CHAPTER 16

16.1 The mechanical properties of cobalt may be improved by incorporating fine particles of tungsten
carbide (WC). Given that the moduli of elasticity of these materials are, respectively, 200 GPa (30 × 106 psi) and 700
GPa (102 × 106 psi), plot the modulus of elasticity versus the volume percent of WC in Co from 0 to 100 vol%, using
both upper- and lower-bound expressions.
16.2 Estimate the maximum and minimum thermal conductivity values for a cermet that contains 90 vol%

titanium carbide (TiC) particles in a nickel matrix. Assume thermal conductivities of 27 and 67 W/m.K for TiC and
Ni, respectively.
16.3 A large-particle composite consisting of tungsten particles within a copper matrix is to be prepared. If
the volume fractions of tungsten and copper are 0.70 and 0.30, respectively, estimate the upper limit for the specific
stiffness of this composite, given the data that follow.

Specific Gravity Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Copper 8.9 110
Tungsten 19.3 407

16.4 (a) What is the distinction between cement and concrete?

(b) Cite three important limitations that restrict the use of concrete as a structural material.
(c) Briefly explain three techniques that are used to strengthen concrete by reinforcement.
16.5 Cite one similarity and two differences between precipitation hardening and dispersion strengthening.
16.6 For a glass fiber–epoxy matrix combination, the critical ratio of fiber length to fiber diameter is 40.
Using the data in Table 16.4, determine the fiber–matrix bond strength.
16.7 (a) For a fiber-reinforced composite, the efficiency of reinforcement η depends on fiber length l
according to
l − 2x
η=
l

where x represents the length of the fiber at each end that does not contribute to the load transfer. Make a plot of η
versus l to l =50 mm (2.0 in.), assuming that x =1.25 mm (0.05 in.).
(b) What length is required for a 0.90 efficiency of reinforcement?
16.8 A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite is to be produced consisting of 45 vol% aramid
fibers and 55 vol% polycarbonate matrix; the mechanical characteristics of these two materials are as follows:

Modulus of Elasticity Tensile Strength [MPa

[GPa (psi)] (psi)]
Aramid fiber 131 (19 × 106) 3600 (520,000)
 Polycarbonate 2.4 (3.5 × 105) 65 (9425)

The stress on the polycarbonate matrix when the aramid fibers fail is 35 MPa (5075 psi).
For this composite, compute the following:
(a) The longitudinal tensile strength
(b) The longitudinal modulus of elasticity

16.9 Is it possible to produce a continuous and oriented aramid fiber–epoxy matrix composite having
longitudinal and transverse moduli of elasticity of 35 GPa (5 × 106 psi) and 5.17 GPa (7.5 × 105 psi), respectively?
Why or why not? Assume that the elastic modulus of the epoxy is 3.4 GPa (4.93 × 105 psi).
16.10 For a continuous and oriented fiber-reinforced composite, the moduli of elasticity in the longitudinal
and transverse directions are 33.1 and 3.66 GPa (4.8 × 106 and 5.3 × 105 psi), respectively. If the volume fraction of
fibers is 0.30, determine the moduli of elasticity of fiber and matrix phases.
16.12 In an aligned and continuous carbon fiber-reinforced nylon 6,6 composite, the fibers are to carry 97%
of a load applied in the longitudinal direction.
(a) Using the data provided, determine the volume fraction of fibers that will be required.
(b) What will be the tensile strength of this composite? Assume that the matrix stress at fiber failure is 50
MPa (7250 psi).

Modulus of Elasticity [GPa (psi)] Tensile Strength [MPa (psi)]

Carbon fiber 260 (37 × 106) 4000 (580,000)
Nylon 6,6 2.8 (4.0 × 105) 76 (11,000)

16.15 Compute the longitudinal strength of an aligned carbon fiber–epoxy matrix composite having a 0.20
volume fraction of fibers, assuming the following: (1) an average fiber diameter of 6 × 10–3 mm (2.4 × 10–4 in.), (2)
an average fiber length of 8.0 mm (0.31 in.), (3) a fiber fracture strength of 4.5 GPa (6.5 × 105 psi), (4) a fiber–matrix
bond strength of 75 MPa (10,900 psi), (5) a matrix stress at composite failure of 6.0 MPa (870 psi), and (6) a matrix
tensile strength of 60 MPa (8700 psi).
16.16 It is desired to produce an aligned carbon fiber–epoxy matrix composite having a longitudinal tensile
strength of 500 MPa (72,500 psi). Calculate the volume fraction of fibers necessary if (1) the average fiber diameter
and length are 0.01 mm (3.9 × 10–4 in.) and 0.5 mm (2 × 10–2 in.), respectively; (2) the fiber fracture strength is 4.0
GPa (5.8 × 105 psi); (3) the fiber–matrix bond strength is 25 MPa (3625 psi); and (4) the matrix stress at composite
failure is 7.0 MPa (1000 psi).
16.17 Compute the longitudinal tensile strength of an aligned glass fiber–epoxy matrix composite in which
the average fiber diameter and length are 0.015 mm (5.9 × 10–4 in.) and 2.0 mm (0.08 in.), respectively, and the
volume fraction of fibers is 0.25. Assume that (1) the fiber–matrix bond strength is 100 MPa (14,500 psi), (2) the
fracture strength of the fibers is 3500 MPa (5 × 105 psi), and (3) the matrix stress at composite failure is 5.5 MPa
(800 psi).
16.18 (a) From the moduli of elasticity data in Table 16.2 for glass fiber-reinforced polycarbonate
composites, determine the value of the fiber efficiency parameter for each of 20, 30, and 40 vol% fibers.
(b) Estimate the modulus of elasticity for 50 vol% glass fibers.
16.19 For a polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composite:
(a) List three functions of the matrix phase.
(b) Compare the desired mechanical characteristics of matrix and fiber phases.
(c) Cite two reasons why there must be a strong bond between fiber and matrix at their interface.
16.20 (a) What is the distinction between matrix and dispersed phases in a composite material?
(b) Contrast the mechanical characteristics of matrix and dispersed phases for fiber-reinforced composites.
16.22 (a) List four reasons why glass fibers are most commonly used for reinforcement.
(b) Why is the surface perfection of glass fibers so important?
(c) What measures are taken to protect the surface of glass fibers?
16.23 Cite the distinction between carbon and graphite.
16.24 (a) Cite several reasons why fiberglass-reinforced composites are used extensively.
(b) Cite several limitations of this type of composite.
16.25 (a) What is a hybrid composite?
(b) List two important advantages of hybrid composites over normal fiber composites.
16.26 (a) Write an expression for the modulus of elasticity for a hybrid composite in which all fibers of both
types are oriented in the same direction.
(b) Using this expression, compute the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of a hybrid composite consisting of
aramid and glass fibers in volume fractions of 0.25 and 0.35, respectively, within a polyester resin matrix [Em = 4.0

GPa (6 × 105 psi)].

16.27 Derive a generalized expression analogous to Equation 16.16 for the transverse modulus of elasticity
of an aligned hybrid composite consisting of two types of continuous fibers.
16.28 Briefly describe pultrusion, filament winding, and prepreg production fabrication processes; cite the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
16.29 Briefly describe laminar composites. What is the prime reason for fabricating these materials?
16.30 (a) Briefly describe sandwich panels.
(b) What is the prime reason for fabricating these structural composites?
(c) What are the functions of the faces and the core?