Fluid Mechanics

Unit – I
Prof. V.K. Haribhakta

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering, Pune
 Course Contents
Course Outcome:
• Understand and apply the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.

• Derive analytical solutions to variety of simplified problems.

• Solve problems involving fluid properties: Static and kinematic.

• Derive and apply the governing equations of Fluid Dynamics.

• Apply energy equations for various Fluid systems and measuring devices.

• Apply and understand various dimensionless numbers for problems in fluid

mechanics.
 Course Contents

 Unit 1
Basics with Fluid statics:
• Definition of fluid, fluid properties such as viscosity, vapor pressure,
compressibility, surface tension, capillarity, Mach number etc,
pressure at a point in the static mass of fluid, variation of pressure,
Pascal’s law, pressure measurement by simple and differential
manometers using manometric expression.
• Hydrostatic forces on the plane and curved surfaces, centre of
pressure, Buoyancy, centre of buoyancy, stability of floating bodies,
metacentre and metacentric height and its application in shipping
 Course contents
Unit 2
Fluid Kinematics: Velocity of fluid particle, types of fluid flow,
description of flow, continuity equation, acceleration of fluid
particle, rotational & irrotational flow, path line, stream line and
streak line Laplace’s equation in velocity potential and Poisson’s
equation in stream function, flow net, Vorticity and Circulation
Unit 3
Governing equations in Fluid Dynamics :
Derivation of Momentum equations using differential approach
(Cartesian, polar and cylindrical coordinates), Reynolds transport
theorm, Integration of Euler’s equation to obtain Bernoulli’s
equation, Bernoulli’s theorem, Application of Bernoulli’s theorem
such as Venturimeter, Orificemeter, pitot tube ( static , dynamic
and stagnation pressure) and orifices etc. Introduction to
Navier_Stokes Equation
 Course contents
Unit 4
Flow through pipes:
Reynolds’s experiment, frictional loss in pipe flow, major and minor
losses, HGL and TEL, flow through series and parallel pipes,
Equivalent Pipe, Loss of head due to friction in a pipe with side
tappings, siphon, Power Transmission, Pipe networks . Moody’s
Diagram.
 Unit 5
• Introduction to boundary layer: Thickness, over a plate,
Equations of boundary layer, Laminar and turbulent boundary
layer, introduction to flow separation of layer, and methods for
control. Introduction to Forces on Submerged bodies: Drag, lift,
Drag on cylinder, Development of lift in Cylinder.
• Dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh’s method, Buckingham’s
theorem. Similitude and Model analysis: similarity laws and
dimensionless numbers.
 Course contents
 Unit 6
• Laminar flow:
Hagen-Poiseuillie equation, flow through parallel
plates, Couette flow.
• Turbulent flow:
Development in pipes, Velocity distribution in pipes,
hydrodynamic smooth and rough pipe.
 BOOKS
 Text Books:
• Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines, Dr. P. N.
Modi and Dr. S. M. Seth, Standard Book House .
• Text book of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machine, Dr R K Bansal,
Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
• Fluid Mechanics – Fundamentals and application. Yunus Cengel and
John Cimbala .
• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines. S K Som, Gautam
Biswas and Suman Charaborty. Mc Graw Hill Publication
 Reference Books
• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics . Fox R W, Pritchard P J, A T Mc
Donald. John Wiley and Sons Publication.
• Fluid Mechanics, Frank M. White. McGraw Hill Publications.
• Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Prof K L Kumar, Chand Publication.
• Fluid Mechanics, P. K. Kundu , I. M. Kohen and David Dowling Fifth
Edition Elsevier Publication.
 Evaluation Scheme
 10% weight age Marks are allocated for
participation in the sessions in terms of
attendance and interaction.
 Proctored End Semester Examination: 50%
weightage marks.
 40% Daily/ Weekly assignment /evaluation/
online examination/ surprise test/.
 Online attendance.

Write me to – [email protected] for any help , by quoting your

MIS number
 Fluid Mechanics - Introduction
Solid Fluids
• Molecules are Liquid Gases
closely packed
• Molecular spacing • Forces of attraction
• Can resists more than solid but are much less & hence
tensile, sufficient to keep in great freedom
compressive and definite volume
shear forces up to
certain limit
Fluids have no tensile strength OR very little of
it and it can resists compressive forces only
when it is kept is a container. When subjected
to shear force fluid deforms continuously as
long the force is applied

 The inability of fluid to resists the shearing stresses gives them

a characteristics property to change the shape of flow
 Introduction … Cont
• Concept of Continuum.
• Implies that variation of properties within the
medium is smooth , so that the differential calculus
can be used to analyze the averaged physical
behaviors of individual molecules.
• Mean free path. Characteristic length.
• Knudsen Number.( Kn = λ/L).
 Introduction
Fluid :
• A substance that deforms continuously when
acted by shearing stress of any size’.
Because a fluid cannot resist the deformation
force, it moves, it flows under the action of the
force. Its shape will change continuously as long
as the force is applied.
• Deformation will stop as soon as Force ceases.
• Practical purpose generally Incompressible.
Contd:
• Solids: It also deforms when sheared, but a
position of equilibrium is soon reached in
which elastic forces induced by the
deformation of the solid exactly counterbalance
the applied shear force, and further
deformation ceases.
• Liquid: A given mass of liquid occupies a given
volume and will occupy the container it is in
and form a free surface (if the container is of
a larger volume).
Cont..
Gas: No Definite volume
Sensitive to temperature and Pressure.
Practical Purpose generally
Compressible.
FLUID CLASSIFICATION
Ideal Fluids: Imaginary.
Close to Ideal.
No Viscosity, No Surface tension
and incompressible.
Real Fluids: Possess all above.
Some Resistance.
 What is Fluid Mechanics
Branch of science which deals with the behavior of
fluid at rest as well as in motion and Includes study of
both liquids and gases
Gases are mostly studied as a part of Thermodynamics
and Fluid Mechanics mostly caters to liquids
Scope involves – water supply, irrigation, navigation,
power plants, piping engineering, bio-engineering,
hydro machinery………
With advent of Computational Techniques for solving
flow problems (CFD) significance of fundamental
understanding of fluid mechanics has increased.
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Kinematics Fluid Dynamics

Study of fluid in Study of fluid in
Fluid Statics
motion without motion with the
Study of fluid at rest
consideration of consideration of
forces forces
 Properties of Fluid
1. Mass density: (ρ)
ρ = mass per unit volume
ρ =mass of fluid /volume of fluid (kg/m3)
1000 kg/m3 for water
2. Specific Weight:
ω (ϒ)= weight per unit volume
ω = ρ g (N/m3) 9810 N/m3 for water
3. Specific gravity : (S)(σ )= ratio of mass density to a
standard mass density
(can also be specific weight )
σ = ρ substance / ρ H2 O (at 4 C)
0
 Examples

@200

Other properties:
Viscosity, Surface tension, Capillarity , Vapor pressure,
Compressibility
 Viscosity – The most important property

 Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of

which it offers resistance to the flow of one
layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.

 It is primarily due to cohesion and molecular

momentum exchange between fluid layers and
as the flow occurs, these effects appear as
shearing stresses between the moving layers of
fluid
•The velocity u of the fluid is found experimentally to vary
linearly from zero at the lower plate (y = 0) to V itself at the
upper plate.
•At any intermediate distance y from the lower plate, the
velocity is simply
• u = (y/Y) V
Shear Stress
No SLIP CONDITION
V τ= F/A
Moving Plate
F

dy Shear stress is
Y
du proportional to
y
velocity gradient. ie
τ α (du/dy).
Fixed Plate
 Deformation Rate =lim δθ/ δt
Shear Stress
δt 0
τ= Lim δF/δA δl = δu δt Also,
δA 0 δl = δy δθ for small angles
= dF/dA Therefore ,
Shear Stress α
δθ/ δt= δu/ δy OR,
dθ/ dt= du/ dy deformation rate
No SLIP CONDITION i.e τ α du/ dy
δl
Moving Plate
P F
M M’ P’
δθ
δY Finite Element
y after t+δt
N O
δX
Fixed Plate
 Viscosity – The most important property

F dv
   Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
A dy

 = shear stress μ = Coefficient of viscosity or viscosity or

absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity
Thus


dv / dy
Mathematically, viscosity is defined as the shear stress required to produce
unit rate of angular deformation
SI unit is N.s/m2 1 N.s/m2 = 10 poise

1 Poise = dyne-sec/cm2
 Kinematic Viscosity

  = the Kinematic viscosity

 ρ = mass density

SI unit is m2/s 1 m2/s = 104 Stokes

1 Stoke = cm2/s
 Its independent of pressure in the range normally encountered
in practice
 A quantity in which no force is involved
 Does highly viscous fluid means thick fluid or less viscous oil
as thin??????
 Changes substantially with temperature – for liquid it
decreases with temperature and for gases it increases with it.
 Kinematic Viscosity

For Liquids :
Kinematic and dynamic viscosity are dependent on
temperature . For pressure……operating range.
For gases :
Only for high pressure… Dynamic viscosity.
Kinematic Viscosity changes with respect to Pressure….

 
 
 dv / dy
Effect of pressure and temperature on Viscosity

• Kinematic viscosity is sometimes called the diffusivity

of momentum, due to the fact that it has the same unit
when compared to the diffusivity of mass and
diffusivity of heat.
• v = μ/ρ. Higher the v, more momentum diffusivity.
• Thus, a fluid with a higher μ has higher momentum
diffusivity. If μ = 0, no momentum diffusivity occurs.
• If ρ is low (e.g. a gas at high T), then also momentum
diffusivity is high since the molecules have larger mean
free path and thus affect the velocity of fellow molecules
more often, so more momentum diffusivity.
Effect of pressure and temperature on Viscosity

For liquids -
decreases with
temperature

For gases -
increases with
increase in the
temperature.

Viscosity is independent of pressure in the range normally

encountered in practice
Effect of temperature on the viscosity of air
Typical values coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ:
•Water =1.14 *10-3 kgm-1 s-1 ,
• Air =1.78 *10-5 kgm-1 s-1 ,
•Mercury =1.552 kgm-1 s-1 ,
•Paraffin Oil =1.9 kgm-1 s-1 .

Typical values of kinematic viscosity ν:

•Water =1.14 * 10-6 m2 s-1 ,
•Air =1.46 *10-5 m2 s-1 ,
•Mercury =1.145 *10-4 m2 s-1 ,
•Paraffin Oil =2.375 *10-3 m2 s-1 .
 Types of Fluids
Newtonian Fluids – follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity e. g. water, air, glycerin,
kerosene etc.
The relation between magnitude of shear stress and resulting rate of deformation
is linear.
Non-Newtonian Fluids – Non-linear relation between magnitude of shear stress and
resulting rate of deformation
 Ideal Fluid – zero viscosity – horizontal axis
 Plastics – Non-Newtonian substance
which needs an initial yield stress to
cause a continuous deformation
 Thixotropic substance- Non-
Newtonian which has non-linear
relation between shear stress and rate
of deformation beyond initial yield
stress (printers ink).
Elastic body – Represented by vertical
axis .

For the nonlinear curves, the slope at any point is called the
apparent viscosity.

Viscoelastic: Partially return to its original shape.

Dilatants , Shear thickening Fluids increasing its resistance

with increasing strain rate. Examples are suspensions of corn
starch or sand in water.
 Pseudo plastic , shear thinning fluids -----apparent viscosity
decreases with increase in deformation ---- polymer solution ,
paper pulp solution in water.

Bingham Plastic: Fluid which behaves like solid until minimum

yield stress and then linear . But nonlinear flow can also occur. E.g
are clay suspensions, drilling mud, toothpaste, mayonnaise,
chocolate, and mustard.
 Surface Tension
 Consider the liquid at rest
 The inner molecule is equally
attracted on all sides and hence is in
equilibrium
 The molecules near the
surface experience a tensile force.
Inter molecular forces near a liquid surface

At the interface between a liquid and a gas or two immiscible

liquids, forces develop forming an analogous “skin” or
“membrane” stretched over the fluid mass which can support
weight.
The property of the liquid surface to exert a tension is called
surface tension
It is the force required to maintain the unit length of film under
equilibrium
This membrane can be “broken” with a surfactant which reduces
the surface tension.
 Surface Tension

SI unit is N/m and its magnitude depends on the fluid

in contact with liquid;
also depends on temperature; decreases with rise in
temperature
Water and air – 0.075 N/m at 19°C and 0.06 N/m at
100°C
Mercury and air – 0.504 N/m at room temp
 Surface Tension
Surface Tension: Liquid Drop
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram:
Real Fluid Drops Mathematical Model

R is the radius of the droplet, s is the surface tension, Dp is the pressure

difference between the inside and outside pressure.
The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along the line:
F  2Rs
surface
Applied to Circumference

This force is balanced by the pressure difference Dp:

Applied to Area
Fpressure  DpR 2
 Surface Tension
Surface Tension: Liquid Drop
Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the
Pressure Force, we can estimate Dp = pi – pe:
2s
Dp 
R
This indicates that the internal pressure in the droplet
is greater that the external pressure since the right
hand side is entirely positive.
Surface tension as Temp Liquids.

Pressure negligible effect…

 Surface Tension
Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to
 behave like a stretched elastic membrane.
There is a natural tendency for liquids to minimize their
surface area.
The obvious case is that of a liquid droplet on a horizontal
surface that is not wetted by the liquid—mercury on glass, or
water on a surface that also has a thin oil film on it.
For small droplets, such as those on the left of Fig. the
droplet adopts a shape that is almost perfectly spherical,
because in this configuration there is the least surface area for
a given volume.
 as mass is added ………will break down
 Capillarity
Dominant adhesion Dominant cohesion
σ σ
θ p θ 2r

2r
p
σ σ

Capillary Rise Capillary Depression

 The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to the adjacent

general level of liquid is known as capillarity
 Rise of depression can be determined by considering the equilibrium of
the liquid column in a small tube
 Capillarity
The forces acting on the liquid column are:
1. Self weight of fluid acting in the downward direction
2. Total force due to ST –
(σ  circumference)  cosθ – acts in the upward direction for rise
and downward direction for depression

S = specific gravity of liquid

ω= specific weight of water
2s cos 
Thus sw r h  2 rs cos
2
h
swr
2s
For water θ = 0 h
swr
Eg : Wetness of wall, trees, fountain pen ink on paper
Measurement of surface tension

Ref : 013148
 Vapour Pressure

Temperature and pressure are dependent properties for

pure substance
 Saturation temperature – at given pressure pure
substance changes the phase (Water – at 1 atm -100°C
Saturation pressure - at given temperature pure substance
changes the phase (Water – at 100°C -1 atm)

The vapor pressure of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by

its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.

Pv is the property of pure substance and it turns out to be equal to

saturation pressure, Psat i. e. (Pv = Psat)

Do not confuse vapor pressure with partial pressure

Partial pressure is always less than or equal to vapor pressure

 Vapour Pressure
• Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure
is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its
condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given
temperature in a closed system.
• The equilibrium vapor pressure is an
indication of a liquid's evaporation rate.
• It relates to the tendency of particles to
escape from the liquid (or a solid).
• A substance with a high vapor pressure at
normal temperatures is often referred to as
volatile.
• The pressure exhibited by vapor present above
a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure.
•As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic
energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy
of the molecules increases, the number of molecules
transitioning into a vapor also increases, thereby
increasing the vapor pressure.
• At atmospheric pressure, boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the
ambient atmospheric pressure.
•With any incremental increase in that temperature, the
vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome
atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor
bubbles inside the bulk of the substance.
•Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher
pressure, and therefore higher temperature, because the
fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as
the depth increases.
 Vapor Pressure: Evaporation and Boiling

Evaporation occurs in a fluid when liquid molecules at the surface

have sufficient momentum to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape to the atmosphere.

Boiling occurs when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the
vapor pressure. Boiling occurs at approximately 100 °C, but it is not
only a function of temperature, but also of pressure.
For example, in hot water Springs , water boils at temperatures
less than 100 °C.
 Vapour Pressure
Room with dry air at 1 atm Two possibilities
 Water evaporates away or
Evaporation stops when partial pressure of
vapor in the room rises to 2.34 kPa at
which phase equilibrium is established

Vapor pressure increases with temperature

Water at 20°C
Water boils at 134°C in a pressure cooker with 3
atm pressure.
Water boils at 93°C at 2000m elevation where
pressure is 0.8 atm

Cavitation
In the system at any point if pressure reduces below the vapour pressure liquid
starts boiling and vapour bubbles are formed. When bubbles move to high
pressure region these collapse giving rise to high impact pressure which may
erode the adjoining walls and cause the cavity formation. Such a phenomenon
is called cavitation.
 Vapour Pressure
Saturation pressure for different liquids Saturation pressure of water at different
temperatures
Liquid Saturation Temperature in °C Saturation
pressure pressure in
in bar bar

Carbon 0.12753 -10 0.0026

Tetrachloride -5 0.00403
Benzene 0.100062 0 0.00611

Ethyl Alcohol 0.057879 10 0.0123

20 0.0234
Water 0.023446
100 1.013 (1 atm)
Mercury 1.73  10-6
200 15.54
Glycerin 1.37  10-7
300 85.81
 Compressibility and Elasticity
All the fluids may be compressed by application of external force and
when this force is removed the compressed volume expands to its
original volume. This property of fluid is known as compressibility. It
is be quantitatively expressed as inverse of bulk modulus of elasticity.
stress dp
k 
strain dV / V
ρ= m /v

-dV/V = dρ/ρ
 Compressibility and Elasticity
• Measure of how pressure compresses the volume/density

• Units of the bulk modulus are N/m2 (Pa) and lb/in.2 (psi).

• Large values of the bulk modulus indicate incompressibility

• Incompressibility indicates large pressures are needed to

compress the volume slightly

• Most liquids are incompressible for most practical

engineering problems.
 Compressibility and Elasticity

• Bulk modulus of elasticity :

•Increase with pressure …..

• decrease with increase in temperature – for liquids
• increase with increase in temperature - gases
 Compressibility and Elasticity
• The value of the bulk modulus for steel is
about 2.3 × 107 psi, or 1.6 × 1011 Pascal's, three
times the value for glass.
• Thus, only one-third the pressure is needed to
reduce a glass sphere the same amount as a steel
sphere of the same initial size.
• Under equal pressure, the proportional
decrease in volume of glass is three times that of
steel
• A substance that is difficult to compress has a
large bulk modulus but a small compressibility.
 Compressibility and Elasticity

Matter Bulk Modulus in Remark

N/m2
Water 2.06 109 Water is considered as
practically incompressible

Mild Steel 2.06 1011 Water is 100 times

compressible than M.S.

Air 1.03 105 Air is 20000 times

compressible than water
 Mach number and velocity of sound
L
Inertia force, Fi = mass  acceleration Fi    L3 
T2
L2
Fi    L  2
2
Fi    L2 V 2
T

Elasticity force, Fe = Bulk modulus  area Fe  k  A

Fi  k  L2
Fi   L2  V 2 V2 V2
Thus    2 Cauchy Number
Fe kL 2
k/ c
c k
 Where ‘c’ is the velocity of sound and is given by which
represents the velocity of sound

 The square root of Cauchy number is called Mach number

 Mach number and velocity of sound
V V
Ma  
c k

V = c indicates critical value of fluid velocity – Sonic Flow

V > c – Supersonic Flow

V < c – Subsonic Flow

V >> c – Hypersonic Flow

 Higher Mach number signifies the predominance of effect of compressibility.

 If Ma < 0.4 the effect of compressibility can be neglected

 Problem – A body weighing 450 N with a flat surface area of 930 cm2 slides
down lubricated inclined plane making an angle of 30° with horizontal. For
viscosity of 1 poise and body speed of 3m/s, determine the lubricant film
thickness.
Solution
Given – Weight of the body = 450 N
Y Area of plate = 930cm2 = 0.093m2
Angle of inclination = 30 °
F = 450 cos 60
30° viscosity = μ = 1 poise = 0.1 N.s/m2
V=3m/s 450 N Velocity of body = V = 3 m/s

Assumptions – Fluid is Newtonian and follows linear variation between shear stress and
rate of angular deformation

Force along the direction of plane = 450 cos 60 = 225 N

  Force / area = 225(N) / 0.093(m2 )  2419.35(N/m2 )

Shear stress,
dv V
   2419.35(N/m2 )  0.1(N.s/m 2 ) 
3(m/s)
dy Y Y (m)

Y = 0.000124m = 0.124mm
 Problem – A glass tube 0.25 mm in diameter contains a mercury column with water
above the mercury. The temperature is 20 °C at which the surface tension of mercury
in contact with air is 0.37 N/m. What will be the capillary depression of the mercury?
Take angle of contact as θ = 130 °

Solution : 2r

Given Radius of tube, r = 0.125 mm

Surface tension σ = 0.37 N/m
Angle of contact θ = 130 °
Water

2s cos  h
h
rw( s1  s2 ) p
σ σ
Mercury

2  0.37  cos130
h 3
 0.0307m  3.07cm
0.125 10  9810(13.6  1)
Problem - A 400mm diameter shaft is rotating at 200 rpm in a bearing of length 120mm.
If thickness of the oil film is 1.5mm and dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.7N.s/ m2 , determine
torque required to overcome the friction in the bearing and power utilized in overcoming
viscous resistance. Assume linear velocity profile.

Radius of shaft, r = 0.2m

Solution Viscosity μ = 0.7 N.s/m2
Y = 1.5 mm, N = 200 rpm
Length of shaft, L = 0.12 m
 DN   0.4  200
V   4.186 m/s
60 60
A  2  R  L  2  0.2  0.12  0.15072m2
dv 2 4.186(m/s)  0
    0.7(N.s/m )  2790.66 N/m 2

dy 1.5 103 (m2 )

F    A  2790.66(N/m2 )  0.15072(m2 )  420.60N

T  F  R  420.60  0.2  84.12N/m

2 NT 2  200  84.12
Power    1760.91Watt
60 60
 Fluid Pressure and Its Measurement
Variation of pressure with elevation.

Let , pz pressure at the base and pz+dz be pressure at the top of cylinder.
Resulting Forces are, pz A and pz+dz A respectively,
Newton’s second law of motion results as
pzA− pz+dzA - ρAdz g = (ρA dz)X 0
Net pressure force Weight mass
Rearranging we get , (pz+dz − pz)/dz = −ρg.
Fluid Pressure and Its Measurement

• As dz tends to zero
dp/dz = −ρg.
• Predicts a pressure decrease in the vertically
upward direction at a rate that is proportional
to the local density.
 Fluid Pressure and Its Measurement
• Pressure in a liquid with a free surface

We, get p = ps + ρgH,

• predicts a linear increase of pressure with distance downward from
the free surface.
• If atmospheric pressure is considered as datum
We get, p = ρg H,
 Pressure head
The vertical height of the free surface above any point in a liquid at rest is
known as pressure head. Thus,

p
h
w
It is a convenient to express the pressure in terms of vertical height of the
liquid since the pressure depends on only vertical height

Thus pressure can be expressed in meters of liquid column

The equation p = wh can be used to obtain the relationship between

heights of columns of different liquids for same pressure

p  w1h1  w2 h2 wS1h1  wS2 h2 S1h1  S2 h2

Where, w is the specific weight of water and S1 and S2 are the
specific gravities of two different fluids
 Pascal’s Law
 Pressure at a point in a fluid acts with same magnitude in all the directions

α ps s y

px y z δs
δz
δy
δx
δx
1 pz x y
w  x y z
2
 α ps s y

px y z δs

δy
δx
δx
1 pz x y
w  x y z
2
 Pascal’s Law
 Resolving the forces along X and Z direction and equating with zero gives:

ps s y
px y z  ps y s sin   0
α 0
1
px y z pz x y  ps y s cos   w  x y z  0
δs 2
 s sin    z and  s cos    x
δy
δx
δ
1 pz x y
w  x y z x
2
Thus, p x  ps  0
p z  ps  0

Hence ps  px  pz
Which means pressure acts equally in all directions as S direction is arbitrarily
chosen. This is known as Pascal’s law
Atmospheric, absolute, gage and vacuum pressure
Atmospheric air exerts normal pressure upon all the surfaces
with which it is in contact and it is known as atmospheric
pressure (Varies with altitude, measured by barometer and
hence called barometric pressure)

At sea level – 10.1043  104 N/m2 or 1.01043 bar or 10.3 m of

water or 76 cm of Hg.

Absolute zero or local atmospheric pressure can be the base for

measurement

If measured with reference to atm pressure it is called gauge

pressure (Negative gage pressure is vacuum)

If measured with respect to absolute zero it is called absolute

pressure
Atmospheric, absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure

Gauge
pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure
or
Negative gauge pressure Absolute
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute
pressure

Absolute zero pressure or datum

 Pressure Measurement
Manometers Mechanical gauges

Simple Manometers Differential Manometers

 Piezometers  Two piezometer manometer

 U-tube manometers  Inverted U-tube manometers
 Single column manometers  U-Tube manometers
 Inclined single column  Micro manometers
manometers
 Piezometers –simplest manometers

hm
hm

Can measure only moderate

pressures
Location of insertion makes no h
difference
Cannot be used for gases (no free
surfaces are formed) Negative pressure
measurement
 U-Tube manometers
Manometric fluid  A glass U-tube with heavier manometric
(Sp. Gr. S2) fluid is used

Procedure to write manometric

expression
y
 Start from A or free surface and write
Fluid of sp. pressure there in appropriate unit
Gr. S1 (N/m2 or m of H2O)
z  Add the change in pressure caused due
to change from one level to adjacent
level.
A
 Use +ve if the adjacent level is lower.
 Use –ve sign if it is higher.
 Continue till other end and equate with
pressure at that point
 U-Tube manometers
PA S
 Manometric expression in terms of liquid at A z y 2 0
wS1 S1
Where w is the specific weight of water

PA
 Manometric expression in terms of water  zS1  yS2  0
w

PA
If A contains gas S1 = 0  yS2  0
w
 Piezometers –simplest manometers

hm
hm

Can measure only moderate

pressures
Location of insertion makes no h
difference
Can not be used for gases (no free
surfaces are formed) Negative pressure
measurement
 U-Tube manometers
Manometric fluid  A glass U-tube with heavier manometric
(Sp. Gr. S2) fluid is used

Procedure to write manometric

expression
y
 Start from A or free surface and write
Fluid of sp. pressure there in appropriate unit
Gr. S1 (N/m2 or m of H2O)
z  Add the change in pressure caused due
to change from one level to adjacent
level.
A
 Use +ve if the adjacent level is lower.
 Use –ve sign if it is higher.
 Continue till other end and equate with
pressure at that point
 U-Tube manometers
PA S
 Manometric expression in terms of liquid at A z y 2 0
wS1 S1
Where w is the specific weight of water

PA
 Manometric expression in terms of water  zS1  yS2  0
w

PA
If A contains gas S1 = 0  yS2  0
w
 Single column manometers
S1 One of the limbs of U-tube
manometer is replaced by a
h2 reservoir of large cross section

y
B
When not connected yS1  h1S2
h1
0 0
When connected ADy  ah2
∆y

A = area of tank
a = area of limb
S2
The manometric expression starting from free end:
P
0  (h2  h1  Dy )S2  (Dy  y )S1  A
0 w
PA  a PA
 h2 ( S2  ( S2  S1 )   h2 S2
w  A w
 Inclined single column manometers

h2
B
y
∆y
0 h1 0

∆y yS1  h1 sin  S2
θ
ADy  ah2
PA
0  (h2  h1 )sin  S2  (Dy) S2  DyS1  yS1 
w
PA  a PA
 h2 ( S2 sin   ( S2  S1 )   (h2 sin  ) S2
w  A w
 Differential manometers
Used for measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a pipeline or in
two pipes or a containers

Usually consists of a glass U-tube two ends of which are connected to two gage points

Common types of differential manometers

Two piezometer manometer

Inverted U-tube manometers
U-Tube manometers
Micro manometers
Two-Piezometer Differential Manometer

PA PB
 h
w w

A B
 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer

Air cock Manometric expression

Air
PA P
C C  yS1  ( y  h)S1  B
w w
h
D

PA PB
y   hS1
w w
S1

A B

With air as manometric fluid

 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer

Air cock Manometric expression

…………………
.. ……
… …
… S2 PA P
…
….
C …
…
. …
…
… C
 yS1  hS2  ( y  h)S1  B
.….. …
… w w
…
…
.. …
.
h ……
…
…
.… D

PA PB
y   h( S1  S2 )
w w
S1

A B

With lighter fluid as manometric fluid

 U-Tube Differential Manometer
A B

Manometric expression
y
Sp. Gr. = S1
PA P
 ( y  x) S1  xS2  yS1  B
w w
D

C PA PB
C   x( S2  S1 )
w w

Sp. Gr. = S2
 U-Tube Differential Manometer with two points at
different levels
Sp. Gr. = S3
A
z B

y
p. Gr. = S1
Manometric expression
PA P
 ( z  y  x) S1  xS2  yS3  B
w w
x

C
PA PB
   x( S2  S1 )  y (S3  S1 )  zS1 
w w
Sp. Gr. = S2
 Micromanometer
Sp. Gr. = S3
A B Used for measurement of very
small difference in pressure
with precision
y1
∆y Two manometric fluids and
C C’ two basins with large cross
sectional area
∆y
Manometric y2
liquid 1  When not connected fluids
Sp Gr. S2 x/2 stands at C-C’ and D-D’
D x D’
x/2 Volume displacement in
E E’ basin and limb is same

Manometric
 x
liquid 1 A(Dy )  a  
Sp Gr. S1 2
 Micromanometer

Manometric expression
PA  x
 ( y1  Dy ) S3   y2  Dy   S 2
w  2
 x  P
 xS1   y2   Dy  S2  ( y1  Dy ) S3  B
 2  w
a x
Dy   
A 2

PA PB a x a x x
   y1S3  S 3  y2 S 2  S2  S2
w w A2 A2 2
x a x a x
 xS1  y2 S2  S2  S2  y1S3  S3
2 A2 A2
 Micromanometer

PA PB
a<<A   x  S1  S2 
w w

 Invented by Chattock Small and Krell

 These are very sensitive to pressure differences down to

less than 0.0025 mm of water

 Disadvantage – appreciable time is required for taking

the reading and hence are used for completely steady
pressures
Strain gage, a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT or with many other
displacement/velocity sensors).
What is the absolute pressure at a point 10 m
below the free surface in a fluid that has a
variable density in kilogram per cubic meters
given by ρ= 450+ah, in which a = 12 kg/m4
and h is the distance in meters measured from
the free surface?
Determine the pressure at points A,B,C and
D in Pascal’s

Air
90 cm

B
air
30 cm
C
30 cm

A
90 cm

water water