Japanese occupation

of the Philippines

The Japanese occupation of the

Philippines (Filipino: Pananakop ng mga
Japones sa Filipinas; Japanese: 日本の
フィリピン占領, romanized: Nihon no
Firipin Senryō) occurred between 1942
and 1945, when Imperial Japan
occupied the Commonwealth of the
Philippines during World War II.
The invasion of the Philippines started
on 8 December 1941, ten hours after the
attack on Pearl Harbor. As at Pearl
Harbor, American aircraft were severely
damaged in the initial Japanese attack.
Lacking air cover, the American Asiatic
Fleet in the Philippines withdrew to Java
on 12 December 1941. General Douglas
MacArthur was ordered out, leaving his
men at Corregidor on the night of 11
March 1942 for Australia, 4,000 km
away. The 76,000 starving and sick
American and Filipino defenders in
Bataan surrendered on 9 April 1942, and
were forced to endure the infamous
Bataan Death March on which 7,000–
10,000 died or were murdered. The
13,000 survivors on Corregidor
surrendered on 6 May.

Japan occupied the Philippines for over

three years, until the surrender of
Japan. A highly effective guerrilla
campaign by Philippine resistance
forces controlled sixty percent of the
islands, mostly forested and
mountainous areas. MacArthur supplied
them by submarine and sent
reinforcements and officers. The
Filipino population remained generally
loyal to the United States, partly
because of the American guarantee of
independence, because of the
Japanese mistreatment of Filipinos
after the surrender, and because the
Japanese had pressed large numbers
of Filipinos into work details and put
young Filipino women into brothels.[1]

General MacArthur kept his promise to

return to the Philippines on 20 October
1944. The landings on the island of
Leyte were accompanied by a force of
700 vessels and 174,000 men. Through
December 1944, the islands of Leyte
and Mindoro were cleared of Japanese
soldiers. During the campaign, the
Imperial Japanese Army conducted a
suicidal defense of the islands. Cities
such as Manila were reduced to rubble.
Around 500,000 Filipinos died during
the Japanese Occupation Period.[2]

Background
Japan launched an attack on the
Philippines on 8 December 1941, just ten
hours after their attack on Pearl
Harbor.[3] Initial aerial bombardment
was followed by landings of ground
troops both north and south of
Manila.[4] The defending Philippine and
United States troops were under the
command of General Douglas
MacArthur, who had been recalled to
active duty in the United States Army
earlier in the year and was designated
commander of the United States Armed
Forces in the Asia-Pacific region.[5] The
aircraft of his command were
destroyed; the naval forces were
ordered to leave; and because of the
circumstances in the Pacific region,
reinforcement and resupply of his
ground forces were impossible.[6]
Under the pressure of superior
numbers, the defending forces
withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and
to the island of Corregidor at the
entrance to Manila Bay.[7] Manila,
declared an open city to prevent its
destruction,[8] was occupied by the
Japanese on 2 January 1942.[9]

The Philippine defense continued until

the final surrender of U.S.-Philippine
forces on the Bataan Peninsula on April
10, 1942, and on Corregidor on May 6,
1942.[10] Quezon and Osmeña had
accompanied the troops to Corregidor
and later left for the United States,
where they set up a government-in-
exile.[11] MacArthur was ordered to
Australia, where he started to plan for a
return to the Philippines.[12]
Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war
captured by the Japanese at Bataan
were forced to undertake the "Bataan
Death March" to a prison camp 105
kilometers to the north.[10] Thousands of
men, weakened by disease and
malnutrition and treated harshly by their
captors, died before reaching their
destination. More men died from
Japanese mistreatment in the first four
months in the camps than had died in
the four months of battle previously.[13]
The occupation

Warning for local residents to keep their premises sanitary or face punishment.
A 100-peso note made by the Japanese during the occupation.

Wikisource has original text related

to this article:
Proclamation of Military
Administration in the Philippines
(1942)

The Japanese military authorities

immediately began organizing a new
government structure in the Philippines.
Although the Japanese had promised
independence for the islands after
occupation, they initially organized a
Council of State through which they
directed civil affairs until October 1943,
when they declared the Philippines an
independent republic.[14] Most of the
Philippine elite, with a few notable
exceptions, served under the
Japanese.[15] The puppet republic was
headed by President José P. Laurel.[16]
Philippine collaboration in puppet
government began under Jorge B.
Vargas, who was originally appointed by
Quezon as the mayor of City of Greater
Manila before Quezon departed
Manila.[17] The only political party
allowed during the occupation was the
Japanese-organized KALIBAPI.[18]
During the occupation, most Filipinos
remained loyal to the United States,[19]
and war crimes committed by forces of
the Empire of Japan against
surrendered Allied forces[20] and
civilians were documented.[21]

Throughout the Philippines more than a

thousand Filipinos, composed of
mothers, girls, and gay men, some aged
10, were imprisoned, forcibly taken as
"comfort women", and kept in sexual
slavery for Japanese military personnel
during the occupation.[22][23][24][25]
Each of the Japanese military
installations in the Philippines during the
occupation had a location where the
women were held, which they called a
"comfort station".[26] One such place
where these women were imprisoned
was Bahay na Pula.[27]

Resistance

Japanese occupation of the Philippines

was opposed by active and successful
underground and guerrilla activity that
increased over the years and that
eventually covered a large portion of
the country. Opposing these guerrillas
were a Japanese-formed Bureau of
Constabulary (later taking the name of
the old Constabulary during the Second
Republic),[28][29] Kempeitai,[28] and the
Makapili.[30] Postwar investigations
showed that about 260,000 people
were in guerrilla organizations and that
members of the anti-Japanese
underground were even more
numerous. Such was their effectiveness
that by the end of the war, Japan
controlled only twelve of the forty-eight
provinces.[31]

The Philippine guerrilla movement

continued to grow, in spite of Japanese
campaigns against them. Throughout
Luzon and the southern islands,
Filipinos joined various groups and
vowed to fight the Japanese. The
commanders of these groups made
contact with one another, argued about
who was in charge of what territory,
and began to formulate plans to assist
the return of American forces to the
islands. They gathered important
intelligence information and smuggled it
out to the U.S. Army, a process that
sometimes took months. General
MacArthur formed a clandestine
operation to support the guerrillas. He
had Lieutenant Commander Charles
"Chick" Parsons smuggle guns, radios
and supplies to them by submarine. The
guerrilla forces, in turn, built up their
stashes of arms and explosives and
made plans to assist MacArthur's
invasion by sabotaging Japanese
communications lines and attacking
Japanese forces from the rear.[32]

Various guerrilla forces formed

throughout the archipelago, ranging
from groups of U.S. Armed Forces in
the Far East (USAFFE) forces who
refused to surrender to local militia
initially organized to combat banditry
brought about by disorder caused by
the invasion.[33] Several islands in the
Visayas region had guerrilla forces led
by Filipino officers, such as Colonel
Macario Peralta in Panay,[33][34] Major
Ismael Ingeniero in Bohol,[33][35] and
Captain Salvador Abcede in
Negros.[33][36]

The island of Mindanao, being farthest

from the center of Japanese
occupation, had 38,000 guerrillas who
were eventually consolidated under the
command of American civil engineer
Colonel Wendell Fertig.[33] Fertig's
guerrillas included many American and
Filipino troops who had been part of the
force on Mindanao under Major General
William F. Sharp. When Wainwright had
ordered Sharp's forces to surrender,
Sharp considered compelled to obey
this order. Many of the American and
Filipino officers refused to surrender,
since they reasoned that Wainwright,
now a prisoner who could be
considered under duress, had no
authority to issue orders to Sharp. For
several reasons it was unknown how
many did not surrender, although
probably around 100 to 200 Americans
ended up with Fertig's guerrillas. The
names of new Filipino recruits were
purposefully left off the lists of men to
be surrendered. In other cases,
documents were fabricated to report
fewer men than were actually under
Sharp. Other troops died for various
reasons after getting away and others
left Mindanao entirely.[37]

One resistance group in the Central

Luzon area was known as the
Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban
sa Hapon), or the People's Anti-
Japanese Army, organized in early 1942
under the leadership of Luis Taruc, a
communist party member since 1939.
The Huks armed some 30,000 people
and extended their control over portions
of Luzon.[38] However, guerrilla
activities on Luzon were hampered due
to the heavy Japanese presence and
infighting between the various
groups,[39] including Hukbalahap troops
attacking American-led guerrilla
units.[40][41]

Lack of equipment, difficult terrain and

undeveloped infrastructure made
coordination of these groups nearly
impossible, and for several months in
1942, all contact was lost with Philippine
resistance forces. Communications
were restored in November 1942 when
the reformed Philippine 61st Division on
Panay island, led by Colonel Macario
Peralta, was able to establish radio
contact with the USAFFE command in
Australia. This enabled the forwarding
of intelligence regarding Japanese
forces in the Philippines to SWPA
command, as well as consolidating the
once sporadic guerrilla activities and
allowing the guerrillas to help in the war
effort.[33]

Increasing amounts of supplies and

radios were delivered by submarine to
aid the guerrilla effort. By the time of
the Leyte invasion, four submarines
were dedicated exclusively to the
delivery of supplies.[33]

Other guerrilla units were attached to

the SWPA, and were active throughout
the archipelago. Some of these units
were organized or directly connected to
pre-surrender units ordered to mount
guerrilla actions. An example of this
was Troop C, 26th Cavalry.[42][43][44]
Other guerrilla units were made up of
former Philippine Army and Philippine
Scouts soldiers who had been released
from POW camps by the
Japanese.[45][46] Others were combined
units of Americans, military and civilian,
who had never surrendered or had
escaped after surrendering, and
Filipinos, Christians and Moros, who
had initially formed their own small
units. Colonel Wendell Fertig organized
such a group on Mindanao that not only
effectively resisted the Japanese, but
formed a complete government that
often operated in the open throughout
the island. Some guerrilla units would
later be assisted by American
submarines which delivered
supplies,[47] evacuate refugees and
injured,[48] as well as inserted
individuals and whole units,[49] such as
the 5217th Reconnaissance
Battalion,[50] and Alamo Scouts.[50]

By the end of the war, some 277

separate guerrilla units, made up of
some 260,715 individuals, fought in the
resistance movement.[51] Select units of
the resistance would go on to be
reorganized and equipped as units of
the Philippine Army and
Constabulary.[52]

End of the occupation

General Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to the Filipino soldiers and guerrillas in the presence of Generals
Jonathan Wainwright and Arthur Percival.

When General MacArthur returned to

the Philippines with his army in late
1944, he was well-supplied with
information; it is said that by the time
MacArthur returned, he knew what
every Japanese lieutenant ate for
breakfast and where he had his haircut.
But the return was not easy. The
Japanese Imperial General Staff
decided to make the Philippines their
final line of defense, and to stop the
American advance towards Japan.
They sent every available soldier,
airplane and naval vessel to the defense
of the Philippines. The kamikaze corps
was created specifically to defend the
Japanese occupation of the Philippines.
The Battle of Leyte Gulf ended in
disaster for the Japanese and was the
biggest naval battle of World War II. The
campaign to liberate the Philippines
was the bloodiest campaign of the
Pacific War. Intelligence information
gathered by the guerrillas averted a
disaster—they revealed the plans of
Japanese General Yamashita to trap
MacArthur's army, and they led the
liberating soldiers to the Japanese
fortifications.[32]

MacArthur's Allied forces landed on the

island of Leyte on 20 October 1944,
accompanied by Osmeña, who had
succeeded to the commonwealth
presidency upon the death of Quezon
on 1 August 1944. Landings then
followed on the island of Mindoro and
around Lingayen Gulf on the west side
of Luzon, and the push toward Manila
was initiated. The Commonwealth of
the Philippines was restored. Fighting
was fierce, particularly in the mountains
of northern Luzon, where Japanese
troops had retreated, and in Manila,
where they put up a last-ditch
resistance. The Philippine
Commonwealth troops and the
recognized guerrilla fighter units rose up
everywhere for the final offensive.[53]
Filipino guerrillas also played a large
role during the liberation. One guerrilla
unit came to substitute for a regularly
constituted American division, and other
guerrilla forces of battalion and
regimental size supplemented the
efforts of the U.S. Army units.
Moreover, the cooperative Filipino
population eased the problems of
supply, construction and civil
administration and furthermore eased
the task of Allied forces in recapturing
the country.[54][55]

Fighting continued until Japan's formal

surrender on 2 September 1945. The
Philippines had suffered great loss of
life and tremendous physical
destruction by the time the war was
over. An estimated 527,000 Filipinos,
both military and civilians, had been
killed from all causes; of these between
131,000 and 164,000 were killed in
seventy-two war crime events.[56][2]
According to a United States analysis
released years after the war, U.S.
casualties were 10,380 dead and
36,550 wounded; Japanese dead were
255,795. Filipino deaths during the
occupations, on the other hand, are
estimated to be more be around
527,000 (27,000 military dead, 141,000
massacred, 22,500 forced labor deaths
and 336,500 deaths due war related
famine).[2] The Philippine population
decreased continuously for the next five
years due to the spread of diseases and
the lack of basic needs, far from the
Filipino lifestyle prior to the war when
the country had been the second
richest in Asia after Japan.[56]

See also
Emergency circulating notes
Escape to the Hills
Heritage Towns and Cities of the
Philippines
Hunters ROTC
 Japanese government-issued
Philippine fiat peso
Military history of the Philippines
during World War II
Santo Tomas Internment Camp
Second Philippine Republic

References
This article incorporates public
domain text (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cg
i-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID
+ph0033)) from the Library of
Congress July 1994, Retrieved on 11
November 2008
1. "The Philippines Campaign 20 October
 1944 – 15 August 1945 – World War II
Multimedia Database" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20110515005123/http://w
ww.worldwar2database.com/html/phili
p44.htm) . Archived from the original (h
ttp://www.worldwar2database.com/ht
ml/philip44.htm) on 15 May 2011.
Retrieved 22 April 2011.
2. Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World
War Two, 1931–1945 Transaction 2007
ISBN 978-0-7658-0352-8 p. 143-144
3. MacArthur General Staff (1994). "The
Japanese Offensive in the Philippines"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090212
181053/http://www.history.army.mil/bo
oks/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacA
rthur%20V1/index.htm#contents) .
Report of General MacArthur: The
Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific
Volume I (http://www.history.army.mil/
books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/Ma
cArthur%20V1/index.htm#contents) .
GEN Harold Keith Johnson, BG Harold
Nelson, Douglas MacArthur. United
States Army. p. 6. LCCN 66-60005 (htt
ps://lccn.loc.gov/66-60005) . Archived
from the original (http://www.history.ar
my.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Rep
orts/MacArthur%20V1/ch01.htm) on 12
February 2009. Retrieved 24 March
2013.
4. Astor, Gerald (2009). Crisis in the
Pacific: The Battles for the Philippine
Islands by the Men Who Fought Them
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Z
vQIQNSulLoC&q=aerial%20bombardm
ent%20of%20Philippines&pg=PA52) .
Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 52–
240. ISBN 978-0-307-56565-5.
Retrieved 24 March 2013.
"Japanese Landings in the Philippines"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140319
073222/http://philippine-defenders.lib.
wv.us/pdf/jackfert/philippine_defense_
part_five.pdf) (PDF). ADBC (American
Defenders of Bataan and Corregidor)
Museum. Morgantown Public Library
System. Archived from the original (htt
 p://philippine-defenders.lib.wv.us/pdf/j
ackfert/philippine_defense_part_five.p
df) (PDF) on 19 March 2014. Retrieved
24 March 2013.
5. "Douglas MacArthur" (http://www.histor
y.com/topics/douglas-macarthur) .
History.com. A&E Television Networks,
LLC. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
6. Morton, Louis. "The First Days of War"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20120108
061554/http://www.history.army.mil/bo
oks/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.htm) . In
Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall
of the Philippines (http://www.history.ar
my.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.h
tm) . United States Army in World War
II. Orlando Ward. Washington, D.C.:
United States Army. pp. 77–97.
LCCN 53-63678 (https://lccn.loc.gov/5
3-63678) . Archived from the original (h
ttp://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/
5-2/5-2_5.htm) on 8 January 2012.
Retrieved 24 March 2013.
7. Morton, Louis (1960). "The Decision To
Withdraw to Bataan" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20071230145455/http://ww
w.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.ht
m) . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.).
Command Decisions (http://www.histor
y.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm) .
Washington, D.C.: United States Army.
pp. 151–172. LCCN 59-60007 (https://l
ccn.loc.gov/59-60007) . Archived from
the original (http://www.history.army.mi
l/books/70-7_06.htm) on 30
December 2007. Retrieved 24 March
2013.
8. "Manila an Open City" (http://nla.gov.a
u/nla.news-article59163276) . Sunday
Times. 28 December 1941. Retrieved
25 March 2013.
9. "Manila Occupied by Japanese Forces"
(http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17781
735) . Sunday Morning Herald. 3
January 1942. Retrieved 24 March
2013.
"Timeline: World War II in the
Philippines" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20130224003848/http://www.pbs.or
g/wgbh/amex/bataan/timeline/index.ht
ml) . American Experience. WGBH.
1999. Archived from the original (http
s://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/ti
meline/index.html) on 24 February
2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Kintanar, Thelma B.; Aquino, Clemen C.
(2006). Kuwentong Bayan: Noong
Panahon Ng Hapon : Everyday Life in a
Time of War (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=RdIql-o4BLQC&q=Japan+
occupies+manila+2+january&pg=PA56
4) . UP Press. p. 564. ISBN 978-971-
542-498-1. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
10. "Philippines Map" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20131226042931/http://www.p
bs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/sfeature/sf_
map.html) . American Experience.
WGBH. 1999. Archived from the original
(https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bata
an/sfeature/sf_map.html) on 26
December 2013. Retrieved 24 March
2013.
Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). U.S. Marine
Corps World War II Order of Battle:
Ground and Air Units in the Pacific War,
1939–1945 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=y56Dut69s5UC&q=United+St
ates+surrender+Bataan+Corregidor&pg
=PA268) . Gale virtual reference library.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 268.
ISBN 978-0-313-31906-8. Retrieved
24 March 2013.
11. Hunt, Ray C.; Norling, Bernard (2000).
Behind Japanese Lines: An American
Guerilla in the Philippines (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Mw-x-nUmU
MYC&q=motivations%20collaboratio
n%20Japanese%20Philippines&pg=PA
140) . University Press of Kentucky.
pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-8131-2755-
2. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Rogers, Paul P. (1990). The Good Years:
MacArthur and Sutherland (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=6momVGyl16U
C&q=MacArthur+Quezon+evacuated&
pg=PA160) . Greenwood Publishing
Group. pp. 160–169. ISBN 978-0-275-
92918-3. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
12. Rogers, Paul P. (1990). The Good Years:
MacArthur and Sutherland (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=6momVGyl16U
C&q=MacArthur+Quezon+evacuated&
pg=PA184) . Greenwood Publishing
Group. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-275-92918-
3. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
"President Roosevelt to MacArthur: Get
out of the Philippines" (http://www.histo
ry.com/this-day-in-history/president-r
oosevelt-to-macarthur-get-out-of-the
-philippines) . History.com. A&E
Television Networks, LLC. Retrieved
24 March 2013.
Bennett, William J. (2007). America:
The Last Best Hope, Volume 1: From the
Age of Discovery to a World at War,
1492–1914 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=PLP5U-M8dhoC&q=MacArth
ur+ordered+evacuated+roosevelt&pg=
PA198) . Thomas Nelson Inc. p. 198.
ISBN 978-1-59555-111-5. Retrieved
24 March 2013.
13. "The Bataan Death March" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20130331090851/htt
p://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/
history/bataan.html) . Asian Pacific
Americans in the United States Army.
United States Army. Archived from the
original (http://www.army.mil/asianpaci
ficsoldiers/history/bataan.html) on 31
March 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
"Bataan Death March" (http://www.hist
ory.com/topics/bataan-death-march) .
History.com. A&E Television Networks,
LLC. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Dyess, William E. (1944). Bataan Death
March: A Survivor's Account (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=_sy0rUBOE
8YC&q=Bataan+Death+march+ten+tho
usand&pg=PR12) . University of
Nebraska Press. p. xxi. ISBN 978-0-
8032-6656-8. Retrieved 24 March
2013.
"New Mexico National Guard's
involvement in the Bataan Death
March" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0201211041441/https://www.army.mil/a
sianpacificsoldiers/history/bataan.htm
l) . Bataan Memorial Museum
Foundation, Inc. 2012. Archived from
the original (http://www.bataanmuseu
m.com/bataanhistory/) on 11
December 2020. Retrieved 23 March
2013.
14. Guillermo, Artemio R. (2012). Historical
Dictionary of the Philippines (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_y
ETIC&q=Japanese+occupation+Philippi
nes+Council+of+State&pg=PA211) .
Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania,
and the Middle East Series. Scarecrow
Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-8108-7246-
2. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
15. Schirmer, Daniel B.; Shalom, Stephen
Rosskamm, eds. (1897). "War
Collaboration and Resistance" (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWc
sEEC&q=Japanese+collaboration+Phili
ppines+1941&pg=PA69) . The
Philippines Reader: A History of
Colonialism, Neocolonialism,
Dictatorship, and Resistance (https://ar
chive.org/details/philippinesreade00sc
hi/page/69) . International Studies.
South End Press. p. 69 (https://archive.
org/details/philippinesreade00schi/pag
e/69) . ISBN 978-0-89608-275-5.
Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Ooi, Keat Gin, ed. (2004). Southeast
Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from
Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=QKgr
aWbb7yoC&q=Japanese+collaboration
+Philippines+1941&pg=PA368) . ABC-
CLIO. pp. 368–369. ISBN 978-1-
57607-770-2. Retrieved 23 March
2013.
Riedinger, Jeffrey M. (1995). Agrarian
Reform in the Philippines: Democratic
Transitions and Redistributive Reform (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=Flas
RfravpEC&q=Japanese+collaboration+
Philippines+elites&pg=PA22) . Stanford
University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-
8047-2530-9. Retrieved 23 March
2013.
16. Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna
J. (2005). State And Society in the
Philippines (https://books.google.com/
books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&q=Jose%20
Laurel%20President%20Second%20re
public%20Japan&pg=PA159) . State
and Society in East Asia Series.
Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 159–160.
ISBN 978-0-7425-1024-1. Retrieved
23 March 2013.
17. Pomeroy, William J. (1992). The
Philippines: Colonialism, Collaboration,
and Resistance (https://archive.org/det
ails/philippinescolon00pome) .
International Publishers Co. pp. 116 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/philippinescolo
n00pome/page/116) –118. ISBN 978-
0-7178-0692-8. Retrieved 23 March
2013. "motivations collaboration
Japanese Philippines."
18. Hunt, Ray C.; Norling, Bernard (2000).
Behind Japanese Lines: An American
Guerilla in the Philippines (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Mw-x-nUmU
MYC&q=motivations%20collaboratio
n%20Japanese%20Philippines&pg=PA
142) . University Press of Kentucky.
p. 142. ISBN 978-0-8131-2755-2.
Retrieved 23 March 2013.
19. Cyr, Arthur I.; Tucker, Spencer (2012).
"Collaboration" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=Cz8yiLUswTkC&q=motiv
ations%20collaboration%20Japanese%
20Philippines&pg=PA52) . In Roberts,
Priscilla (ed.). World War II: The
Essential Reference Guide. ABC-CLIO.
p. 52. ISBN 978-1-61069-101-7.
Retrieved 23 March 2013.
20. "People & Events: Japanese Atrocities
in the Philippines" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20030727223501/http://www.
pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/peopleeve
nts/e_atrocities.html) . WGBH. PBS.
2003. Archived from the original (http
s://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/p
eopleevents/e_atrocities.html) on 27
July 2003. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
21. Dexter, Frank (3 April 1945). "Appalling
Stories of Jap Atrocities" (http://nla.go
v.au/nla.news-article1106216?searchTe
rm=&searchLimits=l-publictag=Japane
se+Atrocities) . The Argus. Retrieved
30 June 2011.
AAP (24 March 1945). "Japs Murdered
Spaniards in Manila" (http://nla.gov.au/
nla.news-article1110279?searchTerm=&
searchLimits=l-publictag=Japanese+At
rocities) . The Argus. Retrieved 30 June
2011.
Gordon L. Rottman (2002). World War
2 Pacific Island Guide (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg
=PA318) . Greenwood Publishing
Group. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-
0. "War crime trail affidavits list 131,028
Filipino civilians murdered in seventy-
two large-scale massacres and remote
incidents."
Werner Gruhl (31 December 2011).
Imperial Japan's World War Two:
1931–1945 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=zNN6M97vYMEC&pg=PA9
3) . Transaction Publishers. p. 93.
ISBN 978-1-4128-0926-9.
22. "Philippine Survivor Recounts Her
Struggle As A 'Comfort Woman' For
Wartime Japan" (https://www.npr.org/2
020/11/29/939811000/philippine-survivo
r-recounts-her-struggle-as-a-comfort
-woman-for-wartime-japan) .
NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved 15 August
2021.
23. The Other Empire: Literary Views of
Japan from the Philippines, Singapore,
and Malaysia (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=9IsBB-RVTlQC&dq=comfo
rt+gay+philippines+japan&pg=PR9) .
The University of the Philippines Press.
2008. ISBN 9789715425629. Retrieved
15 August 2021.
24. "The mystery of the missing comfort
woman statue" (https://verafiles.org/art
icles/mystery-missing-comfort-woman
-statue) . Vera Files. 27 August 2019.
Retrieved 15 August 2021.
25. Mosbergen, Dominique (29 August
2017). "Harrowing Story Of Filipina
Women Enslaved In Japan's Wartime
Rape Camps" (https://www.huffingtonp
ost.com/entry/comfort-women-philippi
nes-m-evelina-galang_us_57232d48e
4b0f309baf08490) . Huffington Post.
New York, New York. Retrieved
30 March 2018.
"Filipino 'comfort women' survivors
stage rally in Manila" (http://news.abs-
cbn.com/nation/metro-manila/11/20/1
5/filipino-comfort-women-survivors-st
age-rally-in-manila) . ABS CBN News.
Kyodo News. 20 November 2015.
Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Whaley, Floyd (29 January 2016). "In
 Philippines, World War II's Lesser-
Known Sex Slaves Speak Out" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2016/01/30/world/a
sia/japan-philippines-comfort-women-
emperor-akihito.html) . The New York
Times. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
26. Yap, DJ (29 January 2016). "PH comfort
women remember the horror" (http://ne
wsinfo.inquirer.net/759813/ph-comfort
-women-remember-the-horror) .
Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved
30 March 2018.
27. McMullen, Jane (17 June 2016). "The
house where the Philippines' forgotten
'comfort women' were held" (https://w
ww.bbc.com/news/magazine-3653760
5) . BBC Our World. BBC News.
Retrieved 30 March 2018.
28. "The Guerrilla War" (https://www.pbs.or
g/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bata
an_guerrilla.html) . American
Experience. PBS. Retrieved
24 February 2011.
29. Jubair, Salah. "The Japanese Invasion"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100727
232925/http://www.maranao.com/ban
gsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm) .
Maranao.Com. Archived from the
original (http://www.maranao.com/ban
gsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm)
on 27 July 2010. Retrieved 23 February
2011.
30. "Have a bolo will travel" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20110707174030/http://a
sianjournalusa.com/have-a-bolo-will-t
ravel-p7008-80.htm) . Asian Journal.
Archived from the original (http://asianj
ournalusa.com/have-a-bolo-will-travel
-p7008-80.htm) on 7 July 2011.
Retrieved 24 February 2011.
31. Caraccilo, Dominic J. (2005). Surviving
Bataan And Beyond: Colonel Irvin
Alexander's Odyssey As A Japanese
Prisoner Of War (https://books.google.
com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFmQC) .
Stackpole Books. pp. 287 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFm
QC&pg=PA287) . ISBN 978-0-8117-
3248-2.
32. Schaefer, Chris. "War in the Pacific" (htt
p://www.bataandiary.com/Introducing.
htm) . Bataan Diary. Riverview
Publishing.
33. "10" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016
0131040027/http://www.history.army.m
il/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/ma
carthur%20v1/ch10.htm) . Guerrilla
Activities in the Philippines. Reports of
General MacArthur. Archived from the
original (http://www.history.army.mil/bo
oks/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macart
hur%20v1/ch10.htm) on 31 January
2016. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
34. "General Macario Peralta, Jr" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20110517184211/htt
p://www.uprotc.org/alumni/general-m
acario-peralta-jr.html) . University of
the Philippines – Reserve Officers'
Training Corps. Archived from the
original (http://www.uprotc.org/alumni/
general-macario-peralta-jr.html) on 17
May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
35. Villanueva, Rudy; Renato E. Madrid
(2003). The Vicente Rama reader: an
introduction for modern readers (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=efazA
auJT9gC&q=Ismael+Ingeniero) .
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press. p. 140. ISBN 971-550-
441-8. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
36. Bradsher, Greg (2005). "The "Z Plan"
Story: Japan's 1944 Naval Battle
Strategy Drifts into U.S. Hands, Part 2"
(https://www.archives.gov/publication
s/prologue/2005/fall/z-plan-2.html) .
Prologue Magazine. The U.S. National
Archives and Records Administration.
37 (3). Retrieved 4 February 2011.
37. Schmidt, Larry S. (20 May 1982).
American Involvement In The Filipino
Resistance Movement On Mindanao
During The Japanese Occupation,
1942-1945 (http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/f
ulltext/u2/b068659.pdf) (PDF) (Master
of Military Art and Science). United
States Army Command and General
Staff College. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20161110110621/http://ww
w.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.p
df) (PDF) from the original on 10
November 2016. Retrieved 30 March
2018.
38. Dolan, Ronald E (1993). "World War II,
1941–45" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-b
in/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0
033)) . Philippines : a country study (htt
ps://archive.org/details/philippinescoun
t00dola) (4th ed.). Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-
8444-0748-8.
39. Schaefer, Chris (2004). Bataan Diary (ht
tps://archive.org/details/bataandiary00
chri/page/434) . Riverview Publishing.
p. 434 (https://archive.org/details/bata
andiary00chri/page/434) . ISBN 0-
9761084-0-2.
40. Houlahan, J. Michael (27 July 2005).
"Book Review" (http://www.bataandiar
y.com/reviewscouts.htm) . Philippine
Scouts Heritage Society. Retrieved
25 January 2011.
41. Valeriano, Napoleon D.; Charles T. R.
Bohannan (2006). Counter-guerrilla
operations: the Philippine experience (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=zgr
Eos2CGoEC&q=Guerilla%20Philippin
e%20liberation%20fighting&pg=PA10
3) . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood
Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-
275-99265-1. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
42. "Map of known insurgent activity" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20200603023
221/https://history.army.mil/books/wwi
i/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%2
0V1/Images/p_084.jpg) . Archived from
the original (http://www.history.army.mi
l/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/ma
carthur%20v1/Images/p_084.jpg) on 3
June 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
43. Norling, Bernard (2005). The Intrepid
Guerrillas of North Luzon (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=xL-JoQYiwyk
C) . University Press of Kentucky.
p. 284. ISBN 9780813191348. Retrieved
21 May 2009.
44. "The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100323
170920/http://www.defencejournal.co
m/2002/june/guerrillas.htm) . Defense
Journal. 2002. Archived from the
original (http://www.defencejournal.co
m/2002/june/guerrillas.htm) on 23
March 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
45. "Last of cavalrymen a true hero" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/200809161740
00/http://www.oldgoldandblack.com/o
_article/last_of_cavalrymen_a_true_her
o/) . Old Gold & Black. Wake Forest
University. 6 March 2003. Archived
from the original (http://www.oldgoldan
dblack.com/o_article/last_of_cavalrym
en_a_true_hero/) on 16 September
2008. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
46. "US-Japan Dialogue on POWs" (http://
www.us-japandialogueonpows.org/Cal
ugas.htm) . www.us-
japandialogueonpows.org.
47. Hogan, David W. Jr. (1992). U.S. Army
Special Operations in World War II (http
s://web.archive.org/web/201109070306
09/http://www.history.army.mil/books/
wwii/70-42/70-424.html) .
Washington, D.C.: Department of the
Army. p. 81. Archived from the original
(http://www.history.army.mil/books/ww
ii/70-42/70-424.html) on 7 September
2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
48. Roscoe, Theodore; Richard G. Voge,
United States Bureau of Naval
Personnel (1949). United States
submarine operations in World War II (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=5lTI
_dF4jocC&q=evacuated+injured+subm
arines+world+war+II+philippines) .
Naval Institute Press. p. 577. ISBN 0-
87021-731-3. Retrieved 25 January
2011.
49. Holian, Thomas (2004). "Saviors and
Suppliers: World War II Submarine
Special Operations in the Philippines" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/201106290
63534/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/c
no/n87/usw/issue_23/saviors.htm) .
Undersea Warfare. United States Navy.
Summer (23). Archived from the
original (http://www.navy.mil/navydata/
cno/n87/usw/issue_23/saviors.htm)
on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 25 January
2011.
50. Rottman, Gordon L. (2005). US Special
Warfare Units in the Pacific Theater
1941–45 (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=sMnCNdLO888C&q=Alamo+Sc
outs&pg=PA45) . Osprey Publishing.
pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-1-84176-707-9.
Retrieved 3 December 2009.
51. Schmidt, Larry S. (1982). American
Involvement in the Filipino Resistance
Movement on Mindanao During the
Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945 (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2011111120393
2/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDo
c?AD=ADB068659%26amp;Location=U
2%26amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf) (PDF)
(Master of Military Art and Science
thesis). U.S. Army Command and
General Staff College. Archived from
the original (http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bi
n/GetTRDoc?AD=ADB068659%26amp;
Location=U2%26amp;doc=GetTRDoc.p
df) (PDF) on 11 November 2011.
Retrieved 5 August 2011.
52. Rottman, Godron L. (2002). World War
2 Pacific island guide (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&q=
guerrilla%20Philippine%20liberation%2
0fighting%20Japanese&pg=PA318) .
Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood
Publishing Group. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-
313-31395-0. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
53. Chambers, John Whiteclay; Fred
Anderson (1999). The Oxford
companion to American military history
(https://archive.org/details/oxfordcomp
aniont00cham) . New York City: Oxford
University Press US. p. 547 (https://arc
hive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00ch
am/page/547) . ISBN 978-0-19-
507198-6. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
"guerrilla Philippine liberation fighting
Japanese."
54. http://www.history.army.mil/books/am
h/AMH-23.htm Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20140221173828/htt
p://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH/
AMH-23.htm) 21 February 2014 at the
Wayback Machine World War II: The
war against Japan by Robert W.
Coakley. The Philippines Campaign
55. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bata
an/peopleevents/p_filipinos.html
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20200823010139/https://www.pbs.org/
wgbh/americanexperience/bataan/peo
pleevents/p_filipinos.html//) 23 August
2020 at the Wayback Machine Bataan
Rescue. Filipinos and the war
56. Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War
2 Pacific island guide (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&q=
Killed%20philippines%20world%20wa
r%20II&pg=PA318) . Greenwood
Publishing Group. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-
313-31395-0. Retrieved 9 January
2012.

Further reading
Agoncillo Teodoro A. The Fateful
Years: Japan's Adventure in the
Philippines, 1941–1945. Quezon City,
PI: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., 1965. 2
vols
Hartendorp A. V. H. The Japanese
Occupation of the Philippines. Manila:
Bookmark, 1967. 2 vols.
Lear, Elmer. The Japanese
Occupation of the Philippines: Leyte,
1941–1945. Southeast Asia Program,
Department of Far Eastern Studies,
Cornell University, 1961. 246p.
emphasis on social history
Steinberg, David J. Philippine
Collaboration in World War II.
University of Michigan Press, 1967.
235p.
Hernando J. Abaya (1946). Betrayal in
the Philippines (https://books.google.
 com/books?id=3WtCAAAAIAAJ) .
A.A. Wyn, Incorporated.

Primary sources

Ephraim, Frank (2003). Escape to

Manila: From Nazi Tyranny to
Japanese Terror (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=Jdo9V9Y1ofcC&q=J
apan+occupies+manila) . University
of Illinois Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-
252-02845-8.

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines
&oldid=1141227345"
This page was last edited on 24 February 2023,
at 00:42 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.