Crescent School

SCH3U name_________________________

Acids and Bases: Titration #1

Determination of [NaOH]
by Microtitration with HCl of Known Concentration

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the concentration of an NaOH solution by

exactly neutralizing a given volume of HCl(aq) of a known concentration with
NaOH(aq).

We need to add the stoichiometric amount of NaOH(aq) to the HCl(aq)—no more, no

less.

This procedure is called a titration, and will be done on a microscale.

The balanced chemical equation for the neutralization of NaOH(aq) with HCl(aq) is

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
________________________________________________

What colour are the reactants and products in this reaction? ______________________

What potential problem does this present? ____________________________________

How can we circumvent this problem? _______________________________________

Phenolphthalein (weird spelling) is an acid-base indicator.

Phenolphthalein is clear in acidic solution; bright pink in basic solution.

What colour do you expect phenolphthalein to be at the exact point of neutralization—the

equivalence (or stoichiometric) point of this reaction? ____________________________

We will add a small amount of phenolphthalein to our reacting system to indicate when
the acid has been exactly neutralized.

What colour change do you think is easier to detect: (circle correct answer)
clear to pale pink – or – pale pink to clear?

Given your answer, to what solution—NaOH or HCl—will you add the phenolphthalein?
________________________________________________________________________
Equipment for the microtitration:
• rxn vessel: bottom of clear plastic 2-L pop bottle (contains 5 “wells”)
• acid and base dispensers: 2 plastic Beral pipets (unit of volume = _________)
• stirrer: a plastic fork with all but one tine removed
• watch glass or petrie dish
• phenolphthalein solution
• HCl(aq) of known concentration (today, [HCl] = _________ mol/L)
• NaOH(aq) of unknown concentration
• tissue to clean the fork between trials

Sample Calculation:
Do we need to know the volume (mL) of 1 drop? ___________

Consider the following:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) + HOH(l)
0.10 mol/L ? mol/L
10 d (d = drop) 19 d

What did we assume about the vol. of a drop of HCl compared to a drop of NaOH? ____

How could we carry out a microtitration using different-sized droppers for the acid and
base? __________________________________________________________________

Do the microtitration. Use 15 d of HCl in each well. Carry out 5 microtitrations; average
the number of drops of NaOH. Do 1 set of calculations below to find [NaOH]. Don’t
forget to write the balanced chemical equation. [NaOH] = _______________ mol/L

Trial # drops HCl # drops NaOH

1
2
3
4
5

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: ________________________

Acids and Bases: Titration #2

Determination of the Concentration of Acetic acid, CH3COOH, in (mol/L)
and % (m/v), in Commercial Vinegar

White vinegar is claimed to be 5.0% (m/v). In this experiment you will titrate an acetic
acid solution (vinegar) against a NaOH solution of known concentration to a
phenolphthalein endpoint. Report your results as [acetic acid], in mol/L and % (m/v) to
verify this claim.

Balanced equation for the reaction:

____ CH3COOH(aq) + ____ NaOH(aq)
____ ________ + ____ _____________

[NaOH] = _______ mol/L

Tabulate Data Here:

colour/description
Start volume Final volume Net volume
Trial # of end point
NaOH (mL) NaOH (mL) NaOH (mL)
1

Average volume of NaOH solution used: ____________ mL (exclude volumes marked with *)

. . . over
Lab Report maximum length: 1 page, word-processed. Include:

LAB REPORTS LONGER THAN 1 PAGE, 12 POINT FONT, WILL NOT BE MARKED.

Descriptive Title

Abstract Three sentences at most: Purpose; general method; results. The

brief introduction on the other side of this sheet may be helpful.
{C, 3}

Data Table Do not include start/ending volume—only net volumes and

average volume of NaOH. Make a proper table, please. {C, 1}

Calculations Include a balanced chemical equation; calculate [CH3COOH] in

both mol/L and in % (m/v).

Post-Lab Questions
1. How did the value for the percent acetic acid in vinegar that you determined compare
with that claimed by the manufacturer? Calculate the % error; comment on how you
could improve your result. {C, 2}

2. While carrying out a titration, explain why is it permissible to use a wash bottle to
rinse down the inside of the erlenmeyer flask, or to “shoot” a hanging drop of NaOH
off the buret tip. {C, 1}

3. Explain why you must rinse the buret with the NaOH solution to be used in the
experiment before filling it with the same NaOH solution. {C, 1}

4. a) Why do we titrate into an erlenmeyer flask instead of into a beaker? {C, 1}

b) Why is it okay to have some distilled water in the erlenmeyer flask before you
pipet the acid solution into the flask? {C, 1}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U

Titration #3: Determination of the Molar Mass of an Unknown Solid Acid

In this experiment you will determine the molar mass of an unknown solid acid by titration with
NaOH of known concentration to a phenolphthalein end point.

Acid given: HA or H2A or H3A (circle one)

Balanced chemical reaction of acid with NaOH:

______________________________________________________________________

[NaOH] = ________________ mol/L

ALL OF THE POWDERED ACID MUST BE TRANSFERRED TO THE FLASK; DISSOLVE THE ACID IN
WATER BEFORE YOU BEGIN TITRATING.

Trial # mass of initial final Net colour/description Calculated

unknown Buret Vol Buret Vol Volume of end point molar
acid (g) (mL) (mL) NaOH mass of
(mL) unknown
acid
(g/mol)

3
4

Average the resultant molar mass values as appropriate—see quality of end point.

Lab Report—as with previous lab: 1 page maximum; word processed

Descriptive Title, Abstract, Data Table, Sample calculation including balanced chemical
equation, Conclusion

Post-Lab Questions
1. If HA = 204 g/mol; H2A = 126 g/mol; H3A = 192 g/mol, determine the % error in the molar
mass that you determined. {PS, 2}
% error = absolute value of [(your result – accepted value)/accepted value] * 100%

2. How—specifically—would the calculated molar mass of the unknown acid change if all of the
solid acid was not transferred to the erlenmeyer flask used in the titration? {C, 2}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name__________________________

Stoichiometry: Limiting and Excess Reagent, or

“Who’s the Boss?”
___________________________________________________________

You will carry out the following chemical reaction with the indicated quantities.

2Al(s) + 3CuCl2(aq)
3Cu(s) + 2AlCl3(aq) (equation 1)

0.25g 0.51g

NOTE:
• Al is in the form of aluminium foil
• CuCl2(aq) is light blue in colour
• Cu(s) is deposited as a spongy brown precipitate
• AlCl3(aq) is a clear, colourless, solution

Pre-lab Prediction
What do you expect to observe after the reaction is finished? What colour will the solution be?
Will there be any solid present? What colour will it be? Feel free to carry out any calculations.

Safety Notes
• Do not hold onto the beaker during the reaction. It can get hot.
• Wear safety glasses.

Procedure
To start the reaction, add some distilled water to the beaker containing the CuCl2 and the Al foil,
as directed by the teacher. Don’t add too much water. You may stir the solution with a glass rod.

Disposal
Dispose of chemicals in the designated waste containers only. Do not pour anything down the
drain.
Post-lab Questions
To be answered immediately after the reaction is carried out.

1. State your observations by answering the following questions:

a) What colour was the solution of CuCl2 before the Al foil was added?

b) What colour was the solution (not the solid in the solution) after the reaction was
complete? That is, did all of the CuCl2 react?

c) Based on the colour, what is the solid formed in the solution?

d) Did all of the Al foil react? How do you know?

2. a) Based on your observations and the answers to post-lab question #1 above, which
reactant was initially present in excess amount, the copper (II) chloride or the aluminium?

b) How does this observation compare with your Pre-Lab Prediction? If possible, propose
an explanation. Carry out calculations to support this. If you're stuck, proceed to question
#3.
3. Reconsider the balanced chemical equation for the reaction performed, along with the
quantities of each reactant used.

2Al(s) + 3CuCl2(aq)
3Cu(s) + 2AlCl3(aq)

0.25g 0.51g

a) Convert the number of grams of Al into moles. Do the same for CuCl2.

b) From the balanced equation (see above), note that the ratio of aluminium to copper (II)
chloride is

2 mol Al : 3 mol CuCl2

From your calculations in part (a) above, state the actual mol : mol ratio of Al : Cu used
in this experiment. Fill in the blanks below.

mol Al : mol CuCl2

Rewrite this ratio in the form of

mol Al : 3.00 mol CuCl2

c) Based on the above:

i. which reactant is present in excess?

ii. which reactant is limiting?

d) Is this consistent with your empirical observations? Explain briefly.

e) Is this consistent with your pre-lab prediction? Explain briefly.

Further Questions:
4. Based on your answers in question #3 above, calculate:
a) The number of moles of Cu metal formed in the reaction;

b) The mass of Cu metal formed in the reaction;

c) The number of moles and mass of unreacted Al remaining at the end of the reaction.

5. What mass of CuCl2·2H2O is required to furnish 0.51 g of anhydrous CuCl2? (Hint: Look up
hydrated ionic compounds.)
—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name:__________________

Determination of the Thickness of Aluminium Foil

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to determine the thickness of a sheet of
Aluminium foil in an experiment of your own design. The reference materials
and equipment/chemicals in our laboratory are available.

Pre-lab Questions:
1. Is this experiment qualitative or quantitative? Explain. (C)

2. Can an ordinary ruler alone be used to measure the thickness of Al foil? Explain. (C)

3. What is required to complete the experiment? (I) Think in terms of:

• equipment
• chemicals/supplies
• reference materials.

4. In point form, state the procedure. You may be able to come up with more than one
method. (I)
Crescent School
SCH3U name: __________________________

Experiment:
Determination of the Thickness of Aluminium Foil
Post-lab Questions:
1. Using your empirical data, determine the thickness, in millimetres, of a sheet of Al foil.
Provide a neat, well organized solution below. No rough work on this sheet. (I)

2. Comment on your result. Is it reasonable? If you used more than one method, in which one
do have more faith? (C)

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name________________________

Calculations with Measured Quantities

The mass of several plums is as follows:

58.3 g
75 g
53.5 g
55.1 g
65.24 g

Calculate the average mass of a plum.

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: ______________________________
Observation of a Burning Candle
Introduction
You will observe a burning candle to study some of physical and chemical processes associated
with combustion.

Pre-lab Questions (Answer in the space provided, before you begin the experiment. You may
consult your textbook or another resource as required.)

1. Aside from wax (fuel) state two requirements for combustion of candle wax. {K/U, 2}

___________________________ ___________________________

2. What are the units for the following? For example, the rate of walking = metres per second
or m/s or m•s–1
a) eating crackers _______________________________________________________________
b) a snail moving _______________________________________________________________
c) What is common to all units of rate? ______________________________________________

Materials
large candle, 3”x5” index card or piece of cardboard, 250 mL beaker, wire mesh, matches
wooden splint, access to electronic balance, bunsen burner, sparker, tongs

Safety
Wear safety glasses; blazer off; tuck your tie into your shirt as demonstrated. This is standard
procedure for all labs.
Procedure
Part 1 Teacher Demonstrations
a) The catalytic combustor consists of a 2.5 cm diameter glass tube fitted with a ceramic
honeycomb. Observe the catalytic combustor in use. Record your observations below:

b) Observe as the teacher heats solid candle wax in a beaker.

What happens to the wax as it is heated? ______________________________________

What happens when a lighted splint is held above the melted, hot wax? ____________________

You will make use of this observation later on in this lab.

c) What do you observe when a large beaker is inverted over a burning candle? ______________

What do you observe when a lighted splint is inserted into this inverted beaker?
______________________________________________________________________________

From these observations, write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of
wax, a hydrocarbon, whose average formula is represented by C25H52.

______________________________________________________________________________
Now write a balanced chemical equation, in terms of n, for the complete combustion of a
hydrocarbon with formula of CnH2n+2.

1 CnH2n+2(g) + _____ O2(g)
__________________________________________________

Part 2. The burning candle
a) Light the larger candle. Drip some wax onto a piece of cardboard and stand the candle in the
melted wax. Hold the candle upright until it can stand alone.
b) Place the candle and stand on the electronic balance and record its initial mass.
c) Light the candle; let it burn for 1 minute or so. Then record the mass of the candle and stand
every 15 seconds for ca 3 minutes. Record your data Table 1.

Table 1. Mass data for burning of a candle (after 1 minute “warm-up”)

time (seconds) mass (g)
0
30
60
90

d) Using EXCEL, plot the mass of the candle (y-axis) vs. time (x-axis). The teacher will
demonstrate. Provide a descriptive title for the graph, label axes (with units). Draw a line of best
fit on the graph; include equation of the trend line and the R2 value. Attach the graph.

What does the shape of the line tell you about the rate of combustion over time?
______________________________________________________________________________

How does the mass of uncombusted wax affect the rate of combustion?
______________________________________________________________________________

Part 3. The 250-mL beaker

a) Lower a clean, dry 250-mL beaker, right side up, into the candle flame, and hold
it there for a moment. The candle flame should just touch the bottom of the beaker.
What is the substance that forms on the bottom of the beaker? _________________________
b) Is the combustion that occurs in a candle complete or incomplete (circle one)?
Part 4. Re-light the candle without touching the wick
a) Light the candle and allow it to burn for 1 minute.
b) Hold a wooden splint in the candle until it catches fire.
c) Blow out the candle with a short puff of breath. Immediately hold the burning splint about 1
cm from the wick in the smoke rising from the candle without touching the candle. Observe and
record what happens. __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

d) Based on your observation, what is combusting when a candle is burning (circle one):

solid wax liquid wax gaseous wax the wick

e) Is it possible to light the bottom of a candle? Explain. _______________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Part 5. The Wire Mesh

a) Light the candle. Holding the (room temperature) wire mesh horizontally using tongs, slowly
lower the mesh over top of the flame of your candle.

b) Record what happens. _________________________________________________________

c) Why do you suspect the mesh stopped the flame from burning? ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
d) Light the Bunsen burner. Holding the wire mesh horizontally using tongs, slowly lower the
mesh over top of the flame of the Bunsen burner, until the mesh is directly over the inner blue
cone of flame of the Bunsen burner.

e) Hold still and observe any patterns that form on the mesh. What shape do you see in the mesh?

______________________________________________________________________________

f) What does this tell you about the horizontal cross-sectional shape of the Bunsen burner flame?

______________________________________________________________________________
g) Place the hot wire mesh back over the burning candle. Observe what happens.
Based on this, what effect does the temperature of the mesh have on the candle flame?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: ______________________________

Data Analysis: Measurement, Significant Figures, Precision, Accuracy

[ref: Chem 13 News, Feb 2008, p 15]

Accuracy represents how close a measurement is to the accepted value.

Percentage error is defined as

% error = │measured value – accepted value│ x 100%

accepted value

Precision has two meanings:

1. How close a group of measurements of the same thing are to each other. For
example, if you throw five darts at a dartboard and they all land close to each
other, the throws are precise. Note: high precision doesn’t necessarily mean high
accuracy; your closely-grouped darts may be well away from the bull’s eye.

2. The number of significant digits, or decimal places in a measurement. For

example, a ruler graduated in mm is more precise than a ruler graduated in cm.

Below are some student-determined data for the density of ethanol, CH3CH2OH, aka
beverage alcohol.

Descriptive Title of Table: ________________________________________________

Trial
Measurements (@ 20oC) ↓
1 2 3 4 5
mass of graduated cylinder + ethanol (g) 47.78 55.22 65.96 73.27 124.29
mass of empty graduated cylinder (g) 43.43 43.43 43.43 43.43 43.43
mass of ethanol (g) 4.35 11.79 22.53 29.84 80.86
volume of ethanol (mL) 5.0 15.0 27.9 37.3 100.0
density of ethanol (g·mL-1)

Analysis Questions
1. a) Write a suitable title for the data table in the space provided above the table.
{C, 1}

b) What was the smallest scale division (graduation) on the graduated cylinder
used to obtain these data? {K/U, 1}

________________________________________________________________
2. Write the calculated values for density of ethanol in the final row of the table. Pay
close attention to significant figures. {PS, 3}

3. In terms of definition #2 of precision, circle the most precise value for the density
of ethanol. {K/U, 1}

4. Using spreadsheet software, plot the following graphs on the same set of axes:
a) mass of (graduated cylinder + ethanol) (y-axis) versus volume ethanol (x-axis);
b) mass of ethanol only (y-axis) versus volume ethanol (x-axis).

Plot an “X-Y (Scatter)”—as it is called in EXCEL—not a line graph for each.

Label each axis appropriately; include proper units. Provide a descriptive title to
the graph—NOT simply y versus x.
For each graph, add a trendline. Include on the graph the equation of each line in
the form of y = mx + b; include the “R2” value associated with each line.

The graph should fit on one page. Staple it to this assignment.{C, 10}

5. a) How do the slopes of each line compare? ____________________ {K/U, 1}

b) What property of ethanol is represented by the slope of each line? {K/U, 1}

_____________________________________________________

c) With reference to the graph of mass of (graduated cylinder + ethanol) versus

volume ethanol, what is the significance of the y-intercept?
__________________________________________________ {K/U, 1}

d) In a perfect world, what should the y-intercept value be for the graph of
mass of ethanol versus volume ethanol? _____________________ {K/U, 1}

6. a) Using all five trials, determine the average value for the density of ethanol;
pay close attention to sig figs. Answer below. {PS, 3}

b) How does the value determined above compare to the slope of the lines?

________________________________________________ {K/U, 1}
7. The accepted value of the density of ethanol at 20oC is 0.789 g/mL. Calculate the
% error of the average density of ethanol. {PS, 2}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U

Determination of the Molar Mass of Propane

by Downward Displacement of Water

NB. DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE OVER UNTIL YOU ARE ASKED TO DO SO.

The purpose of this activity is to determine the molar mass of propane, _____________ .
After the experiment, sketch the apparatus below, to the right of Hank Hill:

“Molar mass is something we talk about

a lot over at Strickland Propane, I tell you what.”

We will collect propane from a compressed gas cylinder by downward displacement of

water.

How can we use the ideal gas law, PV = nRT to determine the molar mass of propane?

Aside from the downward displacement apparatus and the gas cylinder, what equipment
will be required? What data must we record?
Let’s do the collection . . .

Explain why the propane that we have collected is contaminated with water vapour.
Think about the method that we used.

How can we know the total pressure of the gas(es) inside the collection vessel?

The vapour pressure of water (at the temperature of the experiment) must be
subtracted from the total pressure of the gases.

Temperature (oC) Pressure (kPa)

19 2.20

20 2.33

21 2.49

22 2.81

23 2.99

24 3.17

25 3.36

This table is also on page 558, Table 12.4 and is on our data sheet.
Let’s do the calculations . . .

Determine the percentage error of our empirically determined value for the molar mass of
propane, C3H8.
Questions
1. a) What two criteria must be met such that a gas can be collected by d.d. of water?

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
b) Why must the water level in the gas collection vessel be the same as in the
surrounding beaker when recording the volume of gas collected?

c) When a gas is collected by downward displacement of water, what

adjustments to any calculations must we make?

2. Calculate the mass of dry hydrogen in 750 mL of moist hydrogen collected over
water at 25.0oC and 99.5 kPa. The water level inside and outside the collection
vessel are equal. [Answer: 0.0585 g]

3. A 296 mL sample of oxygen is collected over water at 23oC on a day when the
barometric pressure is 750.3 mmHg. The water level inside and outside the
collection vessel are equal. What volume would the dry oxygen occupy at 48oC
under a pressure of 101.3 kPa? [Answer: 307 mL]

4. A 5.42 L sample of a gas was collected over water on a day when the temperature
was 24.0oC and the barometric pressure was 706 mm Hg. The water level inside
and outside the collection vessel were equal. The dry sample of gas had a mass of
5.60 g. What is the molar mass of the dry gas? [Answer: 28.0 g/mol]

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name____________________________

Demonstration: The Combustion of Propane

or

_______________________________________________________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In this demonstration, we’ll look at the complete combustion of propane, C3H8. Begin by
balancing the chemical equation that represents this reaction:

1 C3H8(g) + ________ O2(g)
________ CO2(g) + ________H2O(g)

propane

NOTE:

• source of O2 is air, which is 21% O2

• combustion will occur in a clear 2-L pop bottle
• propane gas will be collected by downward displacement of water, as illustrated by the
teacher
• watch the reactions; complete the table below

volume C3H8 explanation

trial reacted, mL observations (think in terms of the relative
(assume SATP) amounts of propane and air)

1 40

2 80

3 160
Re-write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of propane:

1 C3H8(g) + ________ O2(g)
________ CO2(g) + ________H2O(g)

propane

ie 1 mol C3H8 : ________ mol O2

or 1 volume C3H8 : ________ volume O2

(air is 21% O2)

or 1 volume C3H8 : ________ volume air

Based on this ratio, calculate the optimal volume (mL) for propane and for air, assuming a total
volume of 2-L. Do preliminary calculations on scrap paper. Your neat, annotated answer goes
below.

Go back to the beginning of this handout; write another descriptive title for this activity.
[reference: Zhilin, D.M.; J Chem Educ, 2012, 89, 649-651.]

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________

Determination of Molar Mass of Acetone (C3H6O) on a Jumbo-Scale

Mr J. carried out following experiment in our lab to determine the molar mass of acetone.
You will be doing a smaller scale version of this experiment in an upcoming lab—and on
the laboratory exam. A demonstration follows . . .

Equipment/supplies
• 2-L Erlenmeyer flask with Al foil cap (pin-hole in cap)
• 2 plastic wastepaper/recycling baskets—big enough to hold a 2-L flask
• large capacity balance
• some acetone (a liquid at room temperature)
• thermometer
• barometer
• kettle

Procedure
• Weigh clean, dry 2-L flask with Al cap.
• Add few mL acetone, replace Al cap, swirl to "coat" insides of flask with acetone.
There should be no more than 1 mL of liquid acetone at the bottom of the flask
after swirling.
• Submerge as far as possible, without wetting the Al cap, in hot water (>60oC) til
all of the acetone vapourizes.
• Record the temperature of the hot water bath immediately after you remove the
flask. This is the temperature of the acetone vapour in the flask. (The vapour is in
thermal equilibrium with the hot water.)
• Condense the acetone vapour by submerging flask in cool water. Again, do not
wet the Al cap.
• Dry the flask.
• Re-weigh the flask.

Data
mass of condensed acetone 4.44 g
temp of hot water bath 62 oC
Patm (classroom barometer) 757 mmHg
Volume of flask 2.12 L

Use these data, and whatever else you require, to calculate the molar mass of acetone
with % error. You can probably fit your calculations somewhere on this page.
—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U

Demonstration: Examination of the Reactivity Trends in Alkali Metals

We carried out the reaction of each of Li, Na, K with water in order to
• determine the products of the reaction using various chemical tests;
• examine the trends in reactivity for the alkali metals

The reaction of lithium with water is represented by the balanced chemical equation:

2 Li(s) + 2 HOH(l)
2 LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

Similarly for Na and K.

We used the following tests/observations to verify the products:

• The aqueous solution of LiOH conducted electricity, indicating the presence of

dissolved ions. As a control, we tested a solution of LiOH and obtained the same
result. Similarly for NaOH, KOH.

• We collected the hydrogen gas by downward displacement of water and

conducted a “pop” test. The H2 was not collected when Na and K were reacted
with water. Reactions were too vigorous; the hydrogen could have combined with
oxygen in the air and exploded.

• A few drops of phenolphthalein (note the weird spelling) turned the solution pink,
indicating the presence of hydroxide, OH– ions and a basic solution. As a control,
we tested a solution of LiOH and obtained the same result. Similarly for NaOH,
KOH.

• A red-coloured flame test on the resultant solution indicated that Li+ ions were
present. (Na produced a yellow flame; potassium’s flame was violet.) Controls
were also carried out.

• The reaction of Li with water was pretty tame; Na reacted much faster; K reacted
so vigorously that the hydrogen ignited, producing a violet-coloured flame.

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________

Review Questions—Measurement and Significant Figures

1. Someone says to you: “There were about 50,000 people at the concert.” What
level of confidence do you have in this number? Rewrite this number in scientific
notation to properly reflect your confidence in this value. {MC,1} ___________

2. a} Why do counted quantities have an infinite number of significant figures

associated with them? {C, 1}__________________________________________

b} What is assumed about the right-most digit in any measured quantity? {K/U,
1}
_______________________________________________________________
c} What rule must you follow when taking measurements with an analogue scale?
{K/U,1}___________________________________________________________
d} How do we handle uncertainty when using a measuring device with a digital
readout? {K/U, 1}
___________________________________________________

3. How much water is in the graduated cylinder illustrated below? Read the bottom
of the meniscus. {K/U,2}

4. Indicate the number of significant figures and underline the estimated digit in
each of the following: {K/U, 1 mark each}
a) The railing is 12.865 m long. _____________________________________
b) The volume of the car’s gasoline tank is 48.7 L _______________________
c) The mass of cement is 55.73 kg. ___________________________________

5. a} Rewrite the measured quantity 0.00460 g in sci. notation. {C,1} ___________

b) Explain why the three left-most zeros “disappear” when this number is re-
written in scientific notation. {C,1} __________________________________
______________________________________________________________
c) Explain why the right-most zero does not disappear when this measured
quantity is re-written in scientific notation. {C,1} _______________________
____________________________________________________________
 d) In your own words explain the term accuracy. Illustrate your answer with an
example. {C,1}
__________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. a} In your own words explain the two meanings of the term precision. Illustrate
each with an example. {C,2}
i. _______________________________________________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________________

b} A chemist carries out the same experiment five times to determine the volume
of a sodium hydroxide solution required to neutralize an acid sample. She obtains
the values 12.84 mL, 12.28 mL, 12.30 mL, 12.27 mL, 12.29 mL. What average
volume of sodium hydroxide solution should be reported? Show calculations.
{PS, 2}

7. A student wishes to determine the density of aluminium using several chunks of

the metal. The student masses each piece to be 15.7g; 16.2g; 9.15g. He puts all of
the pieces into a water displacement can, the displaced water occupying a volume
of 14 mL.
What density will the student obtain? {PS, 3}

8. A 9.76 g sample of table sugar is placed in a 25.00 mL flask. The flask is then
topped up to the 25.00 mL mark with benzene(l). The sugar and benzene have a
total mass of 26.31 g. The sugar does not dissolve in the benzene. If the density of
benzene is 0.879 g/mL, what is the density of sugar? {PS, 5}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U names: ________________________
________________________

Thought Lab: Determination of the Molar Mass of Two Unknown Gases

In this activity you will use empirical data to determine the molar mass of two gases.
Together with other information, you will be able to identify each gas.

The answers to #1 and #2 will help with the rest of this assignment. You must show your
calculations, but no rough work on this paper.
1. Air is composed of 78% N2; 21% O2; 1% Ar (v/v). Determine the average molar mass
of air. {PS, 3}

average molar mass of air = ____________________________

2. Two identical flasks at the same T and P each contain a different gas. How do the
number of moles of gas in each flask compare? {K/U, 1}
_______________________________________________________________________
Calculation of Molar Mass of an Unknown Gas:
3. Gas #1

NOT COLLECTED BY DOWNWARD DISPLACEMENT OF WATER
mass of “empty” flask + lid (flask contains air*) 450.64 g
mass of same flask + lid + unknown gas (no air) 452.05 g
volume of flask 2.28 x 103 mL
Patm 750.1 mmHg
room temperature 24oC
Use these data, determine the molar mass of Gas #1. Hints: Use your answers to Q 1 & 2
above. Your first calculation should be to find the number of moles of air in the flask.
(Remember: 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa; R = 8.31 L·kPa·mol–1·K–1; 0oC = 273K)

molar mass of Gas #1: _____________________________________

Additional Information on Gas #1

• density = 1.83 g/L @ SATP
• clear, colourless, odourless
• does not support combustion
• the solid compound sublimates at room temperature.

4. Identity of Gas #1 is _______________________________________

5. Gas #2

NOT COLLECTED BY DOWNWARD DISPLACEMENT OF WATER
mass of “empty” flask + lid (flask contains air) 505.90 g
mass of same flask + lid + unknown gas (no air ) 504.83 g
volume of flask 2.27 x 103 mL
Patm 750 mmHg
room temperature 23oC
Use these data, determine the molar mass of Gas #1. Hints: Use your answers to Q 1 & 2
above. Your first calculation should be to find the number of moles of air in the flask.
(Remember: 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa; R = 8.31 L·kPa·mol–1·K–1; 0oC = 273K)

6. molar mass of Gas #2: _____________________________________

7. Explain how the following information supports the fact Gas #2 is natural gas (aka
Bunsen burner gas) ? {C, 4}
• less dense than air
• clear and colourless
• flammable when mixed with O2
• a small amount of sulfur-containing compound is added to the gas to give it a
disagreeable odour; ie. the sample of gas analyzed was not 100% pure
8. a) If natural gas is (v/v);

CH4 94.5 %
C2H6 3.0%
C3H8 0.2%
N2 1.6%
CO2 0.7 %

Find the average molar mass of natural gas. {PS, 3}

average molar mass of natural gas: ______________________________________

b) Calculate the percentage error in the molar mass of our natural gas, compared to the
above. {PS, 2}

9. The carbon dioxide was obtained from dry ice (CO2(s)); the methane from our gas taps.
How did we get a large flask full of each gas, uncontaminated with air or water vapour?
{C, 4}

Acknowledgement: The concept, data collection and analysis by Andy Arrowsmith, class
of 2006. Andy supplied the dry ice; he carried out research in our Chemistry lab.

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: ________________________

Empirical Determination of the

Molar Volume of H2(g) and of O2(g) @ ca. SATP
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review of the Mole Concept

The mol is a unit of _____________________________________________ {K/U, 1}.

Mol Quantities {K/U, 4}

1.00 mol contains 6.02 x 1023 _______________________________________________;

For an element such as He or K or Fe,

1.00 mol contains 6.02 x 1023 ___________________________________.

For a molecular compound such as H2O,

1.00 mol H2O contains 6.02 x 1023 ______________________________ .

For an ionic compound such as NaCl,

1.00 mol NaCl contains 6.02 x 1023 ______________________________.

The Avogadro constant, 6.02 x 1023 particles*mol–1, is determined (circle all that apply):
a) empirically b) theoretically c) qualitatively d) quantitatively {K/U, 2}

Molar Mass
The mass of 1 mol of an element or compound can be calculated using data from the

___________________________________________________ . {K/U, 1}

Molar Volume of a Gas

We also know that the volume of 1 mol of any gas at SATP (25oC, 100kPa) is 24.8 L.
Pre-lab Preparation
1. In the space below, construct a “map” of the mol concept, incorporating three
different aspects of the mole. Your class notes may be helpful. {K/U, 3}

1 mol
2. Consider a sample of 37.5 g of CH4(g) at SATP. Convert this amount to
a) moles (Show your calculations; pay attention to sig figs; include proper units.)
{PS, 3 x 2 = 6}

Ans: ___________________
b) number of molecules

Ans: ___________________
c) volume at SATP

Ans: ___________________
Purpose of the Experiment
In this experiment you will determine the molar volume of H2 and O2 under conditions
that are very close to SATP. We will separately prepare H2 and O2 and collect each of
these gases by downward displacement of water. This technique will be demonstrated by
the teacher. The apparatus is illustrated below:

figure 1. Apparatus for collection of gas by downward displacement of water.

A. Preparation of hydrogen gas, H2(g)

You will produce hydrogen gas according to the unbalanced chemical equation:

1 Mg(s) + ____HCl(aq)
____MgCl2(aq) + ____H2(g) (eq’n 1)

A measured amount of magnesium will be reacted with excess hydrochloric acid,

HCl(aq), and the hydrogen collected by downward displacement of water. We will
measure and record the volume of H2(g) collected.

3. Eq’n 1 above is an example of a _______________________________ reaction.

{K/U, 1}
4. Balance eq’n 1 by filling in the blanks above. {PS, 1}

5. Refer to the balanced chemical form of eq’n 1. If the coefficients in the balanced
chemical reaction refer to moles, how many moles of H2(g) will be produced for
every mole of Mg that reacts? {PS, 2}

1 mol Mg produces ______ mol H2(g), or

x mol Mg produces ______ mol H2(g)

6. We use an excess of HCl(aq) in this experiment. Explain why this makes things
easier. {C, 2}
7. When 2.47 g of Mg reacts completely with excess HCl(aq), 2.3 L of H2 was
collected by downward displacement of water. Use these data and your answers
to the above questions to calculate the molar volume of H2 in L/mol. Pay close
attention to sig figs; include proper units throughout your calculation. {PS, 3}

molar volume of H2(g) = _______________

8. Complete the left hand column of the data table for Part A below in preparation
for the experiment.

B. TEACHER DEMONSTRATION: Preparation of oxygen gas, O2(g)

You will react household bleach (5.0 % (m/v) sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl(aq)) with
10% (m/v) hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 according to the balanced chemical equation

H2O2(aq) + NaOCl(aq)
O2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) (eq’n 2)

The O2 produced will be collected by downward displacement of water and its volume
measured and recorded.

9. As the reaction proceeds, the mass of the reactant solution will decrease as O2 is
given off. If 1.3 g of O2 is produced and is found to occupy 983 mL, calculate
the molar volume of O2 in L/mol. Pay close attention to sig figs; include proper
units throughout your calculation. {PS, 3}

molar volume of O2(g) = _______________

10. We will use 100 mL of bleach (an excess amount) in a 500 mL flask and several
mL of 10% H2O in a small vial. We will carefully lower the vial into the flask
without mixing the solutions. Fill in the data table for Part B as the teacher
completes the demonstration.
Materials
Each pair of students requires:
• access to an electronic balance
• 2 x 250 mL erlenmeyer flask with one-holed stopper and some glass tubing
through the hole
• ca. 1m rubber hose attached to the glass tube above
• pneumatic trough
• retort stand and clamp
• 50 mL 1 mol/L HCl
• ca. 0.20 g Mg ribbon
• sand paper or emery paper to clean Mg ribbon
• 250 mL erlenmeyer flask in which to collect the H2(g) in part A
• 250 mL flask to collect the O2(g) in part B
• 100 mL fresh household bleach (in a 500 mL flask fitted with one-holed stopper)
• ca. 10 mL of 3% H2O2(aq) in a test tube (or ca 3 mL 10% H2O2 diluted to ca. 10
mL)
• 2 small pieces paper towel

Safety Notes
• wear safety goggles and an apron throughout the experiment
• if any hydrochloric acid, bleach or hydrogen peroxide gets on your hands, wash
with plenty of water

The teacher will demonstrate how to carry out Part A; Part B is a demonstration.
We will pool our data at the end of the experiment.
Record data for Part A here: Mg + HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Record data for Part B here: H2O2(aq) + NaOCl(aq)
O2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Data Analysis & Post-Lab Questions
11. a) Use your data from Part A, and what you learned from completing the pre-lab
questions, to determine the molar volume of H2(g) in L/mol. {PS, 3}

molar volume of H2(g) ____________________________

b) Use your data from Part B, and what you learned from completing the pre-lab
questions, to determine the molar volume of O2(g) in L/mol. {PS, 3}

molar volume of O2(g) ____________________________

12. a ) How do the molar volumes of H2(g) and O2(g) that you determined compare to
each other? {C, 1}

b) According to what you know about the mole concept as it relates to gases,
should the molar volume of H2(g) and O2(g) be the same? Explain briefly. {C, 2}

c) Calculate the average molar volume of H2(g) and O2(g). {PS, 2}

d) The accepted molar volume of any gas is 24.8 L at SATP (25oC, 100 kPa).
Calculate the percentage error of your average molar volume of H2 and O2.
{PS, 2}

e) Were the conditions under which we worked close to SATP? {C, 1}

13. This question relates to Part A of this experiment. If you react 0.20 g of Mg with
0.100 L of HCl(aq) whose concentration is 1.0 mol HCl per litre of solution (1.0
mol/L), prove that the HCl is present in an excess amount. Make sure to use the
balanced chemical equation. {PS, 3}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U

Isolation of Acetone from Nail Polish Remover by Distillation;

Microscale Determination of Boiling Point of Acetone;
Determination of Molar Mass of Acetone by the Dumas Method

References
Szafran, Z; Pike, RM; Foster, JC; Microscale General Chemistry Laboratory with
Selected Macroscale Experiments; J Wiley and Sons, New York, 1993, p 59 & p 155

Introduction
Nail polish remover typically contains acetone, CH3COCH3.

You will begin the experiment by distilling nail polish remover in order to collect pure
acetone. This separation will leave any higher-boiling ingredients, such as the colouring
agent behind.

You will determine the boiling point of the distillate—acetone—using a unique, and
highly accurate microscale method.

Finally, you will determine the molar mass of acetone using the Dumas Method. This
involves vapourizing excess acetone in a container of known volume, at a known
temperature and pressure, followed by condensing the gaseous acetone in a cool water
bath. The mass of the liquefied acetone corresponds to the mass of the acetone vapour
previously in the flask. Using the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT, you can determine the
number of moles of acetone vapour in the flask. Since you know the mass of vapour that
was in the flask, and the corresponding number of moles, you can calculate the molar
mass (g/mol) of acetone.

Purpose
1. To distill acetone-containing nail polish remover;
2. To measure the boiling point of acetone using a unique, microscale method;
3. To determine the molar mass of acetone.

Safety Precautions
Wear safety glasses and a lab coat/apron throughout the experiment. If anything gets on
your skin, flush with plenty of cold water. Advise the teacher of any broken glass, spills,
or mishaps.
Materials
For the class:
One or more distillation apparatuses, set up in the fumehood.
50 mL acetone-containing nail polish remover;
several centigram electronic balances;
several electric kettles.

Each group requires:

2 - 600 mL beakers;
micro test tube; ca 1 cm long glass capillary tube with one end sealed;
2 small elastics (orthodontic);
clean, dry, glass "Everfresh" juice bottle with pinhole in the metal screw-on cap.
100 mL graduated cylinder.

Disposal
Dispose of chemicals as directed by the teacher—nothing down the sink.

Prelab Questions:
1. a) bp of acetone (from Merck Index or Internet) = _________________
b) calculated molar mass of acetone, C3H6O, = _________________

2. You must complete the handout entitled "Determination of Molar Mass of

Acetone on a Jumbo Scale", on the next page.
 Determination of Molar Mass of Acetone (C3H6O) on a Jumbo-Scale
Mr J carried out following experiment in our lab to determine the molar mass of acetone.
You will be doing a smaller scale version of this experiment in an upcoming lab—and on
the laboratory exam. A demonstration follows . . .

Equipment/supplies
• 2-L Erlenmeyer flask with Al foil cap (pin-hole in cap)
• 2 plastic wastepaper/recycling baskets—big enough to hold a 2-L flask
• large capacity balance
• some acetone (a liquid at room temperature)
• thermometer
• barometer
• kettle

Procedure
• Weigh clean, dry 2-L flask with Al cap.
• Add few mL acetone, replace Al cap, swirl to "coat" insides of flask with acetone.
There should be no more than 1 mL of liquid acetone at the bottom of the flask
after swirling.
• Submerge as far as possible, without wetting the Al cap, in hot water (>60oC) til
all of the acetone vapourizes.
• Record the temperature of the hot water bath immediately after you remove the
flask. This is the temperature of the acetone vapour in the flask. (The vapour is in
thermal equilibrium with the hot water.)
• Condense the acetone vapour by submerging flask in cool water. Again, do not
wet the Al cap.
• Dry the flask.
• Re-weigh the flask.

Data
mass of condensed acetone 4.44 g
temp of hot water bath 62.0 oC
Patm (classroom barometer) 757.0 mmHg
Volume of flask 2.12 L

Use these data, and whatever else you require, to calculate the molar mass of acetone
with % error. You can probably fit your calculations somewhere on this page or on the
previous page.
BOTH LAB PARTNERS: READ THE ENTIRE PROCEDURE BEFORE YOU BEGIN.

Procedure

1. Distillation
Several students can share the same distillation apparatus. Review your notes on the
distillation that you did at the beginning of the course.
• Fill the ‘stil pot no more than ¾ with nail polish remover.
• Add a boiling stone.
• Have the teacher approve your distillation apparatus before you begin.
• Discard the first few mL of distillate in the organic chemical waste beaker
provided.
• Record the temperature of the thermometer in the ‘stil head as the distillate is
collected.
• Collect a further 5 mL of distillate in a clean test tube labeled with your name.

Temperature of ‘stil head thermometer during collection: _________________

2. Microscale Boiling Point Determination of Distillate

Lab Partner #1
• Using a clean pipet, add pure acetone to a height of about 1.5 cm to the mini test
tube.
• Place a 1 cm microcapillary tube, open end down, in the above tube containing
the acetone as shown in figure 1. The microcapillary tube must be leaning against
the walls of the test tube.
• With an elastic band, fasten a thermometer to the test tube, with the bulb of the
thermometer even with the bottom of the test tube.

Small test tube thermometer

Hot water bath

Capillary tube (open
end down)

Figure 1. Assembly for micro boiling point determination

Lab Partner #2
• Prepare a hot water bath at 60oC (no lower), using hot water from the kettle mixed
with cold tap water if necessary.

Both Partners
• Place the mini test tube/thermometer assembly in the hot water bath as shown in
figure 1.
• Within seconds you should see a steady stream of bubbles (acetone vapour)
exiting the open end of the microcapillary. This indicates boiling.
• As the temperature decreases, the bubbling rate will decrease.
• At this point one student should keep an eye on the bubbling while the other
watches the thermometer. Remember to estimate between the two smallest scale
divisions.
• The boiling point of the sample is reached when the last bubble exits the
microcapillary.

Experimentally determined boiling point of distillate: ____________

• Detach the mini test tube, with elastics, from the thermometer and place the test
tube in the beaker provided in the fumehood for later disposal by the teacher.

3. Determination of Molar Mass of the Distillate

metal lid with pin-hole

beaker of hot water (above bp

of acetone)

thermometer

few mL of liquid acetone in juice bottle

Figure 2. Assembly for determination of molar mass

 • Record the mass of a clean, dry bottle, including lid.

• Remove the lid from the bottle; add a few mL of pure acetone; swirl to "coat" the
inside of the bottle with acetone. There should be no more than 1 mL of liquid
acetone at bottom of bottle. Recap the bottle.

• In a 600 mL beaker, prepare an approximately 60oC warm water bath using water
from the kettle and cold tap water, if necessary. (The water temperature must be at
least above the bp of acetone.)

• In another 600 mL beaker, prepare a similarly-sized cold tap water bath.

• Place a thermometer in the hot water bath.

• In the next steps, do not let water touch the lid of the flask.

• With your hand, immerse the bottle, to just below the top in the hot water bath, as
shown in figure 2, until the liquid acetone vapourizes.

• When the acetone has vapourized, record the temperature of the water bath—this
is the temperature of the vapour at this point in the experiment.

• Quickly transfer the flask to the cold water bath. Allow to cool for several
minutes.

• Remove the flask from the water bath. Dry it, and re-weigh.

Record Experimental Data Here (there are more spaces than you’ll need)
Post Lab Questions
1. Write an appropriate abstract for this experiment below. {C, 3}

2. a) How did the temperature at the ‘stil head, as you collected the distillate, compare
with the boiling point of the distillate that you determined? {K/U, 1}

b) How does the boiling point that you obtained compare with the accepted boiling
point for acetone? That is, what % error did you obtain? {I, 2}

3. Use the data you collected in part 3 to determine the molar mass of acetone
(g/mol). Pay attention to units throughout the calculations. No rough work on this
sheet. {I, 4}

experimentally determined molar mass of acetone = ________________________.

4. a) The formula for acetone is C3H6O. What was your percentage error in the molar
mass? {I, 2}

b) How could you re-do this experiment, using different equipment in our lab, to
make it more accurate? Hint: Consult pre-lab questions. {I, 1}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name_______________________

Types of Chemical Reactions—something to think about:

Required Background: Types of Chemical Reactions (synthesis, decomposition, single

displacement, double displacement, combustion)

Question: When Na metal is added to CuSO4(aq), what reaction should occur?

Let's try the reaction. List observations below:

1. What, specifically, is present in an aqueous solution of CuSO4?

2. What is produced during the reaction of Na with CuSO4(aq)?

3. What happens to what is produced during the reaction?

4. What remains after the reaction?

Write three chemical equations to explain your observations. Use these to answer the initial
question.

5. _________________________________________________________________________

6. _________________________________________________________________________

7. _________________________________________________________________________

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________

A Determination of the Percentage Oxygen (v/v) in Air

[references: JCE Editorial Staff, J Chem Educ, 2001, 78, 512A; Martins, GF, 1987, J Chem
Educ, 64, 809; Birk, JP; McGrath, SK, J Chem Educ, 1981, 58, 804.]

Air is not pure oxygen. Its composition, in terms of % by volume, is illustrated as follows:

In this investigation, you will make use of the rusting of iron to determine the % O2 (v/v) in air.
Iron reacts with moist O2(g) to produce a mixture of hydrated iron (III) oxides, Fe2O3·nH2O and
iron (III) oxide-hydroxide, FeO(OH)·Fe(OH)3.

To keep things simple, and with no loss of accuracy in the experiment, we’ll represent the rusting
of iron with the equation:

4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g)
2 Fe2O3(s) (eqn 1)

Steel wool is a virtually pure iron, with a high surface area.

The experimental apparatus is illustrated in figure 1. We will use a lot less steel wool—not much
is required.

Each pair of students requires:

2 - 100 mL glass graduated cylinder (the second graduated cylinder can be shared between two
groups)
grease pencil
small, loosely packed “ball” of steel wool, about 0.3 g will be more than enough, to fit inside the
graduated cylinder
1- L beaker filled with tap water
tongs
stirring rod
access to some acetone (in the fumehood)
ca 20 mL of 50% vinegar ([acetic acid] ≈ 0.4 mol/L)
several paper towels
 100 mL glass graduated cylinder (I know,
it looks like a test tube . . . get over it.)

We’ll use a lot less steel wool that

is illustrated here.

Figure 1. Experimental set up

Brief Procedure
NB. This does not tell you what measurements need to be taken, or when to take them. See—and
complete—the pre-lab questions.

• Perform this step in the fume hood. Start by washing the piece of steel wool you were
given with a bit of acetone. This will remove any oil from the steel wool. Press the steel
wool dry between paper towels.
• “Fluff” the steel wool to increase its volume, so it will fit snuggly in the bottom of the
graduated cylinder.
• Hold the steel wool with tongs and place it in a 50% vinegar solution for a few seconds.
Remove the steel wool from the vinegar solution, shake off the excess vinegar—no need
to dry it—and carefully, so as not to compact the “ball” of steel wool, use the stirring rod
to move the steel wool to the bottom of the graduated cylinder.
• Invert the graduated cylinder in the beaker of water as illustrated in Figure 1.
• Wait for the reaction between the steel wool and the oxygen in the air to finish.

Table 1. Experimental Data (There may be more cells than you require.)
Pre-lab Questions
1. a) Why wash the steel wool with acetone? {K/U, 1}
b) Why would the manufacturer of steel wool put a thin layer of oil on it prior to packaging?
{K/U, 1}

2. What do you expect to happen to the water level in the graduated cylinder as the reaction
proceeds? {K/U, 1}

3. a) Roughly speaking, how long do you expect this reaction to take—a few seconds, a few
minutes, a couple of hours, overnight, a week? Provide some justification for your answer.
b) How will you know—visually—when the reaction is over? {K/U, 1}

4. a) Should the amount of iron used be limiting or excess? Explain with the aid of eqn 1 above.
{PS, 2}
b) Explain why the steel wool need not be weighed before the reaction. {K/U, 1}

5. a) Is the volume of the steel wool used in this experiment an important thing to know? Explain
briefly. {C, 3}
b) Explain how you could determine the volume of the steel wool used. {K/U, 2}
c) Parts (a) and (b) aside, explain why can we ignore the volume occupied by the steel wool.
{C, 3}

6. Complete Table 1 to indicate which data must be recorded before and after the reaction. {K/U,
2}

Post-Lab Questions
1. The usual lab report, maximum 1 page. (Descriptive title, abstract, data, calculations, answers
to questions, conclusion.)

2. Use the data you obtained in the experiment to determine the %(v/v) O2 in air. Pay attention
to the proper use of significant figures. {PS, 3}

3. a) If the following side reaction were to occur during this investigation, explain how it would
it affect the %(v/v) of O2(g) in the air that you determined.

Fe(s) + 2 CH3COOH(aq)
Fe(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)

b) Is it possible that this reaction occurred in your experiment? Explain briefly. {C, 2}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name______________________________

Quiz: Reactivity of Alkali Metals with Water-b

total marks = ______

12
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This quiz is based on the demonstration of the reaction of Li, Na, K with water.

1. Write the unbalanced chemical equation for the reaction of potassium with water.
Be sure to include the physical states as appropriate: (s), (l), (g), (aq). {K/U, 4}

2. A positive “pop” test proves the existence of hydrogen gas. Write the unbalanced
chemical equation that corresponds to the pop test itself, NOT to the production of
hydrogen gas. Be sure to include the physical states as appropriate: (s), (l), (g), (aq).
{K/U, 4}

3. What did we do to prove that the resultant solution(s) were basic? Be sure to include the
corresponding observation. {K/U, 2}

4. List the order of reactivity (with water) of the alkali metals we tested. List the least
reactive alkali metal on the left. {K/U, 2}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name:_______________________

Assignment: Determination of the Atomic Radius of an Aluminium Atom

This assignment builds on your previous determination of the thickness of a piece of Aluminium
foil. You will need either:
a) the measurements and the calculated thickness of the foil—among other things—to determine
the radius of one aluminium atom, or
b) the density and mole concept
preferred method.

Assume that an aluminium atom is spherical. To make it easier, think of the sphere sitting inside
a cube. Stack the cubes.

Provide a diagram with your answer.

State your answer for the radius of an aluminium atom in picometres (pm),
where 1 pm = 10—12m.

1. Show your calculations, with units. Pay attention to significant digits.

2. Look up the accepted value of the radius of an Al atom. State the % error in the value you
determined. State your source.

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________

Let’s Take the Fun Out of Rum & Coke

Those of us over the age of 19, may, from time to time, enjoy a mixed drink. In Canada, rum
mixed with cola has proven to be a popular libation. Julian, of Trailer Park Boys, swears by it.

a) Calculate the concentration, in mol/L, of sodium ions, sucrose, ethanol, and caffeine in 200
mL of a rum and coke beverage prepared by mixing 1 part rum with 4 parts coca-cola? Assume
volumes are additive.

b) Calculate the ppm concentration of sodium ions in this beverage. What simplifying
assumption must be made to be able to solve this problem? Why is it okay to make this
assumption?

Coca-Cola contains Rum contains 40% (v/v) ethanol, C2H5OH

30 mg sodium (as Na+) per 250 mL (density of ethanol = 0.79 g∙mL–1)
30 g sugar (assume sucrose C12H22O11) per 250 mL
34.5 mg caffeine (C8H10N4O2) per 355 mL

On this sheet, provide a neat, well organized answer. Do rough work elsewhere.

—fin—
+
Answers: a) [Na ] = 0.0042 mol/L; [sucrose] = 0.28 mol/L; [caffeine] = 0.000401 mol/L; [ethanol] = 1.4 mol/L
b) [Na+] = 97 ppm. Assume density of the beverage is 1.0 g/mL (same as water); this allows us to equate 1000 mL
of the drink with 1000 g. To 2 sig figs this is a reasonable assumption.
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________

Determination of the Water Solubility of CO2 and of CH4

Introduction
We recently did some research on the reaction of Alka-Seltzer tablets with aqueous
solutions of vinegar. A graph of our class data is reproduced below.

You calculated that each A-S tablet contains about 1.6 g of NaHCO3, while the
manufacturer claims 1.9 g. We attributed the lower amount of NaHCO3 to the solubility
of CO2 in water—the solvent for the acetic acid (vinegar). Let's see if this is true.

In this experiment you will determine the solubility of carbon dioxide in water. By
comparison, you'll also measure the water solubility of methane (CH4).

Materials
• pneumatic trough
• retort stand and clamp
• 3 – 500 mL Erlenmeyer flasks
• 2 – 2-L beakers
• 1000 mL graduated cylinder
• 2 rubber stopper to fit two of the 500 mL flasks
• one-holed rubber stopper fitted with a rubber hose to fit the other 500 mL flask
• another rubber hose attached to gas jet (source of methane)
• vinegar (60 mL)
• 2.5 g NaHCO3 (baking soda) wrapped in some paper towel
• Saran Wrap
• grease pencil
General Instructions
• The CO2 will be prepared by reacting NaHCO3 with excess vinegar.
• The CO2 will be collected by downward displacement of water until it completely
fills a 500 mL erlenmeyer flask.
• Stopper this flask, and transfer it—inverted—to a 2-L beaker that contains 1000
mL of water, accurately measured. Then remove the stopper from the inverted
flask, allowing the CO2 to be in contact with the water. The teacher will
demonstrate.
• Cover the entire apparatus with Saran wrap. Label the beaker with your initials.
• You will examine the beaker next class to determine what volume (mL) of CO2
dissolved in the water.
• For comparison, you will also measure the water solubility of natural gas, which
we will assume is pure methane, CH4, in a similar manner. Get the methane from
the gas tap.

Pre-Lab Questions (Answer on a separate sheet.)

1. a) Why is it necessary to measure the total volume of a 500 mL erlenmeyer flask?
b) How do you propose to measure the total volume of a 500 mL erlenmeyer flask
using the equipment provided?

2. Why is it necessary to have a known volume of water, 1000 mL in this case, in

the large beaker?

3. On the data tables on the following page, indicate what needs to be recorded
today and what needs to be recorded next class.

4. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of vinegar and baking soda.

Data Collection
Record data in the tables below. There may be more spaces than you need.

1. For the solubility of CO2

2. For the solubility of CH4

Post-Lab Questions (Answer on a separate sheet.)

1. Use your data to calculate the solubility of CO2 in water in units of mol/L, g/L,
mL(SATP)/L.

2. Use your data to calculate the solubility of CH4 in water in units of mol/L, g/L,
mL(SATP)/L.

3. a) The Merck Index (11 edition, entry 1816) states solubility of CO2 to be 80 mL
CO2(g)/100 mL of water at 20oC. Calculate the percentage error of your
experimentally determined value.
b) How do you expect the solubility of CO2 in water at 10oC and at 60oC to
compare to its solubility at room temperature?
4. The Merck Index (11th edition, entry 5863) states the solubility of methane to
be 3.5 mL CH4/100 mL H2O at 17oC. Calculate the percentage error of your
experimentally determined solubility of CH4.
5. Qualitatively explain why CH4 has such a low water solubility.
6. Write a suitable abstract for this experiment.

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name __________________________________

Visible Spectrophotometry and the Beer Lambert Law

Pre-lab questions due: ____________________________

Graphs due: ____________________________________
Post-lab questions due: ___________________________

Purpose
The purpose of this laboratory is to:
• learn how to use the Spectronic 20 (the Spec 20), a spectrophotometer;
• record the visible-region spectrum of solution of strawberry Kool-Aid, and to determine its
wavelength of maximum absorption, λmax.
• determine the relationship between the absorbance of light and concentration of a solute; to
“discover” the Beer-Lambert Law
• use a spreadsheet to perform calculations and plot graphs
• prepare and use a calibration curve based on the Beer-Lambert Law

Introduction
This experiment deals with the absorbance of light by solutes in aqueous solution.
Coloured compounds absorb visible light—that's why they are coloured. Conversely, compounds
that dissolve in water to produce clear solutions do not absorb visible radiation—they transmit
virtually 100% of the visible-region light shone through them.

You will be given an aqueous solution of Kool-Aid crystals, prepared at 1.12 g/L in a small
beaker.
In part A you will:
i. use the Spec 20 to analyse the absorption of light by the solution from 400 nm to 700 nm.
ii. determine the wavelength at which the solute, the Kool-Aid, absorbs the most light (λmax).

In part B you will determine the relationship between the absorbance of light at the λmax of a
solution as a function of the concentration of the solute.

Background Information
What is Light?

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) postulated that light
consisted of particles—now called photons. In the early twentieth century, scientists began to
consider light as a wave. Today, both models of light are used, depending on the application.
This is known as Wave-Particle Duality of light.
In this experiment, we will consider light as a wave. Light waves make up a small part of what is
known as electromagnetic radiation. Radio and TV transmissions are electromagnetic radiation;
so are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light and X-rays.

high frequency low frequency

gamma rays X-rays UV Visible IR microwaves radio/TV

short λ long λ

400 nm 700 nm

Figure 1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum. Visible light—light that the human eye can perceive—
is only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, 3.00 x 108 m/s. The frequency, f, and the
wavelength, λ, are related by the universal wave equation

v = f·λ (eqn 1)
The transmittance of light, T, by a solution is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation
transmitted by the solution.

T = Pt/Po (eqn 2)
where Pt is the power of light transmitted by the solution and
Po is the power of the light that is incident on the solution.
(Units of power, P, are W; transmittance has no units, since it
is a ratio of two power values.)

Transmittance is sometimes given as a percentage.

%T = 100% * T (eqn 3)
Alternatively, we may wish to consider the amount of light absorbed by a solution.
While it may seem reasonable that the absorbance, A, and transmittance, T, of light by a given
solution are reciprocals of one another, this is not the case. They are related by the equation

A = -log10(%T/100) (eqn 4)
(For a derivation of this equation, dust off your calculus and see, for example, D A Skoog and D
M West, Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 3rd ed, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
1976, p 505, or any advanced analytical chemistry text.)

Schematic Diagram of a Spectrophotometer—a Spec 20

The light source in a Spec 20 is a tungsten lamp. This lamp gives off all wavelengths of visible
light. To get a light of a specific wavelength—monochromatic light—a wavelength separator
such as a prism or diffraction grating is used. This is called a monochromator.
Figure 2. Schematic of a single beam spectrophotometer such as a Spec 20.

In Part A of this experiment we will examine the absorbance of visible light by a solution of
strawberry Kool-Aid solution. Since the Spec 20 operates at only one wavelength at a time, we
will “scan” the 400 nm to 700 nm region in 20 nm increments. For reasons that will be clear to
you later in the experiment, use 10 nm increments in the region 480 nm to 540 nm.
Pre-lab Questions (Answer on a separate sheet.)
1. Prepare a set of EXCEL tables and graphs as follows:
a) For Part A: Table 1 with columns for λ (nm) , %T, A
Graph 1: A (y axis) versus λ (x axis)

You will record your data directly into the EXCEL spreadsheet you prepared.

b) For Part B: Table 2 with columns for %T, A, [Kool-Aid]

Graph 2: A versus [Kool-Aid]

2. What is the mathematical relationship between the % Transmittance of a solution and the
Absorbance of light by the solution?

3. Read the procedure for Parts A and B. Then visit the website
http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Concepts/Html/analogspec20instructions.html

for an animated tutorial on how to use the Spec 20.

a) You have a, say, 6.24 g/L solution of a Kool-Aid. Explain, with the aid of a calculation,
how you would prepare 10.00 mL of a 2.34 g/L solution. You have a medicine dropper and a
10.00 mL graduated cylinder—the poor man’s volumetric flask).

4. Why is it necessary to calibrate the Spec 20 before use?

5. Refer to step #4 of the Part A procedure below. After the cuvette is rinsed with distilled
water, why is it necessary to subsequently rinse it with a few mL of the Kool-Aid solution
before the filling the cuvette with the same Kool-Aid solution?

Part A: Det'n of the Absorbance Spectrum of Your Kool-Aid Solution

1. The Spec 20 will be warmed up for 15 minutes prior to class to stabilize the light source.
2. Look carefully at the scales on the Spec 20. Why do we record %T—and subsequently
convert it to A—when we could simply record A right off the scale? (If you're using the
digital machine, record %T anyway and let your spreadsheet convert it to A.)
3. Use the wavelength control knob on the top right of the Spec 20 to set the wavelength to
400 nm. This is the first wavelength that will be used. Some Spec 20s have a filter
adjustment located at the lower left of the front of the machine. If so, set this for the range
340 - 599 nm. When wavelengths greater than 599 nm are selected, adjust the filter
accordingly.
4. Rinse a clean cuvette with some distilled water. Now rinse the same cuvette with a few mL
of your Kool-Aid solution. Now fill the cuvette with your Kool-Aid solution. Fill another
clean cuvette with distilled water.
5. With the sample compartment empty, adjust the left-hand knob on the front of the Spec 20
to read 0%Transmittance, or 0%T. (When the sample compartment is empty, the “gate” is
closed. No light passes through it, hence 0% transmittance.)
6. Wipe the cuvette containing distilled water with a tissue. Insert it into the sample
compartment, lining up the white vertical line on the cuvette with the raised mark at the
front of the sample compartment.
If the cuvettes are always inserted this way, any imperfections in the glass will constitute a
systematic, rather than a random error. (Why is this important?)
7. Adjust the right-hand knob on the front of the Spec 20 to read 100%T. This allows the Spec
20 to ignore any absorbance of light due to the solvent—distilled water in this case.

You must repeat the calibration steps (#5—7) every time a new wavelength is selected.

8. Place the cuvette containing your Kool-Aid solution in the sample compartment; close the
lid. Read and record the value of %T, estimating the decimal place. (Why estimate the
decimal place?)
9. Repeat step 7 for wavelengths 420 nm to 700 nm in 20 nm increments. Use 10 nm
increments between 480 nm and 520 nm.
10. Using a spreadsheet program, convert %T values to absorbance, A. Plot a graph of A versus
λ for strawberry Kool Aid. Identify the wavelength of maximum absorbance of light, λmax.
Check this value with the teacher before proceeding to Part B.

Part B: Determination of the Relationship Between Absorbance of Light and

Concentration of the Solute: the Beer-Lambert Law.

11. Set the λmax , determined in Part A, on the Spec 20. Calibrate the Spec 20 at this λ as in
steps 5—7 above.
12. Record the %T of your Kool-Aid solution at this λ. Once again, enter this into a speadsheet
program and convert it to A. Use these data to plot a graph of A (y axis) versus [Kool-Aid]
(g/L) on the x axis.
13. You must now record the %T (and hence A) for several diluted solutions of Kool-Aid of
known concentration. Use the equation McVc = MdVd, a 10 mL graduated cylinder and a
medicine dropper to perform these dilutions.

NB The concentration of the Kool-Aid stock solution is 1.12 g/L.

14. a) Draw the line of best fit (or better yet, let the spreadsheet do it) on this graph of A versus
[Kool-Aid] in units of g/L.

b) Determine the slope of the best-fit line (or let the spreadsheet do it) and write the
equation of the line.

Post-Lab Discussion
Bring your graphs to our next class for a useful post-lab discussion. This will help you answer
the post-lab questions.
 name __________________________________
Visible Spectrophotometry and the Beer Lambert Law

Post-Lab Questions (Answer neatly in the space provided.)

1. Write the Beer-Lambert Law. You must be able to explain this equation and how to use it.
{C, 1}

2. Use your graph of A vs [Kool-Aid] (square brackets around a chemical name or formula
refers to the concentration of that substance, in the specified units) to determine the value
of ε, the molar extinction coefficient, for strawberry Kool-Aid] at its λmax. Include proper
units for ε. {K/U, 3}

3. Imagine that you have a solution of strawberry Kool-Aid of unknown concentration.

Explain how your graph of A vs [Kool-Aid] can be used, along with a Spec 20, to
determine the concentration of the given strawberry Kool-Aid solution? {K/U, 2}

4. a) Remember that mass (g) of a given compound can be converted to moles, provided that
the molar mass of the compound is known. That means that for a compound of known
molar mass, concentration units of g/L can be used interchangeably with mol/L. Why did
we express the concentration of the Kool-Aid solution in g/L rather than mol/L? (C)

b) Why do chemists prefer using moles, rather than grams, whenever possible? (C)

5. A certain blue dye (F D & C Blue #1) has an ε value of 1.38 x 105 mol–1•L•cm–1 at its λmax
of 630 nm. A sample of the dye is analysed in a Spec 20 at 630 nm in a cuvette of diameter
1.25 cm. The transmittance is recorded to be 38.6%. What is the concentration, mol/L, of
the dye? (PS)

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name_____________________

Let’s get started: Analysis of a Mixture

Since this is the first activity in 11 Chemistry, we will begin with a pre-lab discussion. Take
notes; record answers to pre-lab questions as appropriate.

Introduction and Pre-Lab Questions

It has been suggested that the sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11(s)) packets available in coffee shops and
cafeterias may, in some cases, be “cut” with baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate, also
called sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3(s)).
1. Why might sugar—in a sugar packet—be mixed with baking soda?

______________________________________________________________________________

You will be given three 1.0 g samples, each labelled with an identification number, which you
will record.
2. Why is it necessary to record the identification number of each sample?

______________________________________________________________________________

Your job, should you choose to accept it, is to identify each sample, and to explain your
reasoning.

3. a) Explain why you are not allowed to taste the samples that you are given in the lab?

______________________________________________________________________________
b) Why is it okay to taste a sample obtained from a cafeteria?

______________________________________________________________________________
Materials/Equipment

• 3–1.0 g samples, each labelled with an identification number: pure sucrose; pure
NaHCO3; ca 50/50 mix of sucrose/NaHCO3.
• phenolphthalein indicator in dropping bottle
• conductivity apparatus
• some aqueous acetic acid, CH3CO2H(aq)—commonly called vinegar
• Beral pipet
• access to an electronic balance
• distilled water
• beakers, etc

Useful information:

• Phenolphthalein (note the spelling) is an acid-base indicator: it is clear in acidic

solution; pink in solutions of pH > 8
• Solutions that contain dissolved ions conduct electricity
• Vinegar reacts with baking soda to produce carbon dioxide gas, and other products.

4. Identify sucrose and NaHCO3 as either ionic or covalent compounds.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. On scrap paper, complete question 6 now. Then . . .

a) Based on your predicted results, do you expect this investigation to be qualitative or
quantitative? Explain briefly.
b) Will the addition of phenolphthalein and a test of electrical conductivity give you enough
information to unambiguously identify each sample? Explain briefly.

6. On a separate sheet, prepare a neatly drawn table to record the tests that you plan to do.
Include ID numbers of each sample and a separate column for predicted observations as well as
actual observations.

7. Explain why reading the post-lab questions before beginning the investigation is a good idea?

Get busy.
Post-lab Questions (Answer—neatly—on a separate page; no rough work will be marked.)
8. Identify each unknown you were given. Briefly explain your reasoning.

9. What are your take-aways from this investigation? Namely . . .

a) Was the investigation qualitative or quantitative?
b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of vinegar with baking soda. Include
physical states of each reactant and product—(s, l, g, aq).
c) Write a note on how you used a conductivity meter and phenolphthalein indicator to help you
in this investigation.
d) What role, if any, did the vinegar play in this investigation?
e) Imagine: You’re sitting in McDonald’s with your friends, who are not chemists. The
McDonald’s people aren’t stupid: they won’t add baking soda to the sugar. Yet someone at your
table insists that they do. Explain how you could prove that there is no baking soda mixed with
the sugar. Remember—you’re sitting in McDonald’s.

—fin—
Crescent School
11 Chemistry (SCH3U) name: ________________________

Preparation and Testing of Soap

references: J Chem Ed Classroom Activity #14, J Chem Ed, 76, 2, Feb 1999, p 192B
http://waltonfeed.com/old/soap/soaptabl.html
Hill and Petrucci, General Chemistry, 6th edition, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 1999

Introduction
Download (Green Room) and view the Power Point presentation on soap before
completing this lab.

Soap is a special type of molecule. It has a long, non-polar hydrocarbon tail and an ionic
head.

non-polar hydrocarbon ‘tail’ polar ‘head ‘

Soap molecules surround a droplet of oil by dissolving their non polar tails in the oil. The
polar head dissolves in the surrounding water forming a micelle. This is how soap
emulsifies fat or oil.

A soap micelle.

The emulsification of fats and oils (non-polar) in water (polar) allows fats and oils to be
washed away.
In this experiment you will prepare a simple soap using coconut oil and a concentrated
solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq). (Sodium hydroxide can be purchased at the
hardware store. Ask for lye.)

The chemical reaction involved in the synthesis will be discussed further in AP

Chemistry.

Hardness of Water
Hard water has a high mineral content. This content usually consists of high levels of
metal cations, mainly calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+).

Calcium ions (and Mg2+ ions) react with soap anions (eg stearate anions) to form
sparingly soluble "soap scum", in the form of calcium stearate. (Apologies for the
spelling of calcium stearate below—downloaded from internet; not editable)

Soap scum reduces the efficiency of soap. It can also leave a residue on clothing.
Calcium stearate can clog pipes and leave a nasty-looking bathtub ring as well.

Materials
• electronic balance; hot plate
• alcohol thermometer; stirring rod
• 10 mL graduated cylinder; 2 – 50 mL beakers
• 20 g coconut oil in a 50 mL beaker; 20 mL of 6.0 mol/L NaOH in 50 mL beaker
• piece of plastic wrap (10 cm x 10 cm)
• small sample of coconut oil-based soap to use in tests, if these tests are to be done
on the same day as the soap preparation
• four test tubes containing ca 5 mL of each: distilled water, tap water, “hard water,
“soft” water—in a test tube rack
• universal indicator in dropping bottle

Teacher Demonstration:
Both dishwashing detergent and automatic dishwasher powder will be added to
samples of distilled water, tap water, “hard water, “soft” water. All of the
observations will be discussed.
Safety Precautions
• Wear safety goggles and a lab apron throughout the experiment.
• Do not allow the electrical cord from the hotplate to dangle over the edge of
the bench. Listen carefully to the teacher’s instructions.
• If 6.0 mol/L NaOH solution gets on your skin, wash immediately with plenty
of cold water. Notify the teacher.
• Be careful not to push the stirrer through the bottom of the styrofoam cup
when you are stirring.

Procedure: Preparation of a Simple Coconut Oil-Based Soap

1. Label a small styrofoam coffee cup with your initials.
2. At the same time, place the 20 g of coconut oil, in a 50 mL beaker, and the 50 mL
beaker containing 20 mL of 6.0 mol/L NaOH using a hot plate. When these
samples have reached ca. 45oC +/- 5oC, carefully pour both into the styrofoam
cup, with stirring.
3. Stir the mixture constantly for about 20 minutes until it has the consistency of
cold honey. Take note of what you see. If the mixture does not thicken after
fifteen minutes of stirring, let it sit for about three minutes. Then stir it for a few
more minutes.
4. Lay some plastic wrap directly on top of the soap, in the styrofoam cup. Leave the
soap in the location suggested by the teacher. We will examine—and use—the
hardened soap next class.

Testing of Soap (and Detergent—Teacher demonstration) Performance in Different

“Types” of Water

5. Test a few flakes of the coconut oil-based soap in ca 5 mL samples of water, as

outlined below. For pH testing, use two drops of universal indicator in each
sample.

Label the observation table below as outlined in Post-Lab #1.

distilled tap water “hard” water “soft” water pH

water
coconut oil-
based soap

dishwashing
“liquid”
automatic
dishwasher
powder
Crescent School
11 Chemistry (SCH3U) name: ________________________

Preparation and Testing of Soap

Post-Lab Questions
1. Do the observations bear out your expectations regarding the performance of soap
and of detergent in “hard” water? Explain briefly, including a chemical equation.
{C, 2 + 1}

2. Given that kitchen drains are frequently clogged with grease or oil, explain why
commercial drain cleaners such as Drāno contain NaOH as the active ingredient.
Include, at a minimum, a word equation in your answer. {C, 2 + 1}
3. Briefly explain how soap works to emulsify fats and oils. Provide a diagram of a
micelle in your answer. Be as specific as possible in your diagram. {C, 2 + 1}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name___________________________

Separation of a Heterogeneous Mixture by Physical Means

Objective: To separate a mixture of _______________________________________ .

Experimental Procedure: Design your own procedure and then carry out the separation. Any
necessary equipment/supplies will be available.

Note: A technique called decanting may be helpful here. A demonstration will be given.

Pre-lab Questions
1. a) What is a heterogeneous mixture? (C)

b) What is a homogeneous mixture? (C)

2. What physical properties do you plan to make use of in this separation? (K/U)

3. Write a step-by-step procedure, or flow chart, for the separation. (C)

Crescent School
SCH3U name____________________________

Activity - Separation of a Heterogeneous Mixture by Physical Means

Post-Lab Questions
1. Which component of the mixture did you separate first? Explain. (C)

2. Why is it important not to add too much water to the mixture? (C)

3. a) At what point in the experiment did you decant? (C)

b) What advantage is there to decanting? (K/U)

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U
A Simple Distillation: Purification of Salt Water
Introduction
Salt water is an aqueous solution of table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl). More specifically, salt
water consists of aqueous sodium ions, Na+(aq), and aqueous chloride ions, Cl—(aq).
One way to purify salt water is to distil it. This involves boiling the salt water and condensing the
steam.

A chemical reaction will be used to verify the purity of the distillate.

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to purify a salt water solution by distillation, and to
test that the distillate is free of salt.

Note:
• Aqueous solutions of sodium chloride (NaCl(aq)) and of silver nitrate AgNO3(aq)) are clear
and colourless.
• Silver chloride, AgCl, a white solid, is insoluble in water.
• Make sure that several boiling stones are present in the 'still pot. They are required for even,
controlled boiling.

Safety: Wear safety goggles. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, immediately rinse with plenty
of cold water.

figure 1. a simple distillation apparatus

Procedure
1. Testing for the presence of chloride ions (present in NaCl) in water.
Control: In a well plate or test tube, add a three drops of silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq) to a
few mL of distilled water. Record your observation. Dispose of this solution in the appropriately
labelled chemical waste beaker.
Positive Test: Add a three drops of silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq) to a few mL of salt water,
NaCl(aq). Record you observation. Dispose of this solution in the appropriately labelled chemical
waste beaker.

Here’s an explanation of the positive test. Aqueous silver ions (from silver nitrate solution) react
with aqueous chloride ions (from sodium chloride solution) to form a white precipitate of silver
chloride, AgCl as follows:

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaCl(aq)

white precipitate

2. Assemble the distillation apparatus. Make sure that several boiling stones (boiling chips or
boileezers) are present in the 'still and that cooling water is (slowly) flowing through the
condenser. Check with the teacher before lighting the burner.
! Discard the first 5 mL of water collected.
! Collect several more mL of water. Test for the presence of chloride ions with silver
nitrate solution. Note your results.
! Carefully note the temperature during the distillation. Remember to estimate between the
two smallest scale divisions.

Class Demonstration
The teacher will set up a sample of boiling water and boiling salt water. Compare these boiling
points to the one shown on the thermometer during the distillation. (Answer Post-Lab # 2 now.)

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is the purpose of the condenser {K/U, 1}?

2. Provide a definition for the terms aqueous and precipitate. You may consult the glossary
of your chemistry textbook, or the internet. (C)

3. Use the internet to find the meaning of boiling point elevation. (K/U)

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name _________________________
A Simple Distillation: Purification of Salt Water
Post-Lab Questions
1. What two pieces of evidence suggested that the distillation was successful? {K/U, 2}

2. a) What temperature was recorded for pure boiling water in the teacher
demonstration? __________________
What temperature was recorded for boiling salt water, NaCl(aq), in the teacher
demonstration? __________________
What temperature did you record during your distillation? ______________
b) Is the temperature recorded during the distillation the same as that of boiling salt
water? Explain briefly; think about boiling point elevation. {C, 2}

c) In one sentence, explain the significance of the temperature reading on the

thermometer during a distillation. Do not refer specifically to your distillation, but
to any distillation. Use the word distillate (i.e. the liquid that distils over.) in your
answer.{C, 2}

3. Explain why distillation involves a physical separation. {C, 2}

4. Why it is possible that a homogeneous mixture of two liquids might not be amenable to
separation by distillation? {C, 2}

5. Explain how you would distill a sample of water containing methanol (b.p. 65oC) and
table salt, NaCl. That is:
a) Which component of the given solution will distil first? {K/U, 1}

b) What will remain in the distillation pot (i.e. the flask that contains the solution to
be distilled) at the end of the distillation? {K/U, 1}

6. Why must boiling stones be used in the distillation flask? {K/U, 1}

7. State one practical application of distillation other than the purification of salt water that
you did in this lab. {MC, 1}
—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: _______________________________
A Few Chemical Tests
In this activity, you will carry out several chemical tests:
1. Burning splint test for the presence of CO2(g).
2. “Pop” test for hydrogen gas (H2(g).
3. Glowing splint test for the presence of O2(g).
4. Addition of AgNO3(aq) to a solution to test for the presence of NaCl.

Materials
Each pair of students requires
wash bottle with distilled water
250 mL beaker to use as test tube holder
small piece of masking tape to label test tubes
4 empty test tubes
10 mL of 1.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
1 cm piece of magnesium (Mg)
1 labelled test tube containing 5 mL salt water
1 test tube containing a tiny bit of MnO2(s)
250 mL beaker containing ca 2 g of baking soda (NaHCO3)
25 mL vinegar (HC2H3O2(aq))
bunsen burner with igniter
wooden splint
5 mL salt water in small labelled beaker

Procedure
1. Add a few mL of vinegar (acetic acid, HC2H3O2(aq)) to the baking soda (NaHCO3(s)) in the beaker provided. The
following represents the chemical reaction that occurs:

HC2H3O2(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
NaC2H3O2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

acetic acid sodium hydrogen carbonate sodium acetate

When the reaction has subsided, insert a burning splint above the solution. Record your observations, with an
explanation, in the space below.

2. In a test tube, add several mL of 1.0 mol/L HCl(aq) to a piece of magnesium ribbon.
Loosely cover the mouth of the tube with your thumb to contain the gas.

Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Insert a burning splint into the mouth of the test tube. Record your observations, with an explanation, in the space
below.

3. Add a few mL of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2(aq)) solution to the manganese IV oxide (MnO2(s) powder in the test
tube provided. You will observe the reaction corresponding to:

MnO2
2 H2O2(aq)
2 H2O(l) + O2(g)

After the reaction has subsided, insert a glowing splint. Record your observations, with an explanation, in the space
below.
4. Obtain a few mL of each of three water samples: distilled water, tap water, salt water (NaCl(aq)). To each sample,
add two or three drops of silver nitrate (AgNO3(aq)) solution. Record your observations, with an explanation, in the
space below. The following chemical equation may help.

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Post-Lab Questions
1. Which of the above, #1 – 4, represent chemical reactions? How do you know? {C, 2}

2. What would you expect to see if a burning splint is inserted into a sample of pure O2? {MC, 1}

3. Write a balanced chemical equation to predict what would occur when AgNO3(aq) is added to a solution of
potassium chloride, KCl(aq). Be sure to indicate the physical state (solid (s), aqueous (aq), liquid (l), gas(g)) of each
reactant and product.{PS, 2}

4. a) Identify the chemical reactions in steps 2, 3, 4 as synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double
displacement or combustion. More than one description may apply in one of these reactions. {K/U, 3}

Reaction type

step 2. Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) ____________________________

MnO2
step 3. 2 H2O2(aq)
2 H2O(l) + O2(g) ____________________________

step 4. NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) ____________________________

b) What is the role of MnO2 in the reaction in step 3? {K/U, 1}

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name: _______________________________

Getting Started: A Quantitative Relationship in Popcorn Making

[reference: Fantini, JL; Fuson, MM; Evans*, TA; J Chem Ed, vol 83, March 2006, p 414]

In this experiment, you will investigate the correlation between the mass of an un-popped kernel
of popcorn with the mass of the popped kernel, called the flake.

Each pair of students requires:

• 250 mL erlenmeyer flask with one-holed rubber stopper and clamp attached
• bunsen burner and sparker
• 5 kernels of popping corn
• glass rod
• electronic balance

Procedure

1. Read these instructions; fill in the column headings in Table 1 on the back page; provide
a descriptive title for the table.
2. Record mass of kernel in Table 1.
3. Place massed kernel in erlenmeyer flask, replace one-holed rubber stopper.
4. Ignite bunsen burner—ca 4 cm tall flame (not too vigourous).
5. Grab flask by the clamp; move flask continuously over the flame—be vigilant—until
kernel pops.
6. Remove flask from flame; immediately invert flask to get the flake away from the heat.
7. Remove stopper to obtain the flake. Record mass of the flake.
8. Repeat for all the kernels you are given.
9. When you're done, record your data in the teacher's spreadsheet.

Data Analysis
Use either your data, or the class data, if posted on our website, to do the following:

1. With EXCEL, prepare a scatter plot–not a line graph–of flake mass (y-axis) versus kernel
mass (x-axis).
2. Label axes; include proper units. Provide a descriptive title for the graph, not simply
"flake mass vs kernel mass. "
3. Include only a line of best fit, called a trendline. Include the equation of the trendline
and the R2 value. Put your name on the graph, attach it to this handout. {C, 7}

. . . continued
4. a) In the space below, rewrite the equation of your trendline using "flake mass" and
"kernel mass" instead of "y" and "x". {C, 1}

flake mass = ____________________________________________________________

b) The R2 value from your graph = __________________________________________

In your own words, what does the R2 value represent?

_____________________________________________________________________

What R2 value corresponds to a prefect correlation?

_____________________________________________________________________

c) Look at the value of the y-axis intercept. Taking into account experimental
uncertainty, what do you think the real value of the y-axis intercept should be? {K, 1}

d) When popcorn is popped, water in the kernel is vapourized. From your graph, what is
the average percentage by mass, to two significant figures, of water in a kernel of
popping corn? {K, 1}

e) If we could somehow engineer uber-popcorn, whose kernel mass is 5.0 g, what,

according to your graph, would be the expected mass of the flake? {PS, 2}

5. What did you learn from this activity? Answer in concise sentences. {C, 2}
Table 1 ______________________________________________________________

trial

—fin—
Crescent School
AP Chemistry name:________________________

You’re in “Hot” Water!

Here’s the situation:

You have 100 mL of isotopically labelled water, 3H2O. That is, the water is made with
the radioactive isotope of hydrogen, tritium, 3H. Compounds that contain radioactive
isotopes are called “hot”.

You pour this 100 mL of “hot” water into the ocean and allow it to thoroughly mix.

Question:
After the “hot” water mixes thoroughly with the ocean water, you remove 100 mL of
ocean water. How many molecules of 3H2O do you expect there to be in this 100 mL
sample? (Ignore any radioactive decay of the tritium.)

Solution:
1. First, decide what information is required to solve the problem. Plan a strategy of
how you would solve the problem. Also, decide where you might look for this
information. You are not required to solve the problem at this stage, but simply
decide what is required and plan a strategy.

2. As part of a class discussion, ask whatever questions you think are necessary. The
teacher may or may not answer your question.

3. For homework, solve the problem. Be sure to pay attention to significant digits.
Do rough work on scrap paper. Put your neat, well-organized, step-by-step
solution on the back of this sheet. DO NOT SUBMIT YOUR ROUGH WORK.

[reference: D. Diemente, J. Chem. Ed., 77, 8, p1010 (August 2000)]

—fin—
Crescent School
SCH3U name_________________________

Determination of the Simplest Formula of Zinc Chloride

Introduction
In this experiment you will react a piece of zinc metal with a small excess of concentrated
hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) according to the unbalanced chemical equation:

Zn(s) + HCl(aq)
ZnxCly + H2(g)

Your job, should you choose to accept it, is to carry out this experiment in such a way as to
determine the values of x and y in ZnxCly.

Before you continue, read the pre-lab questions.

This will help you understand what you need to do.

Each pair of students requires:

access to fume hood
access to centigram electronic balance
electric hot plate
125 erlenmyer flask
ca 1 gram Zn
ca 15 mL conc (12 mol/L) HCl(aq)
dropper for the acid
latex gloves

Safety Precautions: Eye protection, latex gloves, lab apron. The entire reaction, except for
weighing, must be carried out in the fume hood.

General Procedure
It is up to you to decide what measurements need to be taken. We’ll have a pre-lab discussion.

Add concentrated HCl(aq) to the Erlenmeyer flask containing the zinc. Swirl the flask to speed
the reaction. Once the reaction is complete, dry the zinc chloride solution, which will contain
some unreacted HCl(aq), until you obtain a white, or off-white powder. That said, your
challenges include the fact that zinc chloride is deliquescent (see pre-lab questions). Further, in
the drying, it is important not to melt the zinc chloride.
Pre-Lab Questions

1. What type of chemical reaction occurs in this experiment? _______________________

{K/U, /1}
2. a) What does deliquescent mean? {C, /2}

b) What will you do, procedure-wise, to best deal with the fact that zinc chloride is
deliquescent? {K/U, /1}

3. State one reason why this experiment should be carried out in the fume hood.
Hint: Hydrochloric acid is prepared by bubbling hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g) into
water, according to:
HCl(g) + H2O(l)
HCl(aq)

4. Explain why this experiment is quantitative. {C /2}

5. Why is it suggested that you gently heat the flask as the zinc reacts with HCl(aq)?
{K/U, /1}
6. Complete the left hand column in the following data table. There may be more cells in
the table than you need. Provide an appropriate descriptive title in the space below.
{PS, /4}
Descriptive title: ___________________________________________________________
These data must be entered into the teacher’s spreadsheet before you leave the lab.

7. In point form, write a procedure for this experiment. {PS, /6}

Post-Lab Questions
8. Use your data to calculate the simplest formula of zinc chloride, ZnxCly. {PS, 5}

9. Explain why simplest formula is also known as the empirical formula. {C, 2}
10. a) How does the formula that you obtained compare with the accepted formula for zinc
chloride? {C, /1}

b) For each part below, you need to back up your answer. Provide a sample calculation—
do a “what if” calculation. How would the x : y ratio in the formula change if:
i. The zinc chloride obtained was not sufficiently dried before it was
weighed? Provide a sample calculation—do a “what if” calculation.
Answer on a separate sheet. {PS, /4}

ii. The zinc chloride was sufficiently dried, but was left on the lab bench for,
say one hour, before it was weighed? Provide a sample calculation—do a
“what if” calculation. Answer on a separate sheet. {PS, /4}

iii. Not all of the zinc metal reacted. Provide a sample calculation—do a
“what if” calculation. Answer on a separate sheet. {PS, /4}

11. Now that we’ve made zinc chloride, how could we recover the zinc as the pure metal?
Your answer should consist only of a balanced chemical equation, indicating the physical
state of all reactants and products. {K/U, 5}

—fin—