CHAPTER 9:

DETERMINANTS OF
LEARNING
 Categories of learners according to
growth and development
GROWTH

- in other word “increase " nor the quantitative changes in terms of learning.
- Acquisition of more knowledge, results in maturation

DEVELOPMENT

- Orderly, dynamic changes in a learner from a combination of learning,

experiences, and maturation.


Factors Influencing Intellectual

Development

Maturation- refers to the biological changes in individual that result from

the interaction of their genetic makeup with the environment.

Experiences- refers to observing, encountering or undergoing changes

which generally occur in the course of time.

Learning- is the acquisition of knowledge, abilities, habits, attitudes,

values, and skills derived from experiences with varied stimuli.
 Categories of learners according to Stages of
Development

-ways students think about the world and the use of information.

Following are the learning tasks inherent in each stage:

1. Infancy. Sensorimotor Stage or Practical Intelligence (0-1 year)

o A child first develops tuning sensory and motor capacities such as sight and
hearing.
2. Toddler. Preconceptual to Preoperational Stage (1-3 years)
o A child who can classify objects into toys and non-toys performs mental
operation.
Seven Characteristics of toddlers at the
Preoperational Stage:

1. Egocentrism
2. Use symbols to represent objects
3. Draw conclusions from obvious facts they see.
4. They are headstrong and negativistic, favorite word is “NO”.
5. Active, mobile, and curious.
6. Rigid, repetitive, ritualistic, and stereotyped.
7. Has poor sense of time.
3. Preschooler. Perceptual Intuitive thought (3-7
years).

-The child learns to accommodate more information and change their

ideas to fit reality rather than reasons. Their thinking is influenced by the following:

a. Centration.
b. Nontransformation.
c. Irreversibility.
d. Reasoning.
a. Centration
The tendency of the child is to focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to the
exclusion of all other aspects.

b. Nontransformation
The child is unable to mentally record the process of change from one stage to
another. Their sense of understanding is still not fully determined as the child is only
concerned with events at present.

c. Irreversibility
The child is unable to mentally trace a line of reasoning back to its beginning. The
child thinks primarily on the basis of their own perception of events.
d. Reasoning
Preoperational children do not use inductive or deductive reasoning. Problem
solving is based on what they see and hear directly rather than what they recall about
objects and events.
4. School Age. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 Years)
The school age or the concrete operations stage marks the
advancement in the child's ability to think about the world around
him. It is characterized by:

a. Able to discover concrete solutions to everyday problems.

b. Starting to overcome preoperational deficiencies.
c. Reasoning tends to be inductive.
d. Ability to think logically about concrete objects hence, they can form
conclusions based on reason rather than mere perception alone.
e. Aware of past, present, and future time.
5. Pubescent or Adolescent. Formal Operational Thought (12- 18 Years)

a. Adolescents have logical thinking with ability to

provide scientific reasoning.
b. They can solve hypothetical problems and causality.
c. Have mature thought.
 Table 3. Piaget’s stages of development and their characteristics
STAGE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Sensorimotor(0-
• Goal directed behavior •Makes jack-in-the-boxpop up
1 year old)

•Searches for objects behind parent's back •"We go t
• Object permanence• Rapid increase in language a
Preoperations(1- o the store" •Points out car window and says "truck!"
bility with over generalized language• Symbolic tho
3 years old)  •Concludes that all water in a sink came from the fa
ught • Dominated byperception
ucet

Perceptual Intuit
•Headstrong •Negativistic•Active, mobile, curious • •Can pour milk in a glass•Climb and pedal trike•Desc
ive Thought(3-
Ritualistic, stereotype•Has poor sense of time ribed as noisy, stormy, rude•Indulge in card games
7 years old)

• Concludes that two objects on a "balanced" scale h
Concrete Operati
• Operates logically with concrete materials• Classi ave the same mass, even though one is larger than t
ons (7-
fies and serial orders he other• Orders containers according to decreasing 
12 years old)
volume

• Considers outcome of WWII if the "Battle against th
Formal Operatio e Germans and Japanese" had been lost• Systematic
• Solves abstract and hypothetical problems• Think
ns (12- ally determines how many different sandwiches can 
s in combination with other objects or things.
18 years old) be made from three different kinds ofmeat, cheese, 
and bread
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS
ACCORDING TO INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
Regardless of the learner's age, gender, socio-economic
status, religion, culture, among others, it is impossible to
conclude that a certain group of people is not entirely alike
nor individual differences exist (De Young: 2007).
• Intelligence
• Multiple Intelligences
• Emotional Intelligence
• Socioeconomic Status
• Culture
• Gender differences
• At-risk Students
 I. Intelligence

Intelligence refers to aptitude or the person's capacity to acquire

knowledge, ability to think, abstract reasoning and capability in
problem solving which is explained by the following (Feldman:
2004):

a. Adolescents have logical thinking with ability to provide

scientific reasoning.
b. They can solve hypothetical problems and causality.
c. Have mature thought.
The teacher can adjust and adapt instructional approaches
considering the differences in students' ability (Chiatum and
Hammond: 2005), as follows:

⚫ Flexible time requirements

⚫ Increased instructional support
⚫ Strategy instruction peer tutoring
⚫ Cooperative learning
 A. . Flexible Time Requirements

An indicator of intellectual differences of learning for

individuals is requirement to grasp comprehensively the subject
well. This is equated with the students' rate of growth and their
readiness to learn. Some students learn faster students, hence,
a teacher should design a teaching strategy that will address
students' time requirements in terms of learning.
 b. Increased Instructional Support
To help slow learners compensate for their relative deficiency in learning,
there are a number of methods available to the teacher including the following:
• The teacher's instructional style or approach must be adjusted to students' needs for
learning without compromising the overall topic requirement for the course to be
finished;
• Support of fast learners is involved in helping the slow learners through peer tutoring
and group activities; .
• Clarify and expand explanation of the subject matter before having students attempt to
ask on their own;
• Break lengthy assignments into shorter segments; and
• Provide frequent feedback as students work through new materials
 c. Strategy Instruction

Research shows that student achievers are more likely to use

strategies that make their learning more effective. These into smaller units
and formulate solutions to tasks and strategic learners analyze and break
down tasks or problems problems systematically. They are also able to
differentiate important concepts from the less important.
d. Peer Tutoring

It is said that student achievers are more equipped with the necessary
knowledge and skills in facing challenges of learning. They can serve as sources of
information for less able students.

e. Cooperative Learning

Studies showed that students who tutor less able students even benefit
more than the less able students. Student tutors are able to recall their knowledge
in. tutoring and further enhance their skills in skill demonstrations. Student
tutors are able to enhance their social skills enduring cooperative learning
activities.
 2. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

The theory of multiple

intelligence was proposed by Dr.
Howard Gardner, a professor of
education at harvard university.
based on I.Q Testing.
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Verbal- linguistic intelligence or “word smart”
Logical- mathematical intelligence or “number/reasoning smart”

Spatial intelligence or “picture smart”

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence or “body smart”
Musical intelligence or “music smart”
Interpersonal intelligent or “people smart”
Intrapersonal intelligence or “self smart”
Naturalist intelligence or “nature smart”

And other intelligences.

 a. Linguistic Intelligence or
word-smart

Verbal- linguistic intelligence has to do with words,

spoken or written. Individuals with verbal-linguistic
intelligence display a facility with words and languages
and are typically good at:
READING
WRITING
STORY TELLING
WORD MEMORIZATION
 b. Logical-Mathematical
Students who have high logical-
mathematical intelligence are good
in:
logical resoning, abstractions,

inductive and deductive reasoning,

and

numbers
 C. Spatial
This type of intelligence has to do with vision
and spatial judgement. People with strong
visual-spatial intelligence are good in the ff:

visual and mental manipulation of

objects,
visual memory,

arts, and

geographic directions
 d. Bodily Kinesthetic
This intelligence has to do with
movement, Individuals with the
intelligence excel in:
sports,

dance, and

other activities related to movements

 e. Musical
Musical intelligence has to do with music,
music composition, rhythm, and hearing. One
learners best with music playing in memorizing
information. Individuals with high musical
intelligence are good in:

singing,

musical composition, and

playing musical instruments.

 f. INTERPERSONAL
People who have high interpersonal
intelligence are good in interacting with
other. They are usually extroverts sensitive
to others needs, learn best from group
works, and activities. They are good in:
communication,

leadership,

negotiations, and

politics
 g. intrapersonal
Intrapersonal intelligence has to do with
introperspective and self-reflective
capacities. Individuals are usually introverts.
They learn best when allowed to concentrate
on the subject by themselves and have a high
level of perfectionism. They are usually good
in:

psychology, analysis

philosopy, and theology.

h. Naturalistic Intelligence
This intelligence has to do with nature, nurturing, and relating
information to one's natural surroundings. Individuals with this
type of intelligence have great sensitivity to nature and
environment. It covers metaphysics, the origin and essence of
things. The nature of man, among others. They are usually good in:

Botany, Ontology,

Zoology, Astronomy,

Metaphysics, Environmental science

Epistemology – is a concept that deals with the nature of knowledge, in particular,
and the different aspects of what people “know”. This includes:
· Conceptual knowledge – this consist of ideas and abstract understanding of an
actual thing or event such as the shape of an apple.
· Perceptual knowledge – this if derived from one’s senses such as the color of an
apple.
· Intuitive knowledge – the cognitive meaning of a thing independent of reason such
as gut feeling or intuition.
Axiology – is a concept which relates to the ideas of right and wrong and the means
by which the two are delineated.
Aesthetics – deals with beauty and ugliness.

Other intelligence include spiritual, existential, and moral intelligence.

According to Gardner, existential intelligence is the capability to raise and
reflect on philosophical questions about life, death, and ultimate realities.
3. Emotional Intelligence – is a combination of
competencies.

- This skill contribute to an individual’s capability to manage and monitor his or

her own emotions to correctly gauge the emotional state of others and to influence
opinions. (Caudron, 1999; Goleman, 1998)
- Goleman describes a model of five dimensions (1995). Each area has its own set
of behavioral attributes as follows:
.
a. Self awareness – is the ability to recognize one’s own feeling as this happens, to
accurately perform self-assessment and have self-confidence. It is the keystone of
emotional intelligence.
a. Self-management or self-regulation
· Self control – is the ability to keep disruptive emotions and impulse on check.
· Trustworthiness – maintain standard of honesty and integrity.
· Consciousness – take responsibility for one’s performance.
· Adaptability – handle change.
· Innovation – be comfortable with novel ideas and approaches.
b. Motivation – is the emotional tendency of guiding or facilitating the
attainment of goals through:
· Achievement drive to meet a standard of excellence;
· Commitment or the alignment of goals with the group or organization;
· Initiative to act on opportunities
· Optimism or the persistence to reach goals despite set-backs.
a. Empathy – is the understanding of others by being aware of their needs,
perspectives, feelings, concerns, and sensing others developmental needs.
b. Social skills – are fundamental to emotional intelligence. They include:
· Influence, or the ability to include desirable responses in others through
effective diplomacy of persuasion.
· Communication or the ability to both listen openly and send convincing
massages.
· Leadership, or the ability to inspire and guide groups and individuals.
· Building bonds, or nurturing instrumental relationships.
· Collaboration and cooperation with others toward a share goal.
· Create group synergy, the ability to pursue collective goals.
Researchers have found that the student’s emotional awareness and ability to
handle feelings will determine her success and happiness in life.
· For teachers, this quality of “emotional intelligence” means being aware of
students’ feelings and able to empathize and guideAccording
them. to research
· For students, it includes the ability to control impulses, delay gratification,
motivate themselves, sensitivity to other people’s feelings, and ability to cope with
life challenges.

4. Socioeconomic status (SES) – is a measure of a family’s position in society as

determined by family income, it’s members occupation, and level of education. SES
affects learning both at home and in school.
· Poverty affects a learner’s well-being and quality of life. This in turn affects the
student’s concentration, learning potentials, motivation, interests, and
participation in class.
5. Culture
- refers to the attitudes, values, customs, and behavior patterns that are
unique to a particular social group.
- can influence school success, as students’ attitudes, values, and ways of
viewing the world are shaped by their culture.
- like SES, culture is one of the factors that can affect how well students
do in school.
Cultures influence the following:

a) Students’ attitudes and values

To become a good student, one must be able to adapt to the cultural values imposed
by the school as a learning institution.
Sources of the learner’s individuality

Intelligence: A learner's cognitive abilities, such as their memory, problem-solving skills,

and creativity, can influence their learning style, preferences, and outcomes.
Socio-economic status: A learner's socio-economic status, such as their family income,
education level, and access to resources, can affect their learning opportunities,
motivation, and engagement.
Gender: A learner's gender can influence their interests, motivation, and engagement in
different subjects, as well as their self-esteem and confidence in the classroom.
Culture: A learner's cultural background, beliefs, and values can affect their learning style,
motivation, and engagement, as well as their interaction with teachers and peers.
a) Classroom Organization
In most classrooms, students work and learn individually. Emphasis is
placed on individual responsibility, which is often reinforced by grades and
competition.

b) School Communication
Cultural conflict in communication may occur in an institution with
students from a diverse ethnicity.
6. Gender Differences
a) Different Treatment of Boys and Girls
- refers to the unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender. From the day we were born, male and
female babies are treated differently.
Example
Girls were treated carefully as they are very vulnerable while boys have to experience rougher lifestyle.
b) Stereotyping Boys and Girls
- Stereotyping boys and girls refer to making assumptions or generalizations about the characteristics,
behaviors, interests, and abilities of individuals based on their gender. This gender-based treatment extends
up to the child’s school years. Like a science class where the teacher believes that boys are naturally more
interested and skilled in science than girls. The teacher may then unwittingly stereotype the boys and girls in
the class by treating them differently.
For example:
The teacher may call on the boys more often to answer questions, assuming that they are more likely to know
the answer. This can make the girls feel overlooked and disengaged from the class.
The teacher may assign more challenging projects to the boys, assuming that they are more capable of handling
difficult tasks. This can limit the girls' opportunities to learn and develop their skills.

“All learners have the potential to excel in any field of learning regardless of gender” - Simon
7. At-Risk Students
At – risk, students are those in danger of failing to complete their
education. They have learning problems and adjustment difficulties. They
often fail even though they can succeed.
Characteristics of At-risk Students

Background status Educational problems

Ø Low Socioeconomic status Ø High dropout rate
Ø Male Ø Low grades
Ø Transience Ø Retention in grade
Ø Broken family Ø Low motivation
Ø English as second language Ø Poor attendance
Ø Low test scores
- Teachers with at-risk students should design well their teaching strategy in a way
that would give them more structure, reasons why they need to do well in school and
provide support to student’s learning needs.

Example:
Ms. Grey is a high school math teacher who has several at-risk students in her class.
She recognizes that these students may struggle with motivation, organization, and
self-regulation, so she decides to design her teaching strategy to address these issues.
ü To provide more structure, Ms. Grey creates a weekly schedule that outlines
the topics they will cover each day, along with specific learning objectives and
assignments. This helps her at-risk students to better understand what they
need to do and when, reducing confusion and anxiety.

ü To give her at-risk students reasons why they need to do well in school, Ms.
Grey incorporates real-world examples and applications of math concepts in her
lessons. She shows her students how math is relevant to their lives and future
careers, and encourages them to set goals for themselves.

ü To provide support to her at-risk students' learning needs, Ms. Grey offers
extra help outside of class hours, creates small-group activities to encourage
collaboration and peer support, and provides feedback that is specific and
actionable.
QUIZ TIME!!!
1. WHO PROPOSED THE THEORY OF
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE?

2. WHAT INTELLIGENCE HAS TO DO WITH

NATURE, NURTURING, AND RELATING
INFORMATION TO ONE'S NATURAL
SURROUNDINGS?

3. WHAT STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT DOES THE

CHILD LEARNS TO ACCOMMODATE MORE
INFORMATION AND CHANGE THEIR IDEAS TO
FIT REALITY RATHER THAN REASONS. THEIR
THINKING IS INFLUENCED BY THE FOLLOWING:?
4. IT REFERS TO APTITUDE OR THE
PERSON'S CAPACITY TO ACQUIRE
KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY TO THINK,
ABSTRACT REASONING AND
CAPABILITY IN PROBLEM SOLVING?
5. IT REFERS TO OBSERVING,
ENCOUNTERING OR UNDERGOING
CHANGES WHICH GENERALLY
OCCUR IN THE COURSE OF TIME?
6. THE TENDENCY OF THE CHILD IS TO
FOCUS ON ONE PERCEPTUAL ASPECT OF
AN EVENT TO THE EXCLUSION OF ALL
OTHER ASPECTS IS CALLED?
7. THIS CONSIST OF IDEAS AND
ABSTRACT UNDERSTANDING OF AN
ACTUAL THING OR EVENT SUCH AS
THE SHAPE OF AN APPLE?
8. IT IS IS THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE
ONE’S OWN FEELING AS THIS
HAPPENS, TO ACCURATELY PERFORM
SELF-ASSESSMENT AND HAVE SELF-
CONFIDENCE?
9. IT REFERS TO THE ATTITUDES,
VALUES, CUSTOMS, AND BEHAVIOR
PATTERNS THAT ARE UNIQUE TO A
PARTICULAR SOCIAL GROUP?
10. SITE SOME EXAMPLES OF
CHARATERISTICS OF AT RISK-
STUDENT/
THE END