WESTERN PHILOSPHER

Pre-Socratic Period (600-400BCE, Greece)

The world's first Philosophers.

Shifted from traditional mythological explanations (rejected the gods/goddess and monsters) to natural law.

■ Thales of Miletus: Everything is composed of WATER.

■ Pythagoras: Every could be explain through mathematical theories and formula.

■ Heraclitus: Everything is constantly changing.

THE THREE MOST FAMOUS PHILOSOPHERS

SOCRATES PLATO ARISTOTLE

Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)

-Considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times. Founder of western philosophy. Left no writing.

SOCRATIC METHOD. Means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and analyze his
knowledge and views regarding the topic.
Sample of Socratic Method
Question: How Covid 19 pandemic affected your family?
Response: Lost job resulting to financial challenges/no income at all.
Ultimate Goal of Socrates' Philosophy: Attainment of Good Life
= Good life simply means being wise and virtuous through acquisition of knowledge, wisdom and virtue - Know and do what is right
based on good reasons.
= For us to attain the Good Life, we need to examine our life. "Know thyself."
Socrates Trial and Death
■ Placed on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth.
■ Was executed in 399 - drank poison hemlock.
■ For Socrates, the true wise person has the capacity to admit that he really knows nothing at all.

Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) A student of Socrates.

- His teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western philosophy.

Plato's Philosophical Goal: How do we acquire knowledge???

■ Notable for his Theory of Forms - It proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea that can only be perceived in the mind.
■ These non-physical ideas are eternal and unchanging.
■ Non-physical forms, or ideas, are the most accurate reality.
= Knowledge is intrinsically present in an individual's spirit.

Relevance of Plato's Philosophy

 We are able to find mathematical truths without observation of the world.

 Encourage a person to think more to attain fulfillment in life.
 Established a school called The Academy.
 At the academy he taught his subjects like astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory and philosophy.
 Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE)
- A student of Plato. His philosophy is a reaction to Plato's philosophy. For him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our
reality is based on what we can sense or perceive.

Relevance of Aristotle's Philosophy

 Greatly influenced the study of physical sciences.

 We gain knowledge based on experiences.

Philosophical Goal of Aristotle: What makes people happy? People must live in moderation by being virtuous.

Deficiency Mean Excess

Cowardice Courage Rashness
 Virtue is attained as a result of habit.
 We can obtain the virtue of courage by maintaining it within the boundary of the mean, while avoiding rashness and
cowardice.

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
- Life for Oriental thinkers is a translation of thought; a philosophy in action.
- Philosophy is not separate from religion.

Buddhism
A philosophy that explains the meaning of life and the world we live in. It's a way to cultivate one's mind.
Brief Historical Background
• Buddhism arose in the eastern part of Ancient India in 6th BCE is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama.
Life's Story of Siddhartha Gautama
- His story is about confronting suffering.
- He is the son of a wealthy king (from Nepal) and his father wanted him to be the successor of his father's kingdom
- Because of suffering he had noticed, he started to reflect why these things about suffering exist.
- He begun to feel a profound sense of peace and arrived at the highest state of enlightenment. (Nirvana or liberation)
- He is known as the "Enlightened One" or Buddha.
= Philosophy of Buddhism
Four Noble Truths
1. Life is Suffering
2. The Cause of Suffering is Attachments/Cravings
3. To stop suffering, you must release all attachments/cravings
4. The end to suffering is contained in the eight fold path.

Confucianism
• A philosophy and belief system from ancient China founded by Kung Fuzi (Confucius) meaning Master Kong.
■Lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E
Philosophy
 Focus on relationships should be emphasized, for it is often taken for granted. These relationships we encounter everyday
should be the easiest to perfect, but in reality they are the hardest to attain.
  The core teaching of Confucianism is how to be a "gentleman."
 To be a gentleman, a person should follow the moral way, consisting of the virtues of love, righteousness, wisdom and
loyalty.
 Becoming a gentleman promotes harmony in society.

The GOLDEN RULE:

Confucius says: “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you”

THE FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY

THREE DIMENSIONS OF FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY

1. Loob
■ Kagandahang loob, Kabutihang-loob and Kalooban are terms that show sharing of one's self to others. Philippine values are
interpersonal
■ Believes in the innate goodness of the human being.
■ Utang na loob
2. Filipino Concept of Time
■Look at life as a series of , ups and downs. (Gulong ng Palad)
■This philosophy of life makes the Filipino optimist.
■ Filipino time is mistakenly interpreted as always delayed.
■ In fact, Filipino farmers are early risers to go to their field.
3. Bahala Na
■ Pre-Spanish people believed in a Supreme Being, Bathala.
■ Keeps the balance of the universe.
■ Means to leave everything to God (Bathala)
■ Bahala na philosophy puts complete trust in the divine providence.
■ Perceived as courage to take risks.

METHODS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY

Plato’s Allegory of the cave

■ Speaks of ignorance of humanity trapped in the conventional ethics formed by society.
■ Importance of attaining true knowledge and wisdom by harnessing our intellectual faculties: intellectual curiosity and critical
thinking.
■ Challenge us to seek the power of possibility and truth even if it needs letting go of previous beliefs.

Theories of Truth

Correspondence Theory
- Proposes that a proposition is true if it corresponds to the facts.
- A judgement is true when it conforms to the external reality.
Ex: There is an apple on the table
If I say, "Pigs have wings" and then I checked a pig and it does not have wings, then my statement is false.
Coherence Theory
- States that if a proposition- coheres with all other propositions taken to be true, then it is true.
- A belief is true if it "coheres" with other beliefs that we regard as true.
- It is true when it coheres with an existing belief system.
- This means that if ones belief is inconsistent with other accepted beliefs, it is probably wrong.
Example:
*5+2=7 is true because 7-7, 1+6=7 are all true.
*Bachelors are unmarried men.
*Christians believe in Jesus Christ.
*Law of gravity.
Pragmatic Theory
- A betief is true if it works and is useful.
- A sentence is meaningful believing it would make a practical difference in your life.
Example:
Belief that wearing of face mask/face shield would lessen the transmission of Covid 19. It's the most practical thing to do in times of
pandemic.
Phenomenology
- The lived experiences
- Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology in 20th century (1859-1938)
- A philosophical movement which studies experience and how we perceive reality (phenomena).
- Study of Phenomenon.
■ Phenomenon - anything that exist of 4 which the mind is conscious.
- first person point of view.
- Phenomenologist believes that facts are based on what the lived experiences and not on structures, absolute truth, or laws.
Relevance of Phenomenology
- The phenomenological method aims to describe, understand and interpret the meanings of experiences of human life.
- Phenomenology is a useful tool in health sector in gaining insights into the experiences of survivors
-allow them to articulate their stories from their own perspectives and experiences.
- It provides deeper understanding- of their situation.

HUSSERL'S MODEL OF PHENOMENOLOGY

(PURE PHENOMENOLOGY)
NATURAL ATTITUDE- REALITY is separable from the subjective experience of it
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ATTITUDE- suspend/bracket the natural attitude

EPOCHE PHENOMENOLOGICAL REDUCTION

Epoché allows consciousness of our experience of reality or thing
the 'unpacking' of phenomena
= bracketing
=record/identify
= put to one side
PHENOMENOLOGICAL REDUCTION - enables us to assume a phenomenological attitude we know and understand the essence or
meaning of things as they appear to us
THE NATURAL ATTITUDE: Man is a rational animal.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ATTITUDE: Man is a being that possesses freedom or a being that escapes definition.
TECHNIQUES OF DOING PHENOMENOLOGY
EIDETIC REDUCTION= movement from fact to essence
FUNDAMENTAL MOMENTS OF EPOCHE:
1) reduction to the sphere of immanence
= suspension of the natural attitude
= placing in abeyance all beliefs in the transcendental world
=materiality
2) movement from fact to essence
=eidetic reduction
= objects are no longer conceived as material things, but as essences
Transcendental phenomena have transcended their materiality
PERCEPTION: perceives and is conscious of the fact that she perceives an object but without understanding its meaning and essence
INTUITION: and meaning of something insight into the nature through the experience of that something
EIDETIC REDUCTION: brings about an intuition into something as essence by employing a method known as Imaginary Variation
IMPLICATION OF PURE PHENOMENOLOGY
- realization that consciousness is intentional
= consciousness of/about something.
=directed toward the phenomena
INTENTIONALITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
1. Always an act of doing something
= to be conscious is to experience an act of knowing (noesis-actual thinking of the definition of a table)
2. Always referential/always pointing or referring to something
= conscious act is an act of awareness in which the subject is presented with an obiect (noema)

Existentialism
- Founded by Jean-Paul Sartre - A French philosopher. Famous for his argument "Existence precedes essence."
- Deals with the problem of -human existence.
- People are free agents who have control over their choices and actions
- View that humans define their own meaning in life and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational world.
 Sartre emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce
our desires, beliefs and decisions.
 Truth is based on exercising choices and personal freedom,
 A person might not be able to change his circumstances but he can change his attitude toward that situation.

Postmodernism
- Believes that it is virtually impossible to arrive at the absolute truth
-Truth varies from place to place because society is always in a state of , uncertainty.
- There is no one truth that is true for all people at all times, but there are several truths that are true and unique for each person.

Logic
- Truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking
- Centered on the analysis and construction of arguments.

■ Truth in metaphysics and the philosophy of language is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions
■ ordinary discourse to agree with the facts or to state what the case is.
■ most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original_or standard.
■ Truth is also sometimes defined in modern contexts as an idea of "truth to self", or authenticity.

Propositions is a statement about the world or reality. Propositions may or may not carry truth.
Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers
provided by facts.
Facts are propositions or statement which are observe to be real or truthful.
Claim is a statement that is not evidently or immediately known to be true. This means that any claim can be proven by verification
and experimentation.
Therefore, truthful statements can be considered as based on facts
■Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.
■Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something, since it is true knowing that we are able to determine what is
true.
■Philosophers also believe that claims and belief should also be subjected to test to determine truth.

FACT
-A fact is something that is true.
- Fact is something concrete that can be proven.
- You can find facts in legal records, scientific findings, encyclopaedias, atlases, etc. In other words, facts are the truth and are
accepted as such.
- You cannot change a fact
OPINION
- An ophion is something that you think.
- It is not true information
- Opinion is less concrete.
- It's a view formed in the mind of a person about a particular issue.
= In other words it is what someone believes or thinks, and is not necessarily the truth.
- You can change an opinion

Opinions are statement that go beyond providing facts.

A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.
Beliefs are statements that expresses convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts.
Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true.
Arguments are series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.
Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
Bias is disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair.

Human Person has unique traits and behavior possessing:

1. Self-Awareness - "Know Thyself" -Socrates
2. CAPABILITY TO REACH OUT AND INTERACT WITH OTHERS AND THE WORLD
3. Self-Determination - Capability of the persons to make decisions based on their own preferences
4. DIGNITY - Innate right to be valued and respected

To be human is as simple as having a body and soul.

Body
-Material aspect as a human person that makes it visible and tangible.
-Our five senses-taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing-make it possible for us to be sensed.
- It is also the body that possesses material dimensions such as shape, size, texture, color, weight.
Soul
-Not visible and tangible which makes the activities of the soul hard to identify.
- The presence of invisible thoughts and feelings, the occurrence of a basic decision, and the presence of conscience attest to the
presence of a soul in man

The Embodied Spirit

= With this, the human person is defined by the union of body and soul.
=This integration defines the human person as an embodied spirit.
= We cannot separate the two and they go hand- in-hand in making us who we are.
= Whatever affects the body also affects the soul.
= Embodiment enables us to do and experience all the things that make us a human person.

Philosopher’s idea of HUMAN PERSON as an EMBODIED SPIRIT

Plato
- Body is material; hence it is mutable and destructible
- Soul is immaterial; hence, it is immutable and indestructible.
- The body's existence is dependent on the soul while the soul's existence is independent of the body.
- The human person is just a soul using a body

Aristotle
- The body and soul are in a state of unity.
- They are inseparable.
- It makes no sense to talk of a soul or mind without a body, for the essence of a person is embedded and intertwined with their
matter.
- You can't take it out of the body.
- Soul is the realization of Life.
For Aristotle the soul has 3 aspects:
• Vegetative Soul - shared by all living things
• Appetitive Soul - passions, appetites and emotions
• Intellectual Soul - possessed only by humans

What does it mean to have a body and soul?

= Recognize the limitations of our body.
= There are many things we cannot simultaneously because we are only limited by one body existing at-a definite time, space, and
nature
What is the significant of having an embodied spirit?
■Recognize the Uniqueness of the Human Person:
Self-Awareness, Self-Determination, Capability to Interact and Dignity
■ It enables us to realize our own limitations and - see our potentials.
■ Man has limits but filled with potentialities.

TRANSCENDENCE OF THE HUMAN PERSON

- We can see that although we want to achieve something, there are limitations that might hinder our goals in life.
- "Of all creatures, human beings have the unique power to charge themselves and things for the better" (St. Thomas Aquinas)
= Despite our limitations, the human person is capable of transcending.
= Transcendence is the ability to surpass limits.
= It is an important trait that distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence.

- Our simple achievement cannot be achieved without your body.

- Despite these natural limitation, we have used our intellect to devise means to achieve several accomplishments.
- Our mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond with our physical limits.

+ Transcendence also means overcoming oneself or being in control

THE HUMAN PERON AS EMBODIED SPIRIT- THE UNION OF BODY AND SOUL
URAG
Everyone has urag (a drive).
- This is a kind of power, passion or energy emanating from an individual.
- This propels him/her to certain movements. (Wilmer Joseph Tria, Professor, Ateneo de Naga)

+ The essence of transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations, identify. possibilities for development, and change ourselves for
the better.

1. This term refers to man as a species and distinguishes man from other animals.
- HUMAN
2. This refers to the totality of an individual who possesses awareness, self-determination, .and the capacity to interact with others.
- PERSON
3. This refers to an individual who is actively aware that he or she is perceiving and experiencing reality.
- SELF
4. This is the capability to act and be aware of one's action
- SELF DETERMINATION
5. This is the inherent value of a person which cannot be expressed in quantifiable terms.
- DIGNITY
6. This is the ability to surpass limits.
- TRANSCENDENCE
7. This is an intangible element that enables us to exercise- thought, possess awareness, and reach out to the outside world and
others.
- SPIRIT
8. This enables the person to act whenever he or she wants to and makes self-determination possible.
- FREE WILL
9. Material aspect as a human person that makes it visible and tangible.
- BODY
10. The and are in a state of unity. They are inseparable.
- BODY AND SOUL

STEWARDSHIP/Tagapamahala
 Man as Crown of God's Glory
 Creation
 God's co-creator.
 Protects supports, sustains and preserves God's other creations. Difference between God's creation and man's
destruction/work
■ Environmental philosophy or environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human
beings with the environment and non-human contents.
■Philosophers believe that have a special relationship with nature because of their nationality.
■They are not only part of the nature, but they can also shape, transform, and cultivate it.
■ However, this also means that they are also capable of inflicting the most harm on it.
Environmental Philosophy
• is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humanity's place in it.
Major philosophical views regarding the person's relationship with nature;
• Anthropocentrism considers humans the most significant species on the planet, and that nature provides humankind with means
to survive and develop.
• Biocentric gives equal importance to all organisms on the planet, and considers them as having inherent worth.
• Ecocentric view emphasizes ecosystems and biological communities, and considers humans stewards of nature.