Symbol: Pd

Name: Palladium

Atomic no.: 46

Atomic weight: 106.42±0.01

Electron Configuration: [Kr] 4d 10

Valence Electron: 10 ELECTRONS

Melting and Boiling point: 

*Melting point: 1554.8°C, 2830.6°F, 1828 K 

*Boiling point: 2963°C, 5365°F, 3236 K 

Density: 12.0 g cm −3

Electronegativity: 2.20

Ionization Energy:  804.389

Phase: Solid

Nature: It is non-toxic. It is extracted commercially as a by-product of nickel

refining.

Natural Occurrence: It is extracted as a by-product of copper and zinc refining.

Aka: Palladium is named after the asteroid Pallas, in turn named after the Greek
goddess of wisdom, Pallas. 

Uses: Most palladium is used in catalytic converters for cars. It is also used in
jewelry and some dental fillings and crowns. White gold is an alloy of gold that
has been decolorized by alloying with another metal, sometimes palladium.

It is used in the electronics industry in ceramic capacitors, found in laptop

computers and mobile phones. These consist of layers of palladium sandwiched
between layers of ceramic.

Finely divided palladium is a good catalyst and is used for hydrogenation and
dehydrogenation reactions. Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium
and this provides a way of separating and purifying the gas.
Palladium is also used in jewelry, dentistry, watch making, blood sugar test strips,
aircraft spark plugs, surgical instruments, and electrical contacts. Palladium is
also used to make professional transverse (concert or classical) flutes.

Trivia: More rare than gold or silver, palladium is found in only one location in the
United States. This substance is what gives white gold its signature color and it is
also found in almost all catalytic converters. The forty-sixth element of the
periodic table, palladium, was discovered in 1803 and named after an asteroid.

Shiny, silvery palladium is the element that gives white gold its color and a crucial
component of fuel cells and catalytic converters.
Palladium is one of six elements in the platinum group, along with platinum,
rhodium, ruthenium, osmium and iridium. These metals are known for being
excellent catalysts, or substances that speed up chemical reactions.
On Aug. 18, 2014, palladium's price hit $900 per troy one, the highest seen since
2001. That year, political instability in Russia sent palladium prices to $1,125 per
troy ounce, according to the Wall Street Journal.

Discovery date 1803 

Discovered by William Hyde Wollaston 

References:

 Palladium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).

https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/46/palladium
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Palladium | Uses,
Properties, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/palladium-chemical-element
 Palladium (Pd) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects. (n.d.).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/pd.htm
 Coins, B. R. (2017, October 27). Top Ten Facts Everyone Needs To Know About
Palladium. KOMO. https://komonews.com/sponsored/sell-gold/top-ten-facts-
everyone-needs-to-know-about-palladium#:~

 
Symbol:  Ag 

Name: SILVER

Atomic no.:  47

Atomic weight:  107.8682 u

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s¹

Valence electron: The element silver has two electrons in the fifth energy level, so
it has two valence electrons.

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 1234° K

*Boiling point: 2450° K

Density:  9·346 g/cm3 

Electronegativity: 1.93 

Ionization energy:  731 kJ/mole

Phase: Solid phase

Nature: Pure silver is nearly white, lustrous, soft, very ductile, malleable, it is an
excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

Natural occurrence: Silver occurs uncombined, and in ores such as argentite and
chlorargyrite (horn silver).

Aka: The scientific name for silver is an abbreviation of the Latin word Argentum.

Uses:
Silver Is Used For…
1. Cars
Motor vehicles depend on silver as much as they depend on fuel. More than 36
million ounces of silver are used each year in auto manufacturing, according to
The Silver Institute. For example, the institute says, every electrical connection in
a modern car is activated with silver-coated contacts. Starting the engine,
adjusting power seats, opening power windows, and closing a power trunk are all
accomplished using a silver membrane switch.
2. Jewelry
Chances are, you or someone you know wears jewelry made of sterling silver,
which is a mix of 92.5 percent silver and 7.5 percent copper. For centuries,
creators of jewelry have turned to sterling silver when crafting pieces like
bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, according to The Silver Institute. Why?
Because sterling silver is incredibly durable. Also, sterling silver jewelry costs
less than gold jewelry does.
3. Tableware
Silverware adds a touch of class to any table. Aside from forks, knives, and
spoons, you’ll find silver in bowls and other household items. In large part
because of its long-lasting nature, silver has been the “gold standard” for
tableware since the 14th century, according to The Silver Institute.
4. Medicine
Believe it or not, silver helps fight germs, just like pills and shots. It’s actually a
longtime go-to antibiotic. For decades, doctors put several drops of silver nitrate
into newborns’ eyes to prevent infection, according to The Silver Institute. During
World War I, battlefield wounds were wrapped in silver foil, and silver sutures
closed deep wounds. More recently, bandages and ointments have included silver
to ward off bacteria, the institute says. And healthcare facilities are battling
antibiotic-resistant “superbugs” with silver-embedded equipment and supplies
like surgical tools, needles, stethoscopes, furniture, and linens. Silver coatings
are also applied to medical devices like catheters and breathing tubes to combat
germs.

Trivia: Silver is a precious metal that has been known since ancient times. But the
element silver has many more uses today than just decoration or as a form of
monetary exchange.

Slag heaps near ancient mine workings in Turkey and Greece prove that silver
mining started around 3000 BC. The metal was refined by cupellation, a process
invented by the Chaldeans, who lived in what is now southern Iraq. It consisted of
heating the molten metal in a shallow cup over which blew a strong draft of air.
This oxidized the other metals, such as lead and copper, leaving only silver
unaffected.

The rise of Athens was made possible partly through the exploitation of local
silver mines at Laurium. These operated from 600 BC and right through the
Roman era. In Medieval times, German mines became the main source of silver in
Europe.
Coins minted in the United States before 1965 consist of about 90% silver.
Kennedy half dollars minted in the United States between 1965 to 1969 contained
40% silver. 
The price of silver currently is less than that of gold, varying according to
demand, the discovery of sources, and the invention of methods of separating
the metal from other elements. In ancient Egypt and Medieval European
countries, silver was valued more highly than gold.

Silver was also mined by the ancient civilizations of Central and South America,
there being rich deposits in Peru, Bolivia and Mexico .

Discovery date approx 3000BC 

Origin of the name The name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name, 'siolfur'. 

References:
 Kirshenbaum, A., Cahill, J., & Grosse, A. V. (1962, March 1). The density of liquid silver
from its melting point to its normal boiling point is 2450°K. Journal of Inorganic and
Nuclear Chemistry; Pergamon Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1902(62)80188-2
 SILVER THE ELEMENT - The Silver Institute. (n.d.). The Silver Institute.
https://www.silverinstitute.org/silver-element-essentials/#:~:text=1st%20ionization
%20energy%3A%20731%20kJ,Electron%20affinity%3A%20125.6%20kJ%2Fmole
 Baty, S. R., Burakovsky, L., & Errandonea, D. (2021, September 21). Ab Initio Phase
Diagram of Silver. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter; IOP Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-648x/ac23fb
 Silver - Ag - Chemical properties, Health and environmental effects. (n.d.).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/ag.htm#:~:text=Pure%20silver%20is
%20nearly%20white,by%20hot%20concentrated%20sulfuric%20acid.
 Silver      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/47/silver#:~:text=organisms%20quite
%20effectively.-,Natural%20abundance,of%20mining%20for%20these%20metals.
 What Is The Scientific Name For Silver? | Silver Chic. (n.d.).
https://www.silverchic.com.au/blog/what-is-the-scientific-name-for-silver#
Symbol:  Cd

Name:  CADMIUM

Atomic no.: 48

Atomic weight: 112.41  

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d¹⁰5s²

Valence electron: two electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 321.1 °C

*Boiling point: 766.8 °C

Density:  4.047g/cm3 at 25 °Ce

Electronegativity:  1.69

Ionization energy:  8,9938

Phase: Solid phase

Nature:Its most abundant naturally-occurring isotope is non-radioactive.

Natural occurrence: The only mineral containing significant quantities of cadmium is

greenockite (cadmium sulfide). It is also present in small amounts in sphalerite.
Almost all commercially produced cadmium is obtained as a by-product of zinc
refining.

Aka: Calamine

Uses: In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined

the meter in terms of the wavelength of the red cadmium spectral line. This
definition has since been changed.
Cadmium is used in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and can be found in
many devices, including cell phones, cordless power tools, cameras, computers,
and in emergency power supplies and lights, according to the Minerals Education
Coalition. It is also used in nuclear reactor rods to keep nuclear fission reactions
under control due to its ability to absorbing neutrons.
According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR),
approximately 83 percent of mined cadmium is used in batteries, 8 percent as
pigments, 7 percent as coatings and platings, 1 percent as a stabilizer for plastic,
and 1 percent in nonferrous alloys, photovoltaic devices, and other uses.

Trivia: Cadmium is toxic, carcinogenic and teratogenic (disturbs the development

of an embryo or foetus). On average we take in as little as 0.05 milligrams per day.
But it accumulates in the body, and so on average we store about 50 milligrams.

Before the dangers of cadmium were fully understood, welders and other metal
workers were at risk of becoming ill. In 1966 some welders working on the Severn
Road Bridge became ill from breathing in cadmium fumes.

Cadmium can cause several health effects, according to Lenntech, including

stomach pains, severe vomiting, diarrhea, bone fracture, psychological disorders,
cancer, and damage to reproductive systems, central nervous system, immune
system, and possibly DNA.
With cadmium being a known carcinogenic, much research is going into exactly
how cadmium affects health. In addition to cancer and the other effects listed
above, there is some evidence that cadmium exposure may be linked to obesity.
Cadmium is used in many industries. It's used in the manufacturing of some
batteries and solar cells, electroplating, and silver soldering. Construction
workers involved in demolition can be exposed to dust containing cadmium.
A primary use of cadmium is as an anti-corrosive. It may be found in anti-fouling
or anti-rust paints and is sometimes electroplated onto steel, nuts, bolts, and
rivets. Cadmium may also serve as an electrode component in alkaline batteries
and may be used in alloys, silver solders, and welding.

Discovery date 1817 

Discovered by Friedrich Stromeyer 

Origin of the The name is derived from the Latin 'cadmia', the name for the
name mineral calamine. 
References:
 How many valence electrons does cadmium have? (n.d.).
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/valence-electrons-does-cadmium-have-class-
11-chemistry-cbse-5feafee107b310683149b9ad
 Faroon, O. (n.d.). Table 4-2, Physical and Chemical Properties of Cadmium and
Compounds - Toxicological Profile for Cadmium - NCBI Bookshelf.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK158842/table/T25/
 Mark Winter, University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd. (n.d.). WebElements
Periodic Table » Cadmium » electronegativity. Copyright 2023 Mark Winter.
https://webelements.com/cadmium/electronegativity.html#:~:text=The%20first%20scale
%20of%20electronegativity,)%20to%203.98%20(fluorine).
 The elements of the periodic table are sorted by ionization energy. (n.d.).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic-chart-elements/ionization-energy.htm
 Cadmium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/48/cadmium
 Cadmium Toxicity: What is Cadmium? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR. (n.d.).
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/cadmium/What-is-Cadmium.html#:~:text=Cadmium
%20is%20an%20element.,in%20association%20with%20zinc%20ore.

Symbol:  In
Name: Indium

Atomic no.:  49

Atomic weight: 114.82

Electron configuration: Kr 4d10 5s2 5p1

Valence electron:  three valence electron

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C, 313.8773 °F)

*Boiling point: 2345 K (2072 °C, 3762 °F)

Density:  7.31 g/cm3

Electronegativity: 1.78

Ionization energy:  5,7864

Phase: Solid phase

Nature: Indium is a soft, ductile, manleable, lustrous metallic metal. Its color is
silvery white and it has a face-centered tetragonal structure. It is liquid over a
wide range of temperatures, like gallium that belongs to its same group

Natural occurrence: Indium is one of the least abundant minerals on Earth. It has
been found uncombined in nature, but typically it is found associated with zinc
minerals and iron, lead and copper ores.

Aka: Indicium

Uses: Indium is used in the production of low-melting alloys, typically

with gallium. The melting point depends on the ratio of indium to gallium.
An alloy with 24% indium and 76% gallium, for example, melts at just 16 oC. (4)
This type of alloy can be used as a non-toxic alternative to mercury in some
applications.
Compounds of indium are used in the semiconductor industry
for germanium transistors, thermistors, rectifiers and photocells. Indium can be
coated on metals and evaporated onto glass, to form mirrors equal to that made
with silver but more corrosion resistant.
Indium-tin oxide thin films are used for liquid crystal displays (LCDs).
Trivia:  Indium has no known biological role. It is toxic if more than a few
milligrams are consumed and can affect the development of an embryo or foetus.

Most indium is used to make indium tin oxide (ITO), which is an important part of
touch screens, flatscreen TVs and solar panels. This is because it conducts
electricity, bonds strongly to glass and is transparent.

Indium is a by-product of several base metals such as zinc, lead, copper, tin and
other poly metallic ores. It is very abundant on the crust of the earth (much more
than silver for example and the annual silver production is at least 40 times
bigger than the annual indium production).

Due to the high demand, most of the indium has been processed into indium tin
oxide since 1992. Indium is a rare element, its share in the continental crust is
only 0,05 ppm. It is thus of a similar frequency as silver and mercury.
Discovery 1863 
date

Discovered by Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymus Richter 

References:
 A. (2021, November 26). Indium - Electron Affinity - Electronegativity - Ionization Energy
of Indium | nuclear-power.com. Nuclear Power. https://www.nuclear-power.com/indium-
affinity-electronegativity-ionization/
 Indium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/49/indium
 P. (n.d.). Indium | In (Element) - PubChem. PubChem.
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/element/Indium#:~:text=Indium%20is%20a
%20chemical%20element,a%20solid%20at%20room%20temperature.
 Indium (In) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects. (n.d.).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/in.htm#:~:text=Indium%20is%20a%20soft
%2C%20ductile,are%20able%20to%20wet%20glass.
Symbol:  Sn 

Name: TIN

Atomic no.: 50

Atomic weight: 118.71  

Electron configuration:  [Kr] 4d¹⁰5s²5p²

Valence electron: 4 valence electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point:  231.97 °C (449.54 °F)

*Boiling point: 2,270 °C (4,100 °F)

Density: 7.3 g/cm3

Electronegativity: 1.96

Ionization energy:  7,3439

Phase: Solid phase

Nature: It is a soft, silvery white metal with a bluish tinge, known to the ancients
in bronze, an alloy with copper. 

Natural occurrence: Tin is found principally in the ore cassiterite (tin (IV) oxide). It is
mainly found in the 'tin belt' stretching through China, Thailand and Indonesia. It
is also mined in Peru, Bolivia and Brazil.

Aka: Stannum

Uses:

Perhaps the most important use of tin, historically, has been to make bronze — an
alloy of copper and tin or other metals — that changed civilization by ushering in
the Bronze Age. People began making or trading for bronze tools and weapons at
different times, depending on geography, but the Bronze Age is commonly
accepted to have started around 3300 B.C. in the Near East.  Tin's use in bronze
stretches back some 5,000 years. It has also appeared occasionally in the
archaeological record on its own. For example, researchers excavating at the
Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 2011 discovered a button-sized piece of tin
stamped with the Aramaic words for "pure for God." This seal may have been
used to mark ceremonially pure objects for rituals, according to a report in
the Haaretz Newspaper. 
Trivia:  Tin has many uses. It takes a high polish and is used to coat other metals
to prevent corrosion, such as in tin cans, which are made of tin-coated steel.
Alloys of tin are important, such as soft solder, pewter, bronze and phosphor
bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for superconducting magnets.

Beyond bronze, tin's greatest contribution to humankind was probably the

humble tin can. The can had its origins in the perennial problem of how to feed an
on-the-move army. According to the Can Manufacturers Institute (yes, even cans
have a trade organization), Napoleon Bonaparte offered a reward in 1795 to
anyone who could come up with a way to preserve food for military use. In 1810,
French chef Nicolas Appert won the 12,000-franc prize by inventing canning —
the process of sealing food or drink in a jar or bottle with the use of boiling
water. 
This discovery cleared the way for the invention of the tin can only a year later. In
1810, British merchant Peter Durand got a patent for using tinplated steel to can
food. Tin resists corrosion, making it an ideal covering for relatively cheap steel. 
The tin can arrived on American shores in 1818, and Thomas Kensett & Co, a
manufacturing company, patented the tin can in America in 1825. The Civil War
prompted the increased popularity of the tin can, as generals once again
searched for a way to feed their soldiers. 

Most window glass is made by floating molten glass on molten tin to produce a
flat surface. Tin salts sprayed onto glass are used to produce electrically
conductive coatings.

Discovery date approx 2100BC 

Discovered by - 

Origin of the The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon 'tin' 

name
Allotropes White Sn, Gray Sn, Rhombic Sn  
References:
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998b, July 20). Tin | Definition, Properties,
Uses, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/tin
 P. (n.d.-b). Tin powder. PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Tin-
powder#:~:text=Tin%20is%20a%20metallic%20element,50%2C%20and%20atomic
%20weight%20118.71.&text=White%20TIN%20is%20an%20almost,Density%3A
%207.3%20g%2Fcm3.
 Mark Winter, University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd. (n.d.-b). WebElements
Periodic Table » Tin » electronegativity. Copyright 2023 Mark Winter.
https://www.webelements.com/tin/electronegativity.html#:~:text=The%20first%20scale
%20of%20electronegativity,)%20to%203.98%20(fluorine).
 The elements of the periodic table are sorted by ionization energy. (n.d.-b).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic-chart-elements/ionization-energy.htm
 Tin      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/50/tin#:~:text=easily%20absorb
%20tin.-,Natural%20abundance,in%20Peru%2C%20Bolivia%20and%20Brazil.
Symbol:  Sb

Name: ANTIMONY

Atomic no.:  51

Atomic weight: 121.76  

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3 

Valence electron: 5 valence electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 630.5 °C (1,166.9 °F)

*Boiling point: 1,380 °C (2,516 °F)

Density: 6.691 gram/cm3 at 20 °C (68 °F)

Electronegativity:  2.05

Ionization energy:  8,6084

Phase: Solid phase

Nature: Antimony is a semi-metal. In its metallic form it is silvery, hard and brittle.

Natural occurrence: Antimony is not an abundant element but is found in small

quantities in over 100 mineral species.

Aka: Stibium

Uses: Antimony is a rare element but can sometimes be found naturally. However,
it’s mostly in the form of its sulfide stibnite.
The pure form of antimony is used to make certain types of semiconductor
devices, such as diodes and infrared detectors.  An alloy of lead and antimony is
used in batteries, low friction metals, small arms and tracer bullets, cable
sheathing as well as other products. Other compounds of antimony are also used
to make paints, glass, pottery and ceramics.

Trivia: Antimony is used in the electronics industry to make some semiconductor

devices, such as infrared detectors and diodes.
People have been making use of antimony’s compounds for thousands of years.
We know that one of antimony’s minerals, stibnite (Sb2S3), was used in Egyptian
cosmetics four or five thousand years ago as a black eyeliner. 
It is likely that the Roman author Pliny used the name stibium in the first century
AD. We get the modern element symbol for antimony, Sb, from the word stibium.
According to Pliny, the mineral stibnite was found most commonly among silver
ores.

It is alloyed with lead or other metals to improve their hardness and strength. A
lead-antimony alloy is used in batteries. Other uses of antimony alloys include
type metal (in printing presses), bullets and cable sheathing.

Antimony compounds are used to make flame-retardant materials, paints,

enamels, glass and pottery.

Discovery date approx 1600BC 

Discovered by - 

Origin of the The name derives from the Greek 'anti - monos', meaning not
name alone 
Allotropes White Sb, Yellow Sb, Black Sb  

References:
 B. (2022, July 4). How many valence electrons would be found in Anatomy with the
atomic number of 51-. https://byjus.com/question-answer/how-many-valence-electrons-
would-be-found-in-anatom-with-the-atomic-number-of-51/
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998a, July 20). Antimony | Definition,
Symbol, Uses, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/antimony
 The elements of the periodic table are sorted by ionization energy. (n.d.-b).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic-chart-elements/ionization-energy.htm
 A. (2022a, August 3). Sb Element (Antimony) - Atomic Data, Latin Name, Uses &
Health Effects of Antimony with Videos. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/antimony/#:~:text=Antimony%20is%20a%20semi
%2Dmetallic,name%20of%20Antimony%20is%20Stibium.
Symbol:  Te

Name: TELLURIUM

Atomic no.:  52

Atomic weight:  127.60

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4

Valence electron: 6 valence electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 449.5°C

*Boiling point: 989.8°C

Density: 6.24 g/cm3

Electronegativity: 2.1

Ionization energy:  9.010 eV

Oxidation States: +6, +4, -2

Phase:  Solid phase

Nature: A semi-metal usually obtained as a grey powder.

Natural occurrence: Tellurium is present in the Earth’s crust only in about 0.001
parts per million. Tellurium minerals include calaverite, sylvanite and tellurite.

Aka: Tellus

Uses: The element is a semiconductor that shows a greater electrical conductivity

in certain directions or when exposed to light.

Tellurium is often used to improve the machinability of copper and stainless

steel. It’s used to make blasting caps, added to cast iron and used in ceramics.
Adding tellurium to lead improves the strength and hardness of the metal and
decreases corrosion. Many thermoelectric devices are made with bismuth
telluride. Lead telluride is used in far-infrared detectors.

 Tellurium is used to make alloys of stainless steel and lead.

 In the form of bismuth telluride, it is used in thermoelectric devices.
 Since it is a semi-conductor of electricity, it is used in making calculators
and computers.
  Tellurium also has uses in the ceramics and stained glass coloring
industry.
 Blasting caps for explosives are made from tellurium.
 Vulcanization of rubber and petroleum cracking are processes which use
tellurium.
 Tellurium suboxide is also used for making rewritable CDs and DVDs.
 In sulfuric acid, tellurium is used to decrease its corrosive properties.
 It is used to increase the hardness and strength of lead.
 Tellurite agar is used to identify the pathogens responsible for diphtheria.
 Cast iron alloys also use tellurium for chill testing and control.

Trivia:  Tellurium is used in alloys, mostly with copper and stainless steel, to
improve their machinability. When added to lead it makes it more resistant to
acids and improves its strength and hardness.

Tellurium has been used to vulcanize rubber, to tint glass and ceramics, in solar
cells, in rewritable CDs and DVDs and as a catalyst in oil refining. It can be doped
with silver, gold, copper or tin in semiconductor applications.

Tellurium is usually found as calaverite, the telluride of gold, and also combined
with other metals. It is found commercially in electrolytic refining of blister
copper from anode muds during the process. It is occasionally found in its native
state. Amorphous tellurium is made by precipitating it from a solution of telluric
acid.
Tellurium is one of the least common elements on Earth – most rocks contain an
average of about 3 parts per billion tellurium, making it rarer than the rare earth
elements and eight times less abundant than gold.
China is by far the leading global producer of tellurium.
Tellurium is presently recovered as a primary ore from only two districts in the
world; these are the gold-tellurium epithermal vein deposits located adjacent to
one another at Dashuigou and Majiagou (Sichuan Province) in southwestern
China, and the epithermal-like mineralization at the Kankberg deposit in the
Skellefteå VMS district of Västerbotten County, Sweden. Combined, these two
groups of deposits account for about 15 percent of the annual global production
of tellurium.
Despite the presence of tellurium in gold vein deposits, most of the world’s
tellurium is produced as a byproduct of the mining of porphyry copper deposits.
The refining of 550 tons of copper is required to produce one pound of tellurium.
Tellurium is a metalloid, meaning it possesses the properties of both metals and
nonmetals.
Native tellurium typically appears as a brittle, silver-white substance.
Tellurium has an atomic number of 52 and an atomic weight of 127.6.
Tellurium is the lightest element to exhibit alpha decay.
Tellurium combines with elements that are incapable of reducing their volume
upon losing valence electrons.

Discovery date 1783 

Discovered by Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein 

Origin of the The name is derived from the Latin 'tellus', meaning Earth. 
name

References:
 Brasted, R. C. (1998, July 20). Tellurium | chemical element. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/tellurium
 It’s Elemental - The Element Tellurium. (n.d.).
https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele052.html
 Tellurium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/52/tellurium
\

Symbol:  I

Name: IODINE

Atomic no.: 53

Atomic weight:  126.90

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5

Valence electron: 7 valence electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 113.7 oC at 101.3 kPa

*Boiling point: 184.3 oC at 101.3 kPa

Density: 4.93 g.cm-3

Electronegativity: 2.66

Ionization energy:  10,4513

Phase: Solid phase

Nature: Iodine is a non-metallic, dark-grey/purple-black, lustrous, solid element.

Iodine is the most electropositive halogen and the least reactive of the halogens
even if it can still form compounds with many elements.

Natural occurrence:  Iodine is found in seawater, as iodide. Iodine is obtained

commercially by releasing iodine from the iodate obtained from nitrate ores or
extracting iodine vapor from the processed brine.

aka: Iodide, organic iodine, potassium iodide, sodium iodide

Uses: Iodine is an essential element needed for life. It is best known for the vital
role it plays in thyroid hormone production in humans as well as in all
vertebrates. Iodine deficiency can lead to serious health problems, including
goiter (enlarged thyroid gland), intellectual disability and cretinism.

Iodine is important in medicine, in both radioactive and non-radioactive forms.

Iodide and thyroxin, which contains iodine, are used inside the body.
A solution containing potassium iodide (KI) and iodine in alcohol is used to
disinfect external wounds. Elemental iodine is also used as a disinfectant.
Silver iodide is used in photography.
Iodine is sometimes added to table salt to prevent thyroid disease.
Iodine’s other uses include catalysts, animal feeds and printing inks and dyes.

Trivia:  Photography was the first commercial use for iodine after Louis Daguerre,
in 1839, invented a technique for producing images on a piece of metal. These
images were called daguerreotypes.

Today, iodine has many commercial uses. Iodide salts are used in
pharmaceuticals and disinfectants, printing inks and dyes, catalysts, animal feed
supplements and photographic chemicals. Iodine is also used to make polarizing
filters for LCD displays.

Iodine has several commercial applications and can be found in a variety of

pharmaceuticals, disinfectants, inks and dyes, catalysts, photography chemicals
and animal feed supplements. It plays a particularly prominent role in medicine.
For example, iodine compounds are commonly used as sterilizing and wound-
cleansing solutions and as internal contrasting agents in imaging techniques
such as computed tomography (CT) scans, radiography and fluoroscopy. The
radioactive isotope iodine-131 is also used to treat cancer in the thyroid gland. 

Iodide is added in small amounts to table salt, in order to avoid iodine deficiency
affecting the thyroid gland. The radioactive isotope iodine-131 is sometimes used
to treat cancerous thyroid glands.

Discovery date 1811 

Discovered by Bernard Courtois 

Origin of the name The name is derived from the Greek 'iodes' meaning
violet. 
Allotropes I   
2
References:
 Sublimation of iodine: Rise and fall of a misconception | Chem 13. (2019, September
10). Chem 13 News Magazine. https://uwaterloo.ca/chem13-news-magazine/october-
2015/feature/sublimation-iodine-rise-and-fall-misconception#:~:text=melting%20point
%3A%20113.7%20oC,at%20101.3%20kPa%20(point%203)
 Iodine (I) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects. (n.d.-b).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/i.htm
 Mark Winter, University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd. (n.d.-b). WebElements
Periodic Table » Iodine » electronegativity. Copyright 2023 Mark Winter.
https://www.webelements.com/iodine/electronegativity.html#:~:text=The%20first
%20scale%20of%20electronegativity,)%20to%203.98%20(fluorine).
 Iodine (I) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects. (n.d.-d).
https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/i.htm#:~:text=Iodine%20is%20a%20non
%2Dmetallic,to%20give%20a%20purple%20vapour.
 Iodine      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/53/iodine
Symbol:  Xe

Name: Xenon

Atomic no.:  54

Atomic weight:  131.29

Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶

Valence electron: 8 valence electrons

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: −111.9 °C (−169.4 °F)

*Boiling point: −108.0 °C (−162.4 °F)

Density: 5.887 g/liter (0.078 ounce/gallon)

Electronegativity: 2.6

Ionization energy:  12.1299 eV

Phase: Gas

Nature: A colorless, odorless gas. It is very unreactive.

Natural occurrence: Xenon is present in the atmosphere at a concentration of 0.086

parts per million by volume. It can also be found in the gases that evolve from
certain mineral springs. It is obtained commercially by extraction from liquid air.

aka: Stranger gas

Uses: Xenon creates a blue or lavender glow when subjected to an electrical

discharge. Lamps that use xenon illuminate better than conventional lights. For
example, stroboscopic lamps, photographic flash lamps, high-intensive arc-
lamps for motion picture projection, some lamps used for deep-sea observation,
bactericidal lamps, sunbed lamps and high-pressure arc all use this gas. In fact,
you probably see xenon lamps on a regular basis. Some vehicle headlights use
xenon. If you see headlights that give off a soft blue glow, they are probably made
with xenon. 
The gas has other uses, too. It is used in nuclear energy plants and for filling
television and radio tubes. Silicon microprocessors are etched with xenon
difluoride. Xenon ion propulsion systems keep some satellites and other
spacecraft in orbit. Xenon is even used to manufacture a drug called 5-
fluorouracil, which is used to treat certain types of cancer, according to the Royal
Society of Chemistry. 

Trivia: Xenon is used in certain specialized light sources. It produces a beautiful

blue glow when excited by an electrical discharge. Xenon lamps have
applications as high-speed electronic flash bulbs used by photographers, sunbed
lamps and bactericidal lamps used in food preparation and processing. Xenon
lamps are also used in ruby lasers.

Xenon ion propulsion systems are used by several satellites to keep them in
orbit, and in some other spacecraft.

Natural xenon has nine stable isotopes and 20 unstable isotopes. Some
compounds that can be formed with xenon include difluoride, xenon deuterate,
xenon trioxide, sodium perxenate, xenon hydrate, tetrafluoride and hexafluoride.
Another interesting compound is a metallic xenon created by using massive
amounts of pressure. 
Xenon is a trace gas found in the Earth's atmosphere to the extent of about one
part in 20 million, According to the Los Alamos National Laboratory. This makes it
very rare. It is also found in Mars' atmosphere at 0.08 ppm. 
This noble gas can also be found down on Earth. Some mineral springs emit
xenon. Companies obtain the gas for commercial use from industrial plants that
extract the gas from liquid air.

Xenon difluoride is used to etch silicon microprocessors. It is also used in the

manufacture of 5-fluorouracil, a drug used to treat certain types of cancer.

Discovery date 1898 

Discovered by Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers 

Origin of the The name is derived from the Greek 'xenos' meaning
name stranger. 
References:
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998f, July 20). Xenon | Definition,
Properties, Atomic Mass, Compounds, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/xenon
 Mark Winter, University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd. (n.d.-d).
WebElements Periodic Table » Xenon » electronegativity. Copyright 2023 Mark
Winter. https://www.webelements.com/xenon/electronegativity(fluorine).
 A. (2021d, November 26). Xenon - Electron Affinity - Electronegativity - Ionization
Energy of Xenon | nuclear-power.com. Nuclear Power. https://www.nuclear-
power.com/xenon-affinity-electronegativity-ionization/#
 Xenon      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/54/xenon
 B. (2022d, July 4). Why Xenon Is Called Stranger Gas-.
https://byjus.com/question-answer/why-xenon-is-called-stranger-gas/
Symbol:  Cs

Name: Cesium

Atomic no.:  55

Atomic weight:  30.9054

Electron configuration: [Xe] 6s1

Valence electron: 1 valence electron

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 28.44 °C (83.19 °F)

*Boiling point: 671 °C (1,240 °F)

Density: specific gravity 1.873 (at 20 °C, or 68 °F) 

Electronegativity: 0.79

Ionization energy:  376 kJ/mol

Phase: liquid at or near room temperature

Nature: Cesium is a soft, gold-colored metal that is quickly attacked by air and
reacts explosively in water.

Natural occurrence: Cesium is found in the minerals pollucite and lepidolite.

Pollucite is found in great quantities at Bernic Lake, Manitoba, Canada and in the
USA, and from this source the element can be prepared. However, most
commercial production is as a by-product of lithium production.

aka: Cesium

Uses:

Cesium is used in atomic clocks, which are incredibly accurate. NIST-F2,

America’s primary time and frequency standard, is a cesium fountain atomic
clock developed at the NIST laboratories in Boulder, Colorado. NIST-F2
contributes to the international group of atomic clocks that define Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC), the official world time. As scientists continue to improve its
technology, uncertainty in NIST-F1’s measurement of time is continually
improving. Currently it neither gains nor loses as much a second in more than
300 million years. See also strontium.
Cesium is also used in photoelectric cells and as a catalyst in the hydrogenation
of organic compounds. The metal is used as a ‘getter’ in vacuum tubes.
Cesium hydroxide is used to etch silicon.

Cesium is currently being researched in treatment of several forms of cancer,

including brain tumors, according to a study published in 2016 in the
journal Frontiers in Surgery. Cesium-131, a radioactive isotope of cesium, is used
with iodine-125, another radioactive isotope, in a brachytherapy seed. According
to the American Brachytherapy Society, a brachytherapy seed is a radioactive
pod that is placed directly within the cancerous tissue. Brachytherapy seeds have
been shown to be effective in several forms of cancer including prostrate,
cervical, and endometrial cancers.

Trivia: The most common use for Cesium compounds is as a drilling fluid. They
are also used to make special optical glass, as a catalyst promoter, in vacuum
tubes and in radiation monitoring equipment.

Cesium is the least abundant of the five naturally occurring alkali metals. Cesium
averages approximately 3 parts per million in the Earth’s crust, is 45th in order of
abundance of all elements, and is 36th in order of abundance of all metals.
Cesium averages approximately 8 parts per billion by weight in our solar system.
Cesium be mined in only a few places in the world – the world’s largest deposit of
pollucite, the principal ore of cesium, is at Bernic Lake, Canada, and accounts for
more than two-thirds of world reserves.
Commercially, most cesium is produced as a byproduct of the production of
lithium metal.
Only one stable isotope of cesium occurs naturally, and that is cesium-133.
The U.S. military frequency standard, the United States Naval Observatory Time
Scale, is based on 48 weighted atomic clocks, including 25 cesium fountain
clocks.
Cesium finds important application in petroleum cracking, high-pressure well
drilling (for oil and gas production and exploration), high-temperature solders, x-
ray phosphors, energy conversion devices (such as fuel cells and polymer solar
cells), infrared detectors, optics, scintillation counters, spectrophotometers and
radioscopes, isopycnic centrifugation, insect repellent (in agricultural
applications), and as a colorant and oxidizer in the pyrotechnic industry. Cesium-
137 is widely used in industrial gauges, in mining and geophysical instruments,
and for sterilizing food, sewage, and surgical equipment.
One of its most important uses is in the ‘cesium clock’ (atomic clock). These
clocks are a vital part of the internet and mobile phone networks, as well as
Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. They give the standard measure of
time: the electron resonance frequency of the cesium atom is 9,192,631,770
cycles per second. Some cesium clocks are accurate to 1 second in 15 million
years.

Discovery date 1860 

Discovered by Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen 

Origin of the The name comes from the Latin 'cesius', meaning sky blue, and
name derived from its flame color. 

References:
 Dye, J. L. (1998b, July 20). Cesium | Description, Symbol, Uses, & Facts.
Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/cesium
 Periodic Trend: Cumulative. (n.d.-b). https://www.pearson.com/channels/general-
chemistry/asset/7ed5e769/cesium-has-the-smallest-ionization-energy-of-all-
elements-376-kj-mol-and-chlorin
 Cesium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/55/caesium#:~:text=are%20low
%20hazard.-,Natural%20abundance,by%2Dproduct%20of%20lithium
%20production.
Symbol:  Ba

Name: Barium

Atomic no.:  56

Atomic weight:  137.33

Electron configuration:  [Xe] 6s2

Valence electron: 2 valence electron

Melting and boiling point: 

*Melting point: 727 °C (1,341 °F)

*Boiling point: 1,805 °C (3,281 °F)

Density: specific gravity 3.51 (at 20 °C, or 68 °F)

Electronegativity: 0.89

Ionization energy:  5.2117 eV

Phase: Gas phase

Nature: Barium is a soft, silvery metal that rapidly tarnishes in air and reacts with
water.

Natural occurrence: Barium occurs only in combination with other elements. Barium
metal can be prepared by electrolysis of molten barium chloride, or by heating
barium oxide with aluminum powder

aka: Greek "barys" meaning "heavy"

Uses:
Barium compounds are used by the oil and gas industries to make drilling mud.
Drilling mud simplifies drilling through rocks by lubricating the drill. Barium
compounds are also used to make paint, bricks, tiles, glass, and rubber. Barium
nitrate and clorate give fireworks a green color.
Evidently, barium is tremendously useful since the element’s compounds are
used in various industries; for this reason, barium is extracted quite often. As a
result, it’s released into the environment through water bodies, the air, and the
soil. And the environment affected by this in different aspects.
For example, when barium is released into lakes, rivers, and streams, different
compounds are absorbed by aquatic organisms. Oftentimes, this leads to barium
amassing in their bodies. In a similar vein, barium compounds pollute the
atmosphere and damage our lungs when released into the air.

Trivia: Barium is not an extensively used element. Most is used in drilling fluids for
oil and gas wells. It is also used in paint and in glassmaking.

Barium is found naturally only in combination with other elements because of its
high level of reactivity. Barium is most commonly found combined with sulfate
and carbonate, but can also form compounds with hydroxide, chloride, nitrate,
chlorate, and other negative ions. 
It’s said that barite (composed of barium sulfate), was used in ancient witchcraft.
When barium sulfate was discovered, it was mistaken to be the philosopher’s
stone.
It’s that said Galileo was fascinated by barium sulfate’s phosphorescent glow.
The element is often alloyed with other metals.
Barium is used in x-rays because it is a heavier element. Heavier elements absorb
& scatter x-rays more efficiently. It is also less toxic than lead or mercury.
A compound of barium, Yttrium barium copper oxide, is a high-temperature
superconductor.
Marie Curie separated barium compounds from pitchblende while looking for
radium. She separated the radium from the barium with incredible difficulty.
Barium compounds, like barium chloride or barium nitrate, give fireworks a green
color

All barium compounds are toxic; however, barium sulfate is insoluble and so can
be safely swallowed. A suspension of barium sulfate is sometimes given to
patients suffering from digestive disorders. This is a ‘barium meal’ or ‘barium
enema’. Barium is a heavy element and scatters X-rays, so as it passes through
the body the stomach and intestines can be distinguished on an X-ray.

Barium carbonate has been used in the past as a rat poison. Barium nitrate gives
fireworks a green color.
References:
 Hanusa, T. P. (1998, July 20). Barium | Uses, Compounds, & Facts.
Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/barium
 Mark Winter, University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd. (n.d.-b). WebElements
Periodic Table » Barium » electronegativity. Copyright 2023 Mark Winter.
https://webelements.com/barium/electronegativity.html#:~:text=The%20first%20scale
%20of%20electronegativity,)%20to%203.98%20(fluorine).
 A. (2021a, November 26). Barium - Electron Affinity - Electronegativity - Ionization
Energy of Barium | nuclear-power.com. Nuclear Power. https://www.nuclear-
power.com/barium-affinity-electronegativity-ionization
 Barium      - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/56/barium