MESSAGE SIGNAL

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted

CONCEPT OF AMOUNT OF INFORMATION
Let us consider a communication system in which allowable message m1,m2 with probabilities
of occurence P1,P2 .Let the transmitter send message mk,probability Pk.Assume receiver
correctly identify the message. Amount of information, Ik=log2*1/Pk
INFORMATION RATE
If the source of message generates message at the rate of r msg/second,Information rate,
R=r*H
AVERAGE INFORMATION/ENTROPY (H)
Total Information,𝐼_𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=P1L log2/P1+ P2L log2/P2+ P3L log2/P3
H= 𝐼_𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙/L
H=P1*log2*1/P1+P2*log2*1/P2+… P4*log2*1/P4
M

∑ P k  log2* 1/P k
k =1

SHANON HARTLEY THEOREM

Shanon Hartley theorem relates the system capacity of a channel with
bandwidth, average signal and noise power.
C=B log2(1+S/N) bits/second
C :Channel Capacity
B :Bandwidth of channel inHz
N :Average Noise Power
CODING
Increase the rate at which information may be transmitted over a channel while
maintaining a fixed error rate. It reduces information bit rate error,while
maintaining a fixed transmission rate
SHANON FANO ALGORITHM
1 Developed by Shanon at Bell Labs and Robert Fano .
2 An entropy encoding technique for loseless data compression of multimedia.
3 Assigns a code to each symbols based on the probabilities of occurrence.
4 Variable Length encoding scheme ie the codes assigned to symbols will be of varying
length
ENCODING STEPS
Step 1: Sort the symbol according to frequency count.
Step 2: Recursively dividethe symbols into two parts,
Each with approximately the same no: of counts,until the part contains only one symbol
A natural way of implementing the above procedure is to build a binary tree
Zero should be assigned to left and One to right
ERROR
Data can be corrupted during transmission.It may be affected by external noise.As a result ,the
output data will not be same as the received input data.This mismatched data is called
the error
TYPES OF ERROR
Single Bit - In the received frame, only one bit has been corrupted, i.e. either changed from 0 to
1 or from 1 to 0.

Multiple Bit - In the received frame, more than one bits are corrupted.
Burst Error - In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.

TYPES OF ERROR DETECTION

1 Parity Checking
2 Cyclic Redundancy Check Up (CRC)
3 Check Sum
1 Parity Checking
The parity check is done by adding an extra bit, called parity bit to the data to make a number
of 1s either even in case of even parity or odd in case of odd parity.
While creating a frame, the sender counts the number of 1s in it and adds the parity bit in the
following way
In case of even parity: If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 0. Eg: 11000000,parity
bit is zero
If the number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 1. Eg 11100000,here parity bit will be one
In case of odd parity: If a number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 0. If a number of 1s is even
then parity bit value is 1.
2 Cyclic Redundancy Check Up (CRC)
(Refer Notebook)
 3 Checksum
In this error detection scheme, the following procedure is applied.Data is divided into
fixed sized frames or segments.The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic
to get the sum. It then complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along with the
data frames.The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it. If the result is zero, the
received frames are accepted; otherwise, they are discarded.
ERROR CORRECTION CODES are
Hamming Codes
Binary Convolution Code
HAMMING CODE
It is a single bit error correcting code
Hamming code can be used to detect and correct errors
Makes use of the concept of parity ,which are bits that are added to data so that the validity of
data can be checked
Ability of receiving station in error correction of received data is termed forward error
correction[FEC]
G𝐻T=0
G-Generator Matrix
H-Parity checking Matrix

Position for Parity is

2n 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛=0,1,2,..
PROBLEM 1
Generate Hamming code for message 1110

P1 P2 1 P4 1 1 0

P1-D3,D5,D7
 1 1 0 P1—0
P2-D3,D6,D7 P2 --0
1 1 0
P4-D5,D6,D7 P4 –0
1 1 0

Message can be transmitted as

0 0 1 0 1 1 0

ERROR CORRECTION USING HAMMING CODE

Determine the correcting code for transmitted code
1110000.Consider even parity
Solution

1 (P1) 1 (P2) 1 0 (P4) 0 0

As we know,
P1- D3,D5,D7
P2- D3,D6,D7
P4- D5,D6,D7
So P1-D3,D5,D7
Even Parity
Ie 1 1 0 0 Since, total no:of 1’s is 2
Set P1=0

P2-D3,D6,D7
1 1 0 0 total no:of 1’s is 2
 Set P2=0
P4-D5,D6,D7
0 0 0 0 P4=0

CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK

Technique used to detect errors in digital data
Invented by Westley Peterson in 1961
Bases on binary division and also called polynomial checksum
In CRC a fixed number of check bits should be attached to the message,which needs to be
transmitted
The data receiver receives data and inspects check bits for any errors
In case of error,a negative acknowledgement should be sent asking for data retransmission
PROBLEMS
(Refer note book)

BURST ERROR CORRECTION

In coding theory ,burst error correcting codes employ methods of correcting burst
errors,which are errors that occur in many consecutive bits .
Two Types
Block Interleaving
Convolution Interleaving
Block codes − The message is divided into fixed-sized blocks of bits to which redundant bits are
added for error correction.
Convolutional codes − The message comprises of data streams of arbitrary length and parity
symbols are generated by the sliding application of a Boolean function to the data stream.
BLOCK INTERLEAVING
ORGANISATION OF INFORMATION BIT INTERLEAVING

Before applying Data stream to channel,Data goes through the process of interleaving and error
correction coding. At the receiver end ,data is de interleaved and decoded.A group of kl data bit
is loaded into a shift register which is organized into k rows with l bit per row.At each shift each
bit moves one position to the right while the bit in the right most storage element moves to the
left most storage of next row. This is the order of transmission.Received data is again stored in
the same order as in transmission and error correcting decoding is performed
CONVOLUTION INTERLEAVING
A convolution Interleaver consists of a set of shift registers each with a fixed delay.Each new
symbol from input signal feeds into the next shift register and the oldest symbol in that register
becomes part of output signal.Each row is delayed by a different number of clock cycle.
If the data packet starts from index 0,the interleaved data output of current data packet N
contains data of N-1 data packet.Hence the term convolution,because current data packet
contains data from previous one.

ADVANTAGES

Less memory is required than block interleaving

Interleaving structure can easily changed.