Ball Mill Performance & Efficiency

S. Description Symbol Formula Example

No.
1 Arm of gravity a 0.666 * ( 1 - 4 * R2 )1.5 h 0.583
- TAN [ 0.5 / R * (1 - 4*R2)0.5] - [ 2*R * (1 - 4*R2)0.5 ]
-1
Deff 4.18
h Centre Distance (from mill centre to media top layer), mts R 0.139
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts a 0.578
R h/Deff, ratio of centre distance to mill effective diameter Target -
2 Torque factor matrix u - -
Material Grinding Fitting Type Torque
- - -
None Balls 0.73
None Rods 0.55 - -
Coarse/Medium
Cem ent
Danula Balls 0.75 - -
Sonex Balls 0.66
& Raw - -
None Balls 0.69
Meal - -
None Cylpebs 0.73
Fine
Danula Balls 0.71 - -
Danula Cylpebs 0.75 - -
Coarse/Medium None Balls/Cylpebs 0.69
Coal - -
Medium Danula Cylpebs 0.71
- -
2 Power consumption, net Pn 0.514 * F * u * n * Deff * a F 175
kW F Grinding media weight, tons u 0.73
u Torque factor n 16
n Mill speed, rpm Deff 4.18
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts a 0.578
a Arm of gravity, - Pn 2538
Target -
3 Power consumption, gross Pg Pn * 100 * 100 Pn 2450
kW Em * Eg Em 95
Em Motor efficiency, % Eg 95
Eg Gearbox/girth gear efficiency, % Pg 2715
Target -
4 New production rate NPB Formula-1 OPB 170
(Mill output Vs. Blaine) tph OPB OB 3000
Exp ( ( NB - OB ) * 0.49 / 1000 ) NB 3200
OPB Old production rate, tph NPB 154
OB Old blaine, cm2/gm Target -
NB New blaine, cm2/gm

1.33333333333333 Formula-2 OPB 170

1.11359452611148 OPB * ( OB / NB )1.3 OB 3000
434.301865183478 OPB Old production rate, tph NB 3200
OB Old blaine, cm2/gm NPB 156
NB New blaine, cm2/gm Target -
5 New production rate NPR OPR * ( 2 - log ( OR ) ) OPR 390
(Mill output Vs. Residue) tph ( 2 - log ( NR ) ) OR 15
OPR Old production rate, tph NR 20
OR Old residue, % NPR 460
NR New residue, % Target -
6 Gypsum set point GSP 21500 * ( Scem - Sclk ) Scem 2.1
(at weigh feeder) tph Pu * ( 100 - Fgyp ) Pu 90
Scem Target SO3 content in cement, % Sclk 0.3
Pu Gypsum purity, % Fgyp 4.8
Sclk SO3 content in clinker, % GSP 4.52
Fgyp Free moisture in gypsum, % Target -
7 Maximum ball size MBS 36 * F0.5 * { ( SG * Wi ) / ( %C * Deff0.5 ) }0.333 F 15
mm F Feed size (sieve size in mm which retains 20% material), mm SG 3
SG Specific weight of feed material, gm/cm3 Wi 15
Wi Bond's work index, kWh/t %C 75
%C Mill speed as %critical, % Deff 5.1
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts MBS 90
Target -
8 %Filling %F 112.5 - ( 125 * h / Deff ) h 2.5
% h Free height, mts Deff 4.155
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts %F 37.3
Target -
 Ball Mill Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.

9 Circulation factor C Formula-1 FF 150

- F+G CR 170
F C 2.13
F Fresh feed rate, tph Target 2-3
G Coarse return, tph

Formula-2 Rg 21.25
Rg - Rf Rf 9.14
Rg - Rm Rm 16.78
Rg Residue of coarse return, % C 2.71
Rf Residue of fines, % Target 2-3
Rm Residue of separator feed, %
10 Circulation load CL ( C - 1 ) * 100 C 2.6
% C Circulation factor, - CL 160
Target -
11 Separator efficiency SE Formula-1 Ro 100
% [log(Ro/Rf) - C * log[{Ro+(C-1)*Rg} / {Rf+(C-1)*Rg}]]*100 Rf 17.68
log(Ro/Rf) - C * log[{Ro+(C-1)*100} / {Rf+(C-1)*100}] C 1.79
Ro Residue of fresh feed, % Rg 83.78
Rf Residue of fines, % SE 80.7
C Circulation factor, - Target 70-80
Rg Residue of coarse return, %

Formula-2 (Fines Efficiency) Rf 17.68

( 100 - Rf ) * 100 Rm 46.91
( 100 - Rm ) * C C 1.79
Rf Residue of fines, % SEf 86.6
Rm Residue of separator feed, % Target 70-80
C Circulation factor, -

Formula-3 (Coarse Efficiency) Rg 83.78

Rg * ( C - 1 ) * 100 C 1.79
C * Rm Rm 46.91
Rg Residue of coarse return, % SEc 78.8
C Circulation factor, - Target 70-80
Rm Residue of separator feed, %
12 Critical speed nc 42.3 / Deff0.5 Deff 4.15
rpm Deff Mill effective diameter, mts Pn 20.8
Target -
 F.L. Smidth's ATOX Vertical Roller Mill
S. Description Symbol Unit Relationship Example

No.

1 Mill Type - - Input 1 for Raw Mill and 2 for Coal Mill 1

1 Mill Number Mn - 30, 32.5, 35, 37.5, 40, 42.5, 45, 47.5, 50, 52.5, 55, 57.5, 60 42.5

2 Grinding Pressure GP bars Input value 151

3 Raw material - - Input value Limestone

4 Density of Material RM kg/m3 Input value 1500

5 Density of Material under Roller RMR %surplus Input value 33

6 Coefficient of Friction CoF - Input value 0.10

7 Power Input to Motor Pm kW Input value 2417

8 Production Rate PR tph Input value 411

9 Table Diameter Dtb mts Mn / 10 4.25

10 Roller Diameter Dr mts 0.6 * Dtb 2.55

11 Roller Width Wr mts 0.2 * Dtb 0.85

12 Mean Diameter of Track Dtk mts 0.8 * Dtb 3.4

13 Table Speed N rpm 56 / Dtb0.5 27.2

14 Velocity of Track Vt m/s 0.05235 * Dtk * N 4.8

15 Radiation Surface Area Ar m2 0.3166 * Mn2 572

16 Roller Pressure per Roller Pr kN Dr * Wr * Ps 1514

17 Specific Roller Pressure Ps kN/m2 ( GP + 46.67 ) / 0.283 698

18 Gripping Angle a radian 3 * CoF 0.30

19 Maximum Material Pressure MMP kN/m2 4 * Ps / a 9313

20 Material Bed Thickness T mm 30 * Dr 77

21 Maximum Feed Size Fm mm 50 * Dr 128

22 Dam Ring Height DRH mm 36 * Dtb 153

23 Compaction Ratio CR - [ ( Dr * a2 * 1000 ) / ( 4 x T ) ] + 1 1.75

24 Power /Over-Rolling of Material Po kWh/t [MMP * (CR-1) / 3 ] / [RM * {1+(RMR / 100)} * 3.6] 0.324

25 Grinding Circulation n times Pm / ( PR * Po ) 18

26 Grindability, design Gn kWhn/t Pd / PR 5.34

27 Grindability, gross Gg kWhg/t Pm / PR 5.88

28 Material Retention Time t sec 15 * Dtb0.5 31

29 Design Power Consumption Pd kW 0.844 * CoF * Ps * Dtb2.5 2195

 sheet 1 of 2
Kiln Operating Conditions
O2 = Back-end oxygen O2
BZT = Burning zone temp.
BET = Back-end temp.
Low Nor Hgh

B.Z.T. B.Z.T. B.Z.T.

Low Nor Hgh Low Nor Hgh Low Nor Hgh

B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T.

Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low

1 Nor 4 Nor 7 Nor 10 Nor 13 Nor 16 Nor 19 Nor 22 Nor 25 Nor
2 Hgh 5 Hgh 8 Hgh 11 Hgh 14 Hgh 17 Hgh 20 Hgh 23 Hgh 26 Hgh
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27

Case Action to be taken Reason Case Action to be taken Reason

1 When BZ is very low : 16 When BZ is very high :
a) Reduce kiln speed To increase BZ and BE temp. a) Increase kiln speed To avoid overheating
b) Reduce fuel rate To move the O2% into range b) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp.
When BZ is slightly low : c) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
c) Increase ID fan speed To raise the BE temp. & O 2% for d When BZ is slightly high :
d) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. & to return O 2% into range d) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp. (if O 2% raises
2 a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp. during this, disregard it till temps. are controlled)
b) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for c 17 When BZ is very high :
c) Reduce ID fan speed To maintain BE temp. a) Increase kiln speed To avoid overheating
3 a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp. b) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
b) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for c b) Increase ID fan speed To maintain BE temp.
c) Reduce ID fan speed To reduce BE temp. (be sure, BET is in down-trend) When BZ is slightly high :
4 a) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. & increase O 2% for b c) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises during this, disregard
b) Increase fuel rate To maintain BZ temp. it till temps. are controlled)
5 a) Decrease fuel slightly To raise O 2% 18 When BZ is very high :
6 a) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for b a) Increase kiln speed To avoid overheating & lower BE temp.
b) Reduce ID fan speed To lower BE temp. & maintain BZ temp. b) Decrease fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
7 When BZ is very high : When BZ is slightly high :
a) Increase kiln speed To avoid over-heating of the BZ c) Decrease fuel rate To lower BZ & BE temp.
b) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. & O 2% 19 When BZ is very low :
c) Reduce fuel rate a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BE & BZ temp.
When BZ is slightly high : b) Reduce ID fan speed To maintain BE temp.
d) Increase ID fan speed To lower BE temp. and raise O 2% & BE temp. When BZ is slightly low :
8 When BZ is very high : c) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. & lower O 2% (BE temp. should be
a) Increase kiln speed To avoid over-heating rising also, if not, continue raising fuel rate & raise
b) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp. ID fan speed
c) Increase ID fan speed To raise O 2% & maintain BE temp. 20 When BZ is very low :
When BZ is slightly high : a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp.
d) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp. & raise O 2% b) Reduce ID fan speed To maintain BE temp. (if O 2 is still available after this
9 When BZ is very high : move, increase fuel rate also)
a) Increase kiln speed To lower BE temp. & avoid over-heating When BZ is slightly low :
b) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ & BE temps. and raise O 2% c) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. & lower O 2%
When BZ is slightly high : 21 When BZ is very low :
c) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ & BE temps. and raise O 2% a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp.
10 When BZ is very low : b) Redice ID fan speed To lower BE temp. & O 2%
a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BE & BZ temps. c) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. & lower O 2%
When BZ is slightly low : When BZ is slightly low :
b) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. and to raise O 2% for c d) Reduce ID fan speed To riase BZ temp. and reduce BE temp. & O 2%
c) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. 22 a) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp.
11 When BZ is very low & O 2 b) Increase fuel rate To maintain BZ temp. & reduce O 2%
is in lower part of range : 23 a) Reduce ID fan speed To lower O2%
a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp. slightly
b) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for c 24 a) Reduce ID fan speed To lower BE temp. & O 2%
c) Reduce ID fan speed To maintain BE temp. b) Reduce fuel rate slightly To maintain BZ temp.
d) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp. 25 When BZ is very high :
12 When BZ is very low : a) Increase kiln speed To avoid overheating
a) Reduce kiln speed To raise BZ temp. b) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp.
b) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for c When BZ is slightly high :
c) Reduce ID fan speed To lower BE temp. c) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp. (if O 2% raises
When BZ is slightly low & during this, disregard it till temps. are controlled)
O2 in higher part of range : 26 When BZ is very high :
d) Reduce ID fan speed To reduce BE temp. & lower O 2%. BE temp. should a) Increase kiln speed To avoid overheating
be rising also, if not, continue raising fuel rate & raise b) Increase ID fan speed To maintain BE temp.
ID fan speed c) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
13 a) Increase ID fan speed To raise BE temp. When BZ is slightly high :
b) Increase fuel rate To maintain BZ temp. d) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises during this, disregard
14 None However, do not get overconfident it till temps. are controlled)
15 When O2% is in upper part 27 When BZ is very high :
of the range : a) Increase kiln speed To lower BZ & BE temp.
a) Reduce ID fan speed To reduce BE temp. b) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
When O2% is in lower part When BZ is slightly high :
of the range : c) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp.
b) Reduce fuel rate To raise O 2% for c d) Reduce ID fan speed To lower BE temp. (if O 2% raises during this, disregard
c) Reduce ID fan speed To lower BE temp. & maintain BZ temp. it till temps. are controlled)
 sheet 2 of 2
Pie - Chart for Kiln Conditions

27 1

26 2

25 3

BE-Hgh BE-Low
BE-Nor BE-Nor 4
24

BE-Low BE-Hgh

BE-Hgh BE-Low 5
23
BZ-Low
BZ-Hgh
BE-Nor BE-Nor
22 6

BE-Low BZ-Nor BZ-Nor BE-Hgh

O2-Low
O2-Hgh
7
21 BE-Hgh BE-Low

BZ-Low BZ-Hgh

BE-Nor BE-Nor
8
20 O2-Nor

BE-Low BZ-Hgh BZ-Low BE-Hgh

9
19 BZ-Nor
BE-Hgh BE-Low

BE-Nor BE-Nor 10
18
BE-Low BE-Hgh
BE-Hgh BE-Low
BE-Nor 11
17

12
16

15 13
14
 Kiln Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Degree of filling DF 3.2 * P P 6000 7500
% Deff 3 * n * s Deff 4.76 4.76
P Clinker production, tpd n 4 4.5
Deff Burning zone effective diameter, mts S 3.5 3.5
n Kiln speed, rpm DF 12.72 14.13
s Kiln slope, % Target 14-16 14-16
2 Thermal loading TL Formula-1 F 15680 19760
or Gcal/hr/m2 F * NCV NCV 4500 4500
Burning zone loading A * 1000 * 1000 A 17.79 17.79
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr TL 3.97 5.00
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2

Formula-2 P 6000 7500

P*H H 282 282
A * 24 * 1000 A 17.79 17.79
P Clinker production, tpd TL 3.96 4.95
H Specific heat consumption in kiln, kcal/kg-clinker Target 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2
3 Volumetric loading VL P P 6000 7500
tpd/m3 A*L A 17.79 17.79
P Clinker production, tpd L 61 61
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2 VL 5.53 6.91
L Kiln length, mts Target 5.0-6.0 5.0-6.0
4 Material residence time in kiln RTK 19 * L L 61 61
min Deff * n * s Deff 4.76 4.76
L Kiln length, mts n 4 4
Deff Burning zone effective diameter, mts S 3.5 3.5
n Kiln speed, rpm RTK 17.4 17.4
s Kiln slope, % Target 20-25 20-25
5 Clinker residence time in cooler RTC 1.55 * A * Ps A 131.6 131.6
(Empirical relationship from min P Ps 1200 1200
F.L. Smidth) A Cooler grate cross-sectional area, m2 P 6000 7500
Ps Static pressure at clinker droping area, mmWg RTC 40.8 32.6
P Clinker production, tpd Target 20-25 20-25
6 True CO2 in kiln exit gas TCO2 100 * ( CO2 + CO ) CO2 36.5 36.5
vol% 100 + ( 1.89 * CO ) - ( 4.78 * O2 ) CO 0.002 0.002
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO2, vol% O2 4.2 4.2
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO, vol% TCO2 45.7 45.7
O2 Kiln exit gas O2, vol% Target - -
7 Excess air EA 79 * O2 O2 2.8 2.8
% 0.21 * ( 100 - CO2 ) - O2 CO2 26.5 26.5
O2 O2 content in gas, vol% EA 17.5 17.5
CO2 CO2 content in gas, vol% Target 10-15 10-15
8 Radiation heat losses RHL 4 * 10-8 * ( T4 - t4 ) T 517 517
kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 305 305
t Ambient air temperature, K RHL 2512 2512
Target - -
9 Convection heat losses CHL 80.33 * ( ( T + t ) / 2 )-0.724 * ( T - t )1.333 T 443 443
kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 308 308
t Ambient air temperature, K CHL 760 760
Target - -
10 Forced convection heat losses FCHL 28.03 * ( ( T + t ) / 2 )-0.351 * v0.805 * D-0.195 * ( T - t ) T 525 525
(when wind speed > 3.0 m/s) kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 302 302
t Ambient air temperature, K v 5 5
v Wind speed, m/s D 4.15 4.15
D Radiating body diameter, mts FCHL 2088 2088
Target - -
11 %Ash absorption in clinker %AA CC * Ash CC 26 26
% P Ash 15 15
CC Coal consumption, tph P 208 208
Ash Ash content in fuel (as fired basis), % %AA 1.88 1.88
P Clinker production, tph Target - -
 Kiln Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
12 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCK 100 - %AA %AA 1.74 1.74
(dust to kiln) - 100 - LOI LOI 35.58 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % RMCK 1.525 1.525
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % Target - -
13 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCS ( 100 - %AA ) * 100 %AA 1.74 1.74
(dust to silo) - ( 100 - LOI ) * ( 100 - DL ) LOI 35.58 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % DL 8.5 8.5
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % RMCS 1.667 1.667
DL Dust losses from preheater, % Target - -
14 Heat of reaction HR ( 4.282 * CaCO3 * RMCK ) + ( 3.085 * MgCO3 * RMCK ) CaCO3 75.1 75.1
or kcal/ + ( 222 * Al2O3 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) + ( 11.6 * CH2O * RMCK ) RMCK 1.53 1.53
Theoretical heat required to kg-clinker - ( 511.6 * SiO2 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) - ( 59 * Fe2O3 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) MgCO3 1.6 1.6
produce 1 kg of clinker - ( 1000 * ( K2O + Na2O ) / ( 100 - LOI ) ) LOI 34.5 34.5
or - ( 79 * C * RMCK ) - ( 32 * S * RMCK ) Al2O3 4.17 4.17
Clinkerisation heat CaCO3 CaCO3 content in kiln feed, % CH2O 1.05 1.05
RMCK Kiln feed:Clinker ratio, - SiO2 13.47 13.47
(including Heat of combustibles) MgCO3 MgCO3 content in kiln feed, % Fe2O3 2.41 2.41
LOI LOI content in kiln feed, % K2O 0.38 0.38
Al2O3 Al2O3 content in clinker, % Na2O 0.27 0.27
CH2O Water of crystalisation in kiln feed, % C 0.2 0.2
SiO2 SiO2 content in clinker, % S 0.04 0.04
Fe2O3 Fe2O3 content in clinker, % HR 389 389
K2O K2O content in clinker, % Target - -
Na2O Na2O content in clinker, %
C Carbon content in kiln feed, %
S Sulphur as pyrites in kiln feed, %
15 False air w.r.t. mix FAMO ( O2mix - O2gas ) * 100 O2mix 3.6 3.6
(based on O2 analysis) % 21 - O2gas O2gas 2.8 2.8
O2mix O2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMO 4.4 4.4
O2gas O2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7 5-7
16 False air w.r.t. gas FAGO ( O2mix - O2gas ) * 100 O2mix 3.6 3.6
(based on O2 analysis) % 21 - O2mix O2gas 2.8 2.8
O2mix O2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAGO 4.6 4.6
O2gas O2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7 5-7
17 False air w.r.t. mix FAMC ( CO2gas - CO2mix ) * 100 CO2mix 32.1 32.1
(based on CO2 analysis) % CO2gas CO2gas 34.5 34.5
CO2mix CO2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMC 7.0 7.0
CO2gas CO2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7 5-7
18 False air w.r.t. gas FAGC ( CO2gas - CO2mix ) * 100 CO2mix 32.1 32.1
(based on CO2 analysis) % CO2mix CO2gas 34.5 34.5
CO2mix CO2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMC 7.5 7.5
CO2gas CO2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7 5-7

19 Cooler Loading Cla P P 6000 7500

tpd/m2 A A 131.6 131.6
P Clinker production, tpd CL 45.59 56.99
A Cooler cross-sectional area, m2 Target 45-60 45-60
20 Cooler Loading CLw P P 6000 7500
tpd/m W W 4 4
P Clinker production, tpd CLw 1500 1875
W Cooler Width, m Target 1500 1500
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Lime saturation factor LSF C * 100 C 43.84
- 2.8 * S + 1.18 * A + 0.65 * F S 12.11
C Lime as CaO, % A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % LSF 113
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 85-115
2 Silica modulus SM S S 12.11
- A+F A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % SM 2.33
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 2.0-2.5
3 Alumina modulus AM A A 2.68
- F F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % AM 1.06
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 1.2-1.8
4 Hydraulic modulus HM C C 43.84
- S+A+F S 12.11
C Lime as CaO, % A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % HM 2.53
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 1.7-2.3
5 Silicic acid modulus SAM S S 12.11
- A A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % SAM 4.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % Target 2.5-3.5
6 Total alkalies TAN N + 0.658 * K N 0.45
(as Na2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % K 0.61
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % TAN 0.85
Target -
7 Total alkalies TAK 1.52 * N + K N 0.45
(as K2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % K 0.61
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % TAN 1.29
Target -
8 Tri-calcium silicate C3S Formula-1 (for Cement) C 66.2
or % 4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO FC 1.02
Alite C Lime as CaO, % S 20.56
FC Free lime as CaO, % A 6.04
S Silica as SiO2, % F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % SO 0.31
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C3S 62.8
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target 45-60

Formula-2 (for Clinker) C 66.2

4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO" FC 1.02
where SO" = SO -1.292 * N - 0.85 * K S 20.56
Use SO" only if SO" > 0, otherwise put SO" as 0 A 6.04
C Lime as CaO, % F 3.32
FC Free lime as CaO, % SO 0.31
S Silica as SiO2, % N 0.45
A Alumina as Al2O3, % K 0.61
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % SO" -0.79
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % C3S 63.7
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 45-60
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
9 Di-calcium silicate C2S 2.867 * S - 0.7544 * C3S S 20.56
or % S Silica as SiO2, % C3S 63.8
Belite C3S Tri-calcium silicate C2S 10.8
Target 15-25
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
10 Tri-calcium aluminate C3A Formula-1 (for Cement) A 6.04
or % 2.65 * A - 1.692 * F F 3.32
Aluminate A Alumina as Al2O3, % C3A 10.4
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 6-11

Formula-2 (for Clinker) A 6.04

2.65 * A - 1.692 * ( F + Mn ) F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % Mn 0.01
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C3A 10.4
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, % Target 6-11
11 Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite C4AF Formula-1 (for Cement) F 3.32
or % 3.043 * F C4AF 10.1
Ferrite F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 10-16

Formula-2 (for Clinker) F 3.32

3.043 * ( F + Mn ) Mn 0.01
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C4AF 10.1
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, % Target 10-16
12 Free lime FC Formula-1 LSF 99
(Source : The Chemistry of % 0.33 * ( LSF - 95 ) + 1.8 * ( SM - 2 ) + 0.93 * S45 + 0.56 * C125 SM 2.1
Cement & Concrete, F.M. Lea) LSF Lime saturation factor, - S45 0.47
SM Silica modulus, - C125 0.03
S45 SiO2 residue on 45 microns sieve, % FC 2.0
C125 CaCO3 residue on 125 microns sieve, % Target 0-1

Formula-2 LSF 99
0.35 * ( LSF - 96 ) + 1.58 * ( SM - 1.6 ) + 0.55 * A45 + 0.12 * T125 SM 2.1
LSF Lime saturation factor, - A45 0.47
SM Silica modulus, - T125 0.03
A45 Alkali insoluble residue on 45 microns sieve, % FC 2.1
T125 Total residue on 125 microns sieve, % Target 0-1
13 Burning index (for clinker) BI C3S C3S 63.8
- C3A + C4AF C3A 10.4
C3S Tri-calcium silicate C4AF 10.1
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate BI 3.1
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite Target 2.6-4.0
14 Burning factor (for clinker) BF LSF + 10 * SM - 3 * ( M + TAN ) LSF 99
- LSF Lime saturation factor, - SM 2.2
SM Silica modulus, - M 1.82
M Magnesia as MgO, % TAN 0.86
TAN Total alkalies as Na2O equivalent, % BF 113
Target 100-200
15 Burning temperature (minimum) BT 1300 + 4.51 * C3S - 3.74 * C3A - 12.64 * C4AF C3S 63.8
deg.C C3S Tri-calcium silicate C3A 10.4
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate C4AF 10.1
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite BT 1421
Target -
16 Alkali-Sulphur ratio Q ( K / 94 ) + ( N / 62 ) - (Cl / 71 ) K 0.6
- ( SO / 80 ) N 0.4
K K2O in kiln feed, % Cl 0.003
N Na2O in kiln feed, % SO 0.93
Cl Cl in kiln feed, % Q 1.1
SO SO3 in kiln feed, % Target 0.8-1.2
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
17 Liquid phase LP Formula-1 (at 1340 deg.C) F 3.32
% 6.1 * F + M# + N + K M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 23.3
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-2 (at 1400 deg.C) A 6.04

2.95 * A + 2.2 * F + M# + N + K F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.2
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-3 (at 1450 deg.C) A 6.04

3 * A + 2.25 * F + M# + N + K F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.7
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-4 (at 1450 deg.C) C3A 10.4

1.13 * C3A + 1.35 * C4AF + M# + N + K C4AF 10.1
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate M 2.21
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.4
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
18 %Ash absorption in clinker %AA CC * Ash CC 26
% P Ash 15
CC Coal consumption, tph P 208
Ash Ash content in fuel (as fired basis), % %AA 1.88
P Clinker production, tph Target -
19 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCK 100 - %AA %AA 1.74
(dust to kiln) - 100 - LOI LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % RMCK 1.525
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % Target -
20 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCS ( 100 - %AA ) * 100 %AA 1.74
(dust to silo) - ( 100 - LOI ) * ( 100 - DL ) LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % DL 8.5
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % RMCS 1.667
DL Dust losses from preheater, % Target -
21 Calcium carbonate as CaCO3 CCO C - Cs C 43.8
(derived from CaO) % 0.5608 Cs 0.2
C Lime as CaO, % CCO 77.7
Cs Lime as CaO in silicates, % Target -
22 Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3 MCO M - Ms M 2.05
(derived from MgO) % 0.478 Ms 0.01
M Magnesia as MgO, % CCO 4.3
Ms Magnesia as MgO in silicates, % Target -
23 Total carbonates TC CCO + MCO * 1.1904 CCO 77.1
% CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, % MCO 3.2
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, % CCO 80.9
Target -
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
24 Sulphate modulus MSO SO SO 0.31
(Source : F.L. Smidth) % 0.85 * TAK TAK 1.29
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % MSO 0.28
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, % Target -
25 Soluble alkalies SA Formula-1 (if MSO <= 0.5) SO 0.31
(Source : F.L. Smidth) % 1.18 * SO SA 0.37
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target -

Formula-2 (if 0.5 < MSO <= 1.0) SO 0.31

0.7 * SO + 0.2 * TAK TAK 1.29
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % SA 0.48
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, % Target -

Formula-3 (if MSO > 1.0) SO 0.31

0.8 * SO SA 0.25
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target -

Formula-4 Ns 0.07
1.52 * Ns + Ks Ks 0.11
Ns Soluble Na2O, % SA 0.22
Ks Soluble K2O, % Target -
26 28-days mortar strength D28 52 - 10 * SA + 0.15 * C3S SA 0.37
(@ 300 m2/kg surface and 4% MPa SA Soluble alkalies, % C3S 63.8
gypsum) C3S Tri-calcium silicate D28 57.9
(Source : F.L. Smidth) Target -
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
1 Lime saturation factor LSF C * 100 # Fast setting in cement # High early strength in cement
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1 - 2.8 * S + 1.18 * A + 0.65 * F # Easy to burn # Hard to burn
C Lime as CaO, % [for Cement, CaO = (CaO-0.7*SO3)] # More formation of C2S # Excessive free CaO
S Silica as SiO2, % # Reduces C3S content # Lining eaten off quickly
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
2 Silica modulus SM S # Easy to burn # Poor refractory coating
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1 - A+F # Ring formation # Slow setting/hardening of cement
S Silica as SiO2, % # Ball formation # Reduction in liq. phase
A Alumina as Al2O3, % # Higher liquid phase # Increased fuel consumpn.
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % # High kiln radiations
3 Alumina modulus AM A # Low heat of hydration in cement # High early strength cement
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1 - F # Slow setting of cement # C & S reaction more difficult
A Alumina as Al2O3, % # Low shrinking of cement # Easy to burn
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
4 Hydraulic modulus HM C # Mostly insufficient strength in # Poor stability of volume
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1 - S+A+F cement # Hard to burn
C Lime as CaO, % # High heat of hydration
S Silica as SiO2, % # Resistance to chemical attack
A Alumina as Al2O3, % decreases
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
5 Silicic acid modulus SAM S # Favourable coating conditions if maintained between 2.5-3.5
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1 - A
S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
6 Total alkalies TAN N + 0.658 * K # Decreases liquid content # Operational problems due to
(as Na2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % # Decreases coating formation alkali cycles
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, K Potassium oxide as K2O, % # Causes alkali expansion
Kurt E. Peray

7 Total alkalies TAK 1.52 * N + K # Decreases liquid content # Operational problems due to
(as K2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % # Decreases coating formation alkali cycles
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, K Potassium oxide as K2O, % # Causes alkali expansion
Kurt E. Peray

8 Tri-calcium silicate C3S Formula-1 (for Cement) # Responsible for high early strength of cement
or % 4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO # Hard to burn
Alite C Lime as CaO, %
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, FC Free lime as CaO, %
Kurt E. Peray S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %

Formula-2 (for Clinker)

4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO"
where SO" = SO -1.292 * N - 0.85 * K
Use SO" only if SO" > 0, otherwise put SO" as 0
C Lime as CaO, %
FC Free lime as CaO, %
S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, %
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
9 Di-calcium silicate C2S 2.867 * S - 0.7544 * C3S # Responsible for late strength of cement
or Belite % S Silica as SiO2, %
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, C3S Tri-calcium silicate
Kurt E. Peray

10 Tri-calcium aluminate C3A Formula-1 (for Cement) # Very reactive

or % 2.65 * A - 1.692 * F # Flash setting of cement
Aluminate A Alumina as Al2O3, %
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Kurt E. Peray

Formula-2 (for Clinker)

2.65 * A - 1.692 * ( F + Mn )
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, %
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
11 Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite C4AF Formula-1 (for Cement) # Hardly influences the strength development
or % 3.043 * F # Increases darkness in cement
Ferrite F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % # Unsoundness in cement
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, # Causes leaching & effloresence
Kurt E. Peray Formula-2 (for Clinker) in concrete & masonary work
3.043 * ( F + Mn )
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, %
12 Free lime FC Formula-1 # Unsoundness in cement
The Chemistry of Cement & Concrete, % 0.33 * ( LSF - 95 ) + 1.8 * ( SM - 2 ) + 0.93 * S45 + 0.56 * C125
F.M. Lea

Formula-2
0.35 * ( LSF - 96 ) + 1.58 * ( SM - 1.6 ) + 0.55 * A45 + 0.12 * T125
LSF Lime saturation factor, -
SM Silica modulus, -
S45 SiO2 residue on 45 microns sieve, %
C125 CaCO3 residue on 125 microns sieve, %
A45 Alkali insoluble residue on 45 microns sieve, %
T125 Total residue on 125 microns sieve, %
13 Burning index (for clinker) BI C3S
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, - C3A + C4AF
Kurt E. Peray C3S Tri-calcium silicate
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite
14 Burning factor (for clinker) BF LSF + 10 * SM - 3 * ( M + TAN )
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, - LSF Lime saturation factor, -
Kurt E. Peray SM Silica modulus, -
M Magnesia as MgO, %
TAN Total alkalies as Na2O equivalent, %

15 Burning temperature (minimum) BT 1300 + 4.51 * C3S - 3.74 * C3A - 12.64 * C4AF
Binani Cement Ltd, India deg.C C3S Tri-calcium silicate
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite

16 Alkali-Sulphur ratio Q ( K / 94 ) + ( N / 62 ) - (Cl / 71 ) If Q=1, Equilibrium (medium hard coating in kiln)

FLS - Kiln manual - ( SO / 80 ) If Q>1, SO3 Excess (hard coating in kiln)
K K2O in kiln feed, % If Q<1, Alkali Excess (soft coating in kiln)
N Na2O in kiln feed, %
Cl Cl in kiln feed, % Major plugging problems if,
SO SO3 in kiln feed, % SO3>10-30, Na2Oeq.>10-20, Cl>0.2-0.5 gm/kg-clk

17 Excess sulphur ES 1000 * SO - 850 * K - 650 * N # Increased SO2 emission

FLS - Kiln manual - SO SO3 in kiln feed, % # Coating in preheater
K K2O in kiln feed, % # Ring Formation
N Na2O in kiln feed, % # Weakening of long term

18 Liquid phase LP Formula-1 (at 1340 deg.C) # Decreased clinker formation rate # Increased power consumption
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, % 6.1 * F + M# + N + K # Impairs burnability for cement grinding
Kurt E. Peray # Improper nodulisation # Excessive coating
# Hard to burn # Lump formation

Formula-2 (at 1400 deg.C)

2.95 * A + 2.2 * F + M# + N + K

Formula-3 (at 1450 deg.C)

3 * A + 2.25 * F + M# + N + K

Formula-4 (at 1450 deg.C)

1.13 * C3A + 1.35 * C4AF + M# + N + K
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
M Magnesia as MgO, %
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, %
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
19 Calcium carbonate as CaCO3 CCO C - Cs
(derived from CaO) % 0.5608
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme C Lime as CaO, %
Cs Lime as CaO in silicates, %
20 Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3 MCO M - Ms
(derived from MgO) % 0.478
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme M Magnesia as MgO, %
Ms Magnesia as MgO in silicates, %
21 Total carbonates TC CCO + MCO * 1.1904
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme % CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, %
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, %

22 Loss on ignition LOI 0.44 * CCO + 0.524 * MCO + CH2O + OM

Simple mathematical calculation % CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, %
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, %
CH2O Combined H2O, %
OM Organic matter, %

23 Sulphate modulus MSO SO

FLS - International Cement Production % 0.85 * TAK
Seminar SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, %
24 Soluble alkalies SA Formula-1 (if MSO <= 0.5)
FLS - International Cement Production % 1.18 * SO
Seminar

Formula-2 (if 0.5 < MSO <= 1.0)

0.7 * SO + 0.2 * TAK

Formula-3 (if MSO > 1.0)

0.8 * SO

Formula-4
1.52 * Ns + Ks
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, %
Ns Soluble Na2O, %
Ks Soluble K2O, %
25 28-days mortar strength D28 52 - 10 * SA + 0.15 * C3S
(@ 300 m2/kg surface 4% Gyp) MPa SA Soluble alkalies, %
FLS - International Cement Production C3S Tri-calcium silicate
Seminar

26 Degree of calcination DOC ( LOIF - LOIS ) * 100

FLS - Kiln manual % LOIF
LOIF Loss of ignition in kiln feed, %
LOIS Loss of ignition in sample, %

27 Sulphatisation Degree SG SG = 100 SO3 / (0.85 K2O + 1.292 Na2O) 100%

%
K K2O in clinker, %
N Na2O in clinker, %
SO SO3 in clinker, %
 Fuel and Combustion
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Gross calorific value GCV 80.8 * C + 22.45 * S + 339.53 * H - 35.89 * O C 70.86
kcal/kg-fuel S 0.58
C Carbon content in fuel, wt% H 3.87
S Sulphur content in fuel, wt% O 6.08
H Hydrogen content in fuel, wt% GCV 6834
N Nitrogen content in fuel, wt% Target -
2 Net calorific value NCV GCV - 52.53 * H - 6 * m GCV 6834
kcal/kg-fuel H 3.87
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel m 1.93
H Hydrogen content in fuel, wt% NCV 6619
m Moisture content in fuel, wt% Target -
3 Useful heat value UHV 8900 - 138 * ( Ash + m ) Ash 14.99
kcal/kg-fuel Ash Ash content in fuel, wt% m 1.93
m Moisture content in fuel, wt% UHV 6565
Target -
4 Standard coal factor SCF ( 1 - m / 100 ) * NCV / 7000 m 1.93
- m Moisture content in fuel, wt% NCV 6500
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel SCF 0.911
Target -
5 Stoichiometric Combustion SCA Formula-1 NCV 6500
Air kg/s NCV * F F 11000
or 709 * 3600 SCA 28.01
Minimum Combustion NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target -
Air F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr

Formula-2 C 70.78
[ 0.11594 * C + 0.34783 * ( H - O / 8 ) + 0.04348 * S ] * F H 3.46
3600 O 5.12
C Weight% of Carbon in fuel S 0.71
H Weight% of Hydrogen in fuel F 11000
O Weight% of Oxygen in fuel SCA 28.17
S Weight% of Sulphur in fuel Target -
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr

Formula-3 m 1.9
10.478 * ( 100 - m ) * GCV * F GCV 6700
100 * 7000 * 3600 F 10500
m Weight% of Moisture in fuel SCA 28.70
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target -
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr
6 Specific Stoichiometric SSCA Formula-1 NCV 6500
Combustion Air kg/kg-fuel NCV SSCA 9.17
or 709 Target -
Specific Minimum NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel
Combustion Air
Formula-2 C 70.78
0.11594 * C + 0.34783 * ( H - O / 8 ) + 0.04348 * S H 3.46
C Weight% of Carbon in fuel O 5.12
H Weight% of Hydrogen in fuel S 0.71
O Weight% of Oxygen in fuel SSCA 9.22
S Weight% of Sulphur in fuel Target -

Formula-3 m 1.9
10.478 * ( 100 - m ) * GCV GCV 6700
100 * 7000 SSCA 9.84
m Weight% of Moisture in fuel Target -
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel

Formula-4 SCF 0.925

10.478 * SCF SSCA 9.69
 Fuel and Combustion
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
SCF Standard coal factor, - Target -
7 Theoretical Flame Temperature TFT 3.107 * NCV NCV 6500
deg.C SCA SSCA 9.28
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel TFT 2176
SSCA Specific stoichiometric combustion air, kg/kg-fuel Target -
8 True CO2 in kiln exit gas TCO2 100 * ( CO2 + CO ) CO2 36.5
vol% 100 + ( 1.89 * CO ) - ( 4.78 * O2 ) CO 0.002
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO2, vol% O2 4.2
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO, vol% TCO2 45.7
O2 Kiln exit gas O2, vol% Target -
9 Burner Tip Velocity BTV 4 * Ps 0.5 Ps 1800
m/s Ps Static pressure in duct, mmWG BTV 170
Target -
10 %Primary Air %PA PA * 100 PA 2.05
% SCA SCA 27.24
PA Primary air, kg/s %PA 7.53
SCA Stoichiometric combustion air, kg/s Target -
11 Flame Momentum FM %PA * BTV %PA 11.2
or %.m/s %PA %Primary air, % BTV 150
Relative Impulse BTV Burner tip velocity, m/s FM 1680
(Source : F.L. Smidth) Target 1000-2000