaning detergents
(c) Scrap metal from maintenance and repair shops
(d) Scrap materials from construction or maintenance work (concrete, bricks, asphalt)
(e) Waste paper, cardboard, and plastic

177. Airports purchase or lease goods and services from external sources for the three
following reason(s):
(a) availability of expertise – They are not available on site
(b) the respective cost of either alternative – Leasing proves more efficient than buying
(c) management philosophy of the airport operator - Leasing proves more efficient than doing it
in-house.

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Module 6 – Airport Issues and Challenges

178. Explain the challenge that security threats impose on airports and airlines (Unit 6.1).
R. Over the past thirty years, the trend in requirements for civil aviation security has clearly been
upward: with every major act of unlawful interference came a tightening of security control
procedures, coupled with the design and implementation of better screening equipment.

179. Explain what technological measures are available to reduce risks to civil aviation
(Unit 6.1).
R. The expanding use of biometric technology for employees and passengers access control will
facilitate the identification of people trying to hide their identity, while at the same time
improving facilitation.
At the present moment the most used technological tools to increase security while protecting
facilitation are:
 Computerized databases for inputing advanced passenger information;
 Machine-readable passports;
 Biometric Identification systems for passengers and airport employees;
 Screening machines for checked luggage (conventional X-rays, dual View X-Rays, ADS, CTS)

180. Explain what forces drive demand for air transportation (Unit 6.2).
R. Demand for air transportation is driven by economic activity and airfares.

181. Explain how the aviation industry copes with times of reduced revenues and
increased costs (Unit 6.2).
R. Airlines and airports have responded by reducing their costs and increasing their efficiency.

182. Explain what solutions airports can implement to cope with capacity problems (Unit
6.3).
R. For example:
Use of new Technologies like:
1) Paperless tickets reduce demand on check-in and ticketing concourses: instead of waiting in
line, passengers will use ticket and boarding pass dispensers dispersed throughout the
departures area, and they do not accumulate in one area;

Use of Smart Terminal Design

2) Re-balancing of internal floor space can provide relief at a cost inferior to an expansion.

Use of Smart Operational Procedures

3) Some terminals have implemented a premium service providing access between surface and air
modes without using the regular check-in concourse or luggage claim areas.

183. Explain what impacts new aircraft types had on airports over the past few decades
and what future aircraft types will have in the short and long term (Unit 6.4).
R. If we examine the impacts that these changes had on airports, we can determine three turning
points:
(a) Sharp increase in take off distance (with the advent of the jet age), affecting runway length
requirements.

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(b) Sharp increase in seating capacity and aircraft weight (once with the advent of the jet age,
then with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the size of hold rooms, of all processing
facilities, and of the bearing capacity of paved surfaces.
(c) Sharp increase in aircraft dimensions (with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the
size of stands and the minimum separation between runways and taxiways.

184. Describe the concept of sustainable development and what measures airports should
implement to meet its objectives (Unit 6.5).
R. Sustainable development means meeting the needs of present generations without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own.
Airport Policies–Corporate Level: An airport Sustainable Development Programme should include
the following elements:
(a) An Environmental Charter spelling out the airport's formal commitments to protect the
environment for future generations.
(b) A multi-year environmental action plan.
(c) A formal and transparent public communication plan with affected residents. An airport Web
site with input and feedback capability is an asset.
(d) An annual environmental report, clearly showing achievements against set goals (it can be part
of the Airport Annual Report).
(e) ISO 14001 Certification (desirable).

185. Describe the impacts of security threats on the aviation industry.

R. Security threats and actual acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation have a cascading
effect throughout the air transportation industry (and in many other areas of the economy):
(a) Loss of airline business and revenues, threatening the survival of the industry as a whole.
(b) Loss of airport business and revenues, due to the loss of passengers and reduced airline traffic.
(c) Increased airport security costs, affecting airline costs, passed on to passengers, which causes a
further loss of business.
(d) Increased requirement for security equipment, requiring more space and adding processing
time, at the expense of facilitation.
(e) Reduced capacity due to slower processing rates and loss of operational space to security
equipment.
(f) Increase in cost or unavailability of insurance coverage for airlines and airports.

186. Describe the evolution of threats and acts of unlawful interference.

R. Today's terrorist threat compared to that of thirty years ago, is more varied, more complex,
more
diffuse, more extreme, and more trans-national. Airports and airlines security threats come from
many angles: from passengers, from employees, and from visitors

187. Describe how airports are coping with the current security challenge.
R. Airports have enhanced security by providing additional trained staff and equipment, by
dealing with physical constraints in existing terminals to accommodate new security equipment,
and by conducting enhanced screening.
They have also coordinated the implementation of facilitation measures with all agencies
concerned, regarding travel documentation and inspection requirements.
Among other actions, airlines have equipped their aircraft with tamper-proof flight deck doors.
Finally, some countries have responded by providing armed guards (also called air marshals) on
board aircraft, either as a general rule, or on specific high-risk flights.

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188. Describe what technological tools are available to further increase security while
protecting facilitation.
R. The expanding use of biometric technology for employees and passengers access control will
facilitate the identification of people trying to hide their identity, while at the same time
improving facilitation.
The upcoming requirement to screen all checked luggage prompted the industry to install
explosive vapour detectors at or near check-in counters.
At the present moment the most used technological tools to increase security while protecting
facilitation are:
 Computerized databases for inputing advanced passenger information;
 Machine-readable passports;
 Biometric Identification systems for passengers and airport employees;
 Screening machines for checked luggage (conventional X-rays, dual View X-Rays, ADS, CTS)

Study Check 1
189. What is the extra measure some countries have adopted on board their aircraft to
provide more security?
(a) Bomb detectors
(b) Air marshals
(c) Plastic cutlery
(d) Reduced suitcase size

Study Check 2
190. Biometric technology may be used to:
(a) Control the access of employees to restricted areas
(b) Control the access of “Registered” passengers to restricted areas
(c) Control the access of all passengers to restricted areas
(d) a and b

191. Explain what factors drive the demand for air transportation.
R. Demand for air transportation is driven by economic activity and airfares.

192. Describe the financial challenges facing airlines and airports over the past few
years.
R. The fanacial challenges that Airlines faces are caused by a combination of factors such as:
(a) Overcapacity (too many empty aircraft seats).
(b) Competition from low-cost airlines, especially on busy national routes.
(c) High operating cost levels.

Challenges to overcome by airlines are to:

(a) Reduce their cost base and become more flexible in their cost structure.
(b) Absorb the cost increases generated by enhanced security requirements and insurance.
(c) Restore their profitability by increasing their Seat Load Factor and optimize their yield
management.

The fanacial challenges that Airport faces are caused by a combination of factors such as:
Economic challenges are:
(a) Reduced revenues from aeronautical sources and the resulting requirement to offset losses by
increased non-aeronautical revenues;

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(b) Additional security expenses;

(c) Increases in insurance costs;
(d) pressure for further capacity and related capital expenditure.

increasing expenditures:
(a) Cutbacks in operating expenditures
(b) Employee layoffs
(c) Cutbacks in capital expenditures
(d) improve terminal and airside productivity by comprehensive and systematic cooperation
between the operating partners
(e) diversification - i.e. investing into other businesses along the product chain (security, foreign
airport management, consulting, property development).

193. Explain what factors caused a reduction in airports' operating margins.

R. The cost increased by enhanced security requirements and insurance and the September 11
events exacerbated this problem and created an unprecedented industry-wide crisis, lasting
through 2002, 2003, and 2004. At the present moment, COVID-19 crisis is increasing costs and
closing boarders with pandemic’s spread prevention measures.

194. Name some of the actions taken by airlines and airports to limit the financial
impacts of reduced revenues and increased costs.
R. The actions taken by Airlines to limit the financial impact of reduced revenues and increased
costs are:
(a) Reduce their cost base and become more flexible in their cost structure.
(b) Absorb the cost increases generated by enhanced security requirements and insurance.
(c) Restore their profitability by increasing their Seat Load Factor and optimize their yield
management.
The actions taken by Airports to limit the financial impact of reduced revenues and increased
costs are:
(a) Cutbacks in operating expenditures
(b) Employee layoffs
(c) Cutbacks in capital expenditures
(d) improve terminal and airside productivity by comprehensive and systematic cooperation
between the operating partners
(e) diversification - i.e. investing into other businesses along the product chain (security, foreign
airport management, consulting, property development).

195. Explain why airlines and airports must work as partners for the sake of their
financial health.
R. Although in the book they mention the 9/11 was the worst crisis Aviation had faced so far, with
loss of 35 billion dollars between 2001 and 2004, and followed by world economic crisis in the
following years, COVID-19 crisis is by far the worst crisis that aviation have faced so far! On 14
April 2020, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimated that the airline industry
could lose between around $314 billion of revenues due to the reduced number of passengers. [20]
[21]
  and that airlines would require $200 billion in bailouts to survive the crisis. [23] 
And if aviation wants to resume its operations they must closely cooperate, implementing all the
safety and security measures in order to overcome this crisis. Airports and Airlines are
interdependent, any aviation crisis will affect both equally. This pandemic has already resulted in
airline and airport bankruptcies and more are expected (Five Aero CIT047, 2020).

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Study Check 3
196. What are the three economic challenges faced by airports?
R. (a) Reduced revenues from aeronautical sources and the resulting requirement to offset losses
by increased non-aeronautical revenues;
(b) Additional security expenses;
(c) Increases in insurance costs;
(d) pressure for further capacity and related capital expenditure.

197. What are the three measures airports have taken to cope with diminishing revenues
and increasing expenditure?
R. (a) Cutbacks in operating expenditures
(b) Employee layoffs
(c) Cutbacks in capital expenditures

198. Define capacity, congestion and delay.

R. Capacity is the power of containing a certain quantity of things or the ability of a component to
accommodate a given level of traffic (aircraft, people, luggage, freight, and vehicles). Capacity
cannot be exceeded without consequences ;
Congestion is an excessive accumulation causing disorder and delays;
A delay is a restraint of the motion of something or an increase of the time necessary to do
something.

199. Describe the characteristics of airport demand.

R. Most airports display large variations in demand over time (hourly, daily, and monthly). Peaking
characteristics also vary with the type of passengers (business vs. leisure).

200. Explain why airports do not plan for ultimate peak capacity.
R. Forecasted peak demand determines the size of facilities that must be provided. However,
providing facilities sized to accommodate the highest peak (which may occur only once a year)
would result in uneconomical and wasteful operations. Consequently, airport facilities are
normally designed to accommodate a typical peak, as opposed to the highest peak. In practical
terms, it means that, for few hours or days during the year, there will be an acceptable level of
overload.

201. Explain the strategies available to cope with capacity problems.

R. Capacity problems should be addressed in a phased manner: do more with existing facilities,
divert demand, and then expand.

202. Explain the technological solutions to deal with capacity issues.

R. Some technological solutions used nowadays are:
 Paperless tickets reduce demand on check-in
 Ticketing concourses: instead of waiting in line
 Travel Document Machine redable;
 Biometrics passenger registration;
 Self-checkin;
 Self drop bag.

 Do more with existing facilities, divert demand, and then expand facilities.

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 Technology, smart design, larger aircraft (A380), and operational procedures can alleviate
capacity problems and postpone the need to expand.

203. Define capacity cycles and explain where the airport industry currently is.
R. Capacity problems at airports fluctuate in accordance with cycles. For example, when traffic
levels decrease capacity problems are temporarily alleviated. After a facility has been expanded,
the capacity provided to meet long-term requirements eliminates congestion, until such time as
demand equals capacity again. Currently, every airport is alleviated due to the COVID-19 travel
restrictions, although before the crisis, the majority of the big airports troughout the world were
already near to the designed capacity.

Study Check 4
204. Airport demand can be characterised as:
(a) Constant
(b) Slightly fluctuating
(c) Deeply fluctuating

Study Check 5
205. Faced with a recurring congestion problems, an airport operator should:
(a) Immediately expand facilities.
(b) Do nothing.
(c) Try to increase the efficiency of existing facilities.
(d) Try to divert traffic to under-utilised facilities.

Study Check 6
206. Name three smart solutions to capacity problems.
 Common use check-in and ticketing counters;
 Special passenger service whereby those passengers who carry light checked luggage can
retrieve it directly from the aircraft upon disembarking, thereby reducing demand on inbound
luggage systems andwaiting time in the arrivals concourse;
 Congestion might be reduced by operating larger aircraft or reducing runway occupancy time
per aircraft by adjusted ATC- and apron operations supported by tailored runway high speed exit
taxiways.

207. List key steps in aircraft technological advances and their main impacts on airport
facilities.
R. (a) Sharp increase in take off distance (with the advent of the jet age), affecting runway length
requirements.
(b) Sharp increase in seating capacity and aircraft weight (once with the advent of the jet age,
then with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the size of hold rooms, of all processing
facilities, and of the bearing capacity of paved surfaces.
(c) Sharp increase in aircraft dimensions (with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the
size of stands and the minimum separation between runways and taxiways.

208. Explain the challenges that known future aircraft will create for airport operators,
once they become operational.
R. Known future aircraft will create another round of facility expansions. Future technologies may
further affect airport facilities if aircraft sizes and capacity are increased.

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209. Explain what new aircraft technologies are being contemplated for the long term,
and their probable impact on airports.
R. Future technology may bring more fuel-efficient aircraft, and possibly new types of fuels. It is
not expected that these changes will have significant impacts on airport facilities.

Study Check 7
210. What are the three impacts that changes in airplane engines had on airports?
(a) Sharp increase in take off distance (with the advent of the jet age), affecting runway length
requirements.
(b) Sharp increase in seating capacity and aircraft weight (once with the advent of the jet age,
then with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the size of hold rooms, of all processing
facilities, and of the bearing capacity of paved surfaces.
(c) Sharp increase in aircraft dimensions (with the advent of the B747 and A380), affecting the
size of stands and the minimum separation between runways and taxiways.

Study Check 8
211. Aircraft larger than the A-380 would create further challenges for airport operators,
as another round of facilities increases would be required.
(a) True
(b) False

212. Define sustainable development.

R. The principle of sustainable development is to ensure that development needs of the present
generation are met without compromising those of future generations.

213. Name a few examples of worldwide environmental problems.

R. (a) Non-renewable energies (oil, gas, coal) have by definition limited reserves. However, they
currently provide a large proportion of our energy needs. They also generate greenhouse gases.
(b) These gases cause global warming. Some scientists forecast that by the year 2100, this
phenomenon may have devastating consequences such as rising sea level causing extensive
coastal flooding, desertification, and extinction of animal species.
(c) Transportation activities generate 25% of carbon dioxide in the world. It is a priority to reduce
the use of the automobile, especially in urban areas.

214. Explain what aviation and airport activities may contribute to environmental
problems.
R. The emission of greenhouse gases by the aviation industry is increasing, in spite of
international commitments to reduce them.
Airport activities generate a risk of pollution of surface and ground water, and of soil and
substrate.
They also affect the survival of many species of fauna and flora. Aircraft noise may cause poor
neighbour relations.

215. Describe the policies and procedures that airports should implement in support of
sustainable development.
R. Many airports have adopted a sustainable development policy, supported by procedures and a
transparent communication plan. The main elements of such an initiative are practical measures
aimed at preserving the natural and human environment. Target areas are water, air, and soil
quality; energy management, waste reduction, and aircraft noise management.

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Study Check 9
216. What does sustainable development mean?
(a) To participate in recycling programs
(b) To use solar and wind energy as much as possible
(c) To meet current needs without compromising future generations ability to meet theirs
(d) To use nuclear power instead of fossil fuels in order to preserve natural resources for future
generations

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Module 7 – Future of the Airports

217. Describe how emerging and future technological improvements will affect airports
(Unit 7.1).
R. Future technological improvements will affect airports regarding:
Airside
 GPS - Instead of using ADF and VHF and VOR, nowadays it is being used new advancement in
GPS provides position accuracy by the help of 24 earth-orbiting satellites. The position data is
updated time by time for accuracy. Satellites are positioned in such a way that every GPS unit
on board the aircraft can locate at least 4 satellites (5 in case of air navigation) to determine its
own position. The concept of PBN (Performance-Based Naviagation) leverages on GPS-based
navigation by advancing aircraft systems, improving cockpit displays and modern aircraft auto-
flight capabilities, shortening aircraft paths, placing them over non-residential areas and
lowering community noise levels;
 Modern ways of identifying individual aircraft on the ground by means of so called
multilateration, that is enable the controller to have the aircraft guided by lights embedded in
the centrelines of taxiways, that switch on and off just like traffic lights on surface roads (“follow
the green”);
 Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) system that coordinates the airport airside
activities and synchronize their outand input with the adjacent airspace as well as within the
total aeronautical capacity network;
 Aircraft De-icing–Infrared or Gas-fired De-icing Heaters;
 New type De-Icing pavement, called conductive concrete overlay. This technology consists in
heating the top layer of a surface with electricity;
 New Concret Pavement - modern research by now offers also quick hardening concrete that has
a convincingly longer durability and thus reduces the life cycle costs of such an investment.
 Bird Control - laser beams repel birds. This technology is non-lethal for birds. However, more
experience is required to determine whether all species respond to this method and whether
birds get habituated to this type of scare tactic;
 New techniques are being developed to remove rubber deposits more efficiently. Examples
include high water pressure, emulsifying chemicals, high impact pellets, and sweeping.

Terminal

 The use of Biometric technology – More and more airports, authorities and States jointly
implement such systems for automated passport checks to a great effect on capacity.
 An IATA-sponsored initiative, called S-travel (Secure Travel) is underway. It incorporates digital
certificates for registered passengers.
 ICAO sets the international standard for travel documents in Doc 9303, to facilitate inspection
and enhance security. This will help to further speed up document processing a number of
manually-based processes will go into web applications.
 Biometric System - The new system will collect the information once and then share it
electronically with subsequent service providers.
 Efficient processing of checked luggage and freight is an important element of customer
satisfaction, so in Hong Kong, Radio Frequency ID (RFID) technology is already being used for
baggage reconciliation.
 CUSS – Common Use Self-Service - It harnesses the technological shift provided by the e-ticket
project, shares with the Bar Code Boarding Pass (BCBP) project for Boarding Pass production,

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mirrors trends in internet usage for passenger check-in, and delivers a platform for bag tag
issuance. The challenge for terminal planners is to get the mix of conventional check in, home
check in and CUSS check in right.
 For screening of passengers, new technology such as Personnel X-ray Systems, Millimetre
Wave Imaging Systems, Explosive Detection Portals, shoe scanners and Body Orifice Security
Scanners will become a common feature in airports to supplement current technology such as
Walk Through and Hand Held Metal detectors.
 Future technology Airport App for wayfinding and more CS Technology - will generate profound
improvements in the terminal area. Wireless and wearable devices will allow passengers to
effect countless commercial operations regardless of their location. They will also be provided
with unprecedented access to travel-related information and assistance.

Landside

 POD System - In the landside area, new rapid and dedicated access vehicles will allow
passengers to reach the airport unaffected by road congestion. As for air transportation security,
passenger and luggage checking would be done at the origin station, and luggage delivered to
the appropriate airline, thereby eliminating the check in function at the airport for these
passengers. They will provide the required capacity to match enhancements in airside and
terminal, and maintain the balance required to achieve facilitation. By shifting demand from
road vehicles to another type of access, airport operators will avoid costly expansions of parking
lots.

218. Describe how airport ownership and operations are likely to evolve in the future
(Unit 7.2).
R. The trend to commercialise and privatise airports will continue. Airports will focus on the needs
of their customers by specialising in the provision of tailormade facilities and services. New
airports may be built to accommodate demand.

219. Define the concept of uncertainty and how airport operators can cope with this
challenge (Unit 7.3).

220. Name technological advances that may be implemented at airports in the future.
R. On airside, the widespread establishment of GPS and PBN approaches will allow airports that
are unable to install an ILS to provide a precision approach. This improvement will benefit aircraft
and airport operators.
In the terminal area, the expansion of biometric technology will enhance security prevention
measures and facilitation. Its use could be extended to streamline government control functions.
The most radical changes expected will be provided by wireless, portable technology. Such
devices will allow users to remotely order and pay for goods and services. They will also have a
real-time information capability, allowing passengers to keep track of flight time or gate changes.
In the landside area, new rapid and dedicated access vehicles will allow passengers to reach the
airport unaffected by road congestion. They will provide the required capacity to match
enhancements in airside and terminal, and maintain the balance required to achieve facilitation.
By shifting demand from road vehicles to another type of access, airport operators will avoid
costly
expansions of parking lots.

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221. Describe the effect of technological improvements on airports, in the areas of

efficiency, safety, security, and protection of the environment.

222. GPS is a positioning system that relies on:

(a) Ground-based infrastructure.
(b) Satellites.
(c) A combination of satellites and airport infrastructure.
(d) Airport Control Tower.
223. Name two possible alternatives to glycol aircraft de-icing:
R. Aircraft De-icing–Infrared or Gas-fired De-icing Heaters
224. Prior to the advent of Global Positioning System (GPS) the two common methods
of navigation that pilots frequently used were the and the .
R. Prior to GPS they used ADF (NDB) and VOR aids.
225. Bird hazard reduction using laser technology can be implemented. Circle all
answers that apply.
(a) Immediately.
(b) After more experience is accumulated relative to the response of more
species to this technology.
(c) After it is determined whether birds become habituated to this
technology.
(d) If it is determined that it is non-lethal to birds.

Study Check 2
226. Name two possible applications for biometric technology beyond airport security
functions.
R. Any two from: immigration and customs; access control to buildings or computers; facilitation

227. Name two possible airport applications of wireless, wearable devices.

R. Any two from: mobile commerce; information relative to the availability of goods; automated
check-in; tracking of luggage; reservation or purchase of tickets; and making changes to
reservations.

228. Name the two new methods of cargo screening?

R. Thermal Neutron Analysis (TNA) and Pulse Fast Neutron Analysis (PFNA)

229. Define the reasons that initiated changes in the ownership and operation of airports.
R. There is persistent pressure on the part of airlines for airports to operate with a business
approach. In addition, Governments are no longer able to finance the required rate of
infrastructure development. This is the main reason that initiated changes in Airport Ownership
and Operations.

230. Describe the current status of airport ownership and operation.

R. The trend to commercialise and privatise airports will continue. Airports will focus on the needs
of their customers by specialising in the provision of tailormade facilities and services. New
airports may be built to accommodate demand.

231. Explain the reasons that will keep an airport ownership and operation from
commercialising and privatising.
R. (a) Impossibility to achieve financial viability in the current and foreseeable future economic
context. This is especially true for airports with low demand and low growth perspectives.

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(b) Presence of severe environmental problems (such as soil contamination) requiring mitigation
by the current owner. Of course innovative legal agreements could solve such problems on a
partnership base, where the objective is reached and economic benefit could evolve over time,
too.
(c) Political orientation of the State or airport owner, having decided not to pursue this
alternative, or not having recognised the potential of its airports.
(d) Conflicting demands of being a business and meeting the legal requirement of aerodrome
safety. Smart and professional contracting, well established oversight competency on behalf of
the Aviation Authorities and clearly defined safety- and service levels such conflicts could be
balanced and solved.
(e) Particular situations whereby only one airport in a country is attractive to private investors,
leaving the other, unprofitable airports isolated. There are cases in Brazil, Mexico, Greece, where
the private concessionnaire to operate and develop the airports had to acquire a group of airports
including the profitable ones and the ones with lesser commercial potential. The profits stemming
from the first will have to offset the losses of the second.

232. Name the airport types that focus on specific target markets
(a) Passenger airports.
(b) Freight airports.
(c) Origin and destination airports.
(d) Transfer airports.
(e) Retail airports (focussing on non-aeronautical activities).
(f) Low cost airports (catering to low cost, no-frill airlines).

Study Check 3
233. Name the three reasons that will keep airports from commercialising and
privatising:
R. Lack of potential to achieve economic viability, conflit between demandsof being a business
and meeting legal requirements of aerodrome safety, or presence of environmental issues.

234. Name two types of market-tailored airports.

R. Any two from: Passenger airports, Freight airports, Origin and destination airports, Transfer
airports, Retail airports, Low cost airports.

235. Define uncertainty and explain how it affects the airport environment.
R. Uncertainty means doubt about what will happen, when it will happen, and how much will
happen. It is re-enforced by the experience of unfavourable changes, which triggers a fear of re-
occurrence.
Uncertainty in air transportation can be generated by economic, security, health and safety, and
technological factors.

236. Describe how uncertainty evolved over the past few decades.
R. In the airport context, two factors create uncertainty:
(a) Fluctuation of demand (how much traffic, when, of what type, at what time, what aircraft
types, etc).
(b) Fluctuation of costs (capital and operating - how much it costs to run the business). Similar to
the societal concept on stability and change, stability in the aviation world is a thing of the past.
Here are some examples of factors that affect demand, either as a one-time event, or as recurring
and fluctuating events:

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(a) Price of oil

(b) Economic recessions
(c) Deregulation
(d) Technology
(e) Terrorism
(f) Wars
(g) Epidemic outbreaks
(h) Aircraft accidents
Based on these examples, we can define four types of events that cause uncertainty:
(a) Economic
(b) Security
(c) Health and Safety
(d) Technological

237. Explain the measures the airport operators should adopt to reduce the risk of
uncertainty.
R. Here are some principles that airport operators should adopt to reduce the risk of uncertainty.
(a) Better understand their own market, realistically, and not based on vague promises by a
potential customer to do something (which may be beyond economic viability).
(b) Capitalise on increased spatial efficiency such as electronic ticketing and check in. Move away
from dedicated use facilities, use common use systems and services instead.
(c) Expand facilities incrementally, in response to proven demand, better utilising what they
have.
(d) Add incrementally; meet short term requirements.
(e) Address needs as they arise.
(f) Focus on facilities that return the greatest value for construction money.
(g) Develop more refined cost estimates before making expansion decisions.
(h) Ensure ongoing financial scrutiny during the planning process. Avoid plans that are not
affordable.
(i) Plan what you need and can afford.
(j) Make interim, revenue-generating use of space if the intended use did not materialise.
The above measures may cost more in the short run, but can yield significant capital savings in the
long term.
The overall message is that affordability comes first, with focus on solutions that provide the
greatest and most immediate return.

Study Check 4
238. Name the type of alternative fuels that may be used for aviation in the future?
R. Biofuel such as Hydro-treated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Synthetic fuels and Biomass-to-liquids (BTL)

Study Check 5
239. Name the two factors that create uncertainty in the airport world.
R. Fluctuation of demand, Fluctuation of costs

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