PLEASE NOTE: THE MATTER

PRODUCED BELOW IS

REFERENCE MATERIAL ONLY

FOR PREPARING THE

PROJECT REPORT. IT IS NOT

THE COMPLETE PROJECT

REPORT.

1
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
________________________________________________

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

____________________________________ ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
-------------------- (--------------)
--------------------- (---------------)
--------------------- (---------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and
encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project,
which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ________, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or
indirectly for the completion of this project.

3
 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘_______________________,

being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of _______________________
Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

4
Design & Fabrication of Mini
Hydraulic Jack

5
ABSTRACT

Here we study the fabrication of a mini hydraulic jack that

uses hydraulic power to operate the jack in vertical
movement. Our system consists of a smartly designed
hydraulic jack that is capable of lifting relatively heavy
weights as compared to its size. The system consists of a
lifting jack mechanism made out of light weight but
strong materials. This mechanism is then powered by a
syringe in a way as to achieve the most weight lifting
mechanism as compared to its size. The system consists
of a bed mounted on top of the mechanism where the car
or weight to be lifted is to be placed.

6
INTRODUCTION

HYDRAULICS: The word hydraulics is based on the

Greek word for water, and originally covered the study of
the physical behavior of water at rest and in motion. Use
has broadened its meaning to include the behavior of all
liquids, although it is primarily concerned with the motion
of liquids. Hydraulics includes the manner in which
liquids act in tanks and pipes, deals with their properties,
and explores ways to take advantage of these properties.
Although the modern development of hydraulics is
comparatively recent, the ancients were familiar with
many hydraulic principles and their applications. The
Egyptians and the ancient people of Persia, India, and
China conveyed water along channels for irrigation and
domestic purposes, using dams and sluice gates to control
the flow. The ancient Cretans had an elaborate plumbing
system. Archimedes studied the laws of floating and
submerged bodies. The Romans constructed aqueducts to
7
carry water to their cities. Torricelli, French physicist,
Edme Mariotte, and later, Daniel Bernoulli conducted
experiments to study the elements of force in the
discharge of water through small openings in the sides of
tanks and through short pipes. During the same period,
Blasé Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the
fundamental law for the science of hydraulics. Hydraulic
jack is based on the Pascal’s law which states that
increase in pressure on the surface of a confined fluid is
transmitted undiminished throughout the confined vessel
or system.

8
HYDRAULIC JACK
It is a short stroke hydraulic lift which is fed from hand pump.
The hydraulic jack may be portable. This is extensively used for
lifting automobiles usually to facilitate and repair. And for
replacing the punctured wheels. The hydraulic jack is perhaps
one of the simplest forms of a fluid power system. By moving
the handle of a small device, an individual can lift a load
weighing several tons. A small initial force exerted on the
handle is transmitted by a fluid to a much larger area. The
operation of hydraulic jack depends on ―Pascal‘s law which
states that when a fluid is at rest in a closed vessel and if a
certain pressure is applied at any point the pressure will be

9
transmitted equally in all direction. Mechanical advantage is
obtained by a practical application of Pascal‘s law of
transmission of fluid pressure. Two pistons of different sizes
operate inside two cylinders suitably connected with a pipe so
that pressure in each is the same. If ‘P’ is the pressure and ‘A 1’
‘A2’ are the cross sectional area of cylinder 1 and 2 respectively,
then a force ‘F1’ applied to the smaller plunger will lift the load
(W).

Here,

P= pressure of the fluid

A1 = small cylinder area

A2= larger cylinder area

F1 = force acting on smaller plunger

W = load lifted

If the volume of liquid is constant. The displacement of large

piston will be proportionate to smaller plunger.

10
WORKING OF HYDRAULIC JACK
Hydraulic jack works on the principle of ―Pascal‘s law. When the
handle is operated, the plunger reciprocates then the oil from the
reservoir is sucked into the plunger cylinder during upward stroke of the
plunger through the suction valve. The oil in the plunger cylinder is
delivered into the ram cylinder during the downward stroke of the
plunger through the delivery valve. This pressurized oil lifts the load up,
which is placed on top plate of the ram. After the work is completed the
pressure in the ram cylinder is released by unscrewing the lowering
screw thus the pressure releases and the ram is lowered, then the oil is
rushed into the reservoir. It consists of plunger cylinder on one side and
ram cylinder on the other side. These two cylinders are mounted on base
which is made of mild steel. Plunger cylinder consists of plunger which
11
is used to build up the pressure by operating the handle. Plunger cylinder
consists of two non-return valves i.e. one for suction and other for
delivery. Ram cylinder consists of ram which lifts the load. The ram
cylinder is connected to delivery valve of plunger cylinder. It also
consists of lowering screw, this is nothing but a hand operated valve
used for releasing the pressure in the ram cylinder to lower down the
load.

12
USES

 Automotive. Automotive manufacturing and repair

facilities utilize hydraulic jacks to raise and lower
vehicles with a high degree of precision and control.
These devices allow operators to inspect and work on
the vehicle’s undercarriage.

 Construction. Within the construction industry,

workers rely on hydraulic jacks to lift heavy loads,
such as pieces of construction material, equipment, or
entire structures. Other forms of these devices also
feature in equipment such as forklifts and bulldozers,
and in elevators systems in low- and medium-rise
buildings.

 Material Handling & Lifting. Hydraulic jacks find

use in many material handling applications. For
example, in industrial warehouses and facilities,
hydraulic pallet jacks allow operators to lift and
transport materials and equipment stacked on pallets.

 Railroad & Transportation. In the railroad and

transportation industries, hydraulic jacks enable
13
 workers to raise and lower rails for placement on the
track system.

 Mining. Large chunks of rock can present a major

obstacle to mining processes. Hydraulic jacks allow a
safe, controlled method of moving large pieces of
rock or other debris.

 Agriculture. Hydraulic jacks are used in a number of

agricultural machines, such as tractors, to raise and
lower tools and equipment to the proper working
height.

 Marine. Hydraulic jacks facilitate the construction of

ships and are used to load large components onto
finished boats and ships.

 Aerospace. Similar to their use in marine

applications, hydraulic jacks are employed in
construction and loading operations.

14
LITERATURE REVIEW

P.S. Rana et al. (2012)

In this research paper they have come up with the idea of
Integrated Automated Jacks for 4-wheelers in which the
jack is provided on both the sides of the vehicle and can
be easily operated with the help of a button placed at the
dashboard of the vehicle. This jack is specially designed
to overcome the difficulties faced by the senior citizens
and ladies who find it difficult to manually operate the
jack.

Mohammed Abuzaid et al. (2013)

In this research paper they have focused on an inbuilt
hydraulic jack system which is attached to automobile
vehicle on front and rear part of the chassis. There is a
front suspension hydraulic jack that is mounted centrally
to the front suspension of an automobile between its front
wheels. There is also a rear suspension hydraulic jack that
is mounted centrally to the rear suspension of the
automobile between its rear wheels. The system operates
from a compressed fluid reservoir tank that has
connections for the front and rear car jack outlets.

Mayank Agrawal et al. (2018)

This paper represents a study over in- built hydraulic jack
system and shows its benefits over traditional mechanical
15
jack system. The design of inbuilt hydraulic jack is also
studied and modified to require extent which can be seen
by analyzing design of prototype. An Inbuilt hydraulic
jack system can be easily operated by buttons provided on
the dash board of the vehicle. The jack will be installed on
chassis of the vehicle. The motive behind using this
system instead of a conventional mechanical system is the
more power produced by the system and simple in design
as compared to a conventional design. As the hydraulic
oil is incompressible so the lifting capacity is more in
comparison with the pneumatic system which operates on
air which is compressible.

Parth M. Patel et al. (2013)

This paper describes Implementation of Automatic
hydraulic jack Mechanism in a four-wheeler itself. The
jack will be powered by the battery. So, at a time of
puncture to replace the wheel one has to just press the
button and the jack which is fitted in the car itself will lift
the car.

16
METHODOLOGY

Fabrication is an important industry that involves cutting,

manipulating and assembling materials to produce desired
structures. And while different fabrication companies use
different techniques, most rely on three basic processes:
cutting, bending and assembling.

1) Cutting
The first process of fabrication is cutting. During this
process, the metal fabrication company cuts one or more
pieces of raw metal for use in the creation of a new metal
structure or product. Whether it’s steel, aluminum, iron or
any other common type of metal, though, cutting metal
requires special tools. Some metal fabrication companies
use torches to cut metal, whereas others numerical control
(CNC) machines involving lasers or water jets. When
finished, the company will have clean, appropriate-sized
sheets or sections of metal with which to work

2) Bending
After cutting raw metal, metal fabrication companies must
bend it. Again, there are different ways to bend metal
after cutting it. Some metal fabrication companies
hammer the metal sheets or sections into the desired
shape. Hammering can be done by hand, or it can be done
using a machine (power hammering). Recently, though,
17
many metal fabrication companies have begun using press
brakes to bend their metal. This heavy industrial machine
automatically presses metal sheets and sections into a
specific shape when engaged. It essentially clamps the
metal between a punch die, forcing the metal into the
desired shape.

3) Assembling
The third and final process of metal fabrication is
assembling. As the name suggests, this process involves
assembling the metal sheet or sections into the desired
finished product. Assembling is typically performed via
welding, though other steps may be included in the
process as well. In addition to welding, for example,
metal fabrication companies may crimp seams, apply
screws or other fasteners, and apply glue. After
assembling the metal, the company will finalize the
product before shipping and selling it to its customers.

Metal fabrication is a driving force behind the country’s

ever-growing manufacturing sector. Although there are
countless machines and techniques used by metal
fabrication companies, must rely on a three-step process
that consists of cutting, bending and assembling. These
three processes allow metal fabrication companies to
transform raw metal materials into new products.

18
DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Several structural design considerations should be taken into

account for economical and efficient manufacturing. Many of
these apply to other joining methods, and all apply to both
subassemblies and the complete structure.

1. The device should be suitable for local manufacturing

capabilities.

2. The attachment should employ low-cost materials and

manufacturing methods.

3. It should be accessible and affordable by low-income groups,

and should fulfill their basic need for mechanical power

4. It should be simple to manufacture, operate, maintain and

repair.

5. It should be as multi-purpose as possible, providing power for

various agricultural implements and for small machines used in
rural industry.

6. It should employ locally available materials and skills.

Standard steel pieces such as steel plates, iron rods, angle iron,
19
and flat stock that are locally available should be used. Standard
tools used in machine shops such as hacksaw, files, punches,
taps & dies; medium duty welder; drill press; small lathe and
milling machine should be adequate to fabricate the parts needed
for the dual-purpose bicycle.

7. It should make use of standard parts wherever possible.

8. The device should adapt easily No permanent structural

modification should be made

9. Excessive weight should be avoided, as durability is a prime

consideration.

20
DESIGN PROCEDURE

1. Definition of problem

2. Synthesis

3. Analysis of forces

4. Selection of material

5. Determination of mode of failure

6. Selection of factor of safety

7. Determination of dimensions

8. Modification of dimensions

9. Preparation of drawings

10. Preparation of design report

21
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

● Strength
● Rigidity
● Reliability
● Safety
● Cost
● Weight
● Ergonomics
● Aesthetics
● Manufacturing considerations
● Assembly considerations
● Conformance to standards
● Friction and wear
● Life
● Vibrations
● Thermal considerations
● Lubrication
● Maintenance
● Flexibility
● Size and shape
22
● Stiffness
● Corrosion
● Noise
● Environmental considerations

23
AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
• Appearance is an outward expression of the quality of the
product and is the first communication of product with the user.

• Aesthetics is defined as the set of principles of appreciation of

beauty. It deals with the appearance of the product.

ASPECTS OF AESTHETIC DESIGN

● Form(shape)
● Symmetry and shape
● Continuity
● Variety
● Proportion
● Noise
● Contrast
● Impression and purpose
● Style
● Material and surface finish
● Tolerance

24
ERGONOMICS CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
• Ergonomics is defined as the study of the man - machine -
working environment relationship

• It aims at decreasing the physical and mental stresses to the

user

• Areas covered under ergonomics

• Communication between man (user) and machine

• Working environment

• Human anatomy and posture while using the machine

• Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations

25
MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS IN
DESIGN

● Minimum total number of parts in a product

● Minimum variety of parts
● Use standard parts
● Use modular design
● Design parts to be multifunctional
● Design parts for multiple use
● Select least costly material
● Design parts for ease of manufacture
● Shape the parts for minimizing the operations

26
STANDARDIZATION
• It is the process of establishing the set of norms to which a
specified set of characteristics of a component or a product
should conform

• Example: Standardizing the shaft consists of specifying the set

of shaft diameters and material

Objectives of standardization

• To make the interchangeability of the components possible

• To make the mass production of components easier

Objectives of the project

1. To cater to the issue of competition in the mechanical industry

the need for automation is assessed by all the industry.

2. To identify the key policy avenues considered to be

appropriate to meet the challenge of sustainable manufacturing
and packaging industry for the future.

27
3. To provide alternatives for industries aiming toward reducing
human effort and improvement in material handling systems by
implementing automation.

4. Sustainable and practical automation solutions for the future

industrial environment.

28
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

● Strength
● Stiffness/Rigidity
● Elasticity
● Plasticity
● Ductility
● Brittleness
● Malleability
● Toughness
● Machinability
● Resilience
● Creep
● Fatigue
● Hardness

29
Objective Of Work

 To study ergonomics and problems of project.

 To develop some concepts based on their needs.
 Different projects analysis and it's type and it's major
uses.
 To achieve comfort and easy response concepts that
satisfying most of the needs and which gives more
suitable and also economical.
 To develop model of those concept.
 To evaluate the CAD model in real environment.

30
AESTHETIC

Another important criterion in any product design is to

consider the looking of the product itself, which is known
as aesthetics of the product. This product’s aesthetic
contributes substantially to satisfy the customer needs. In
the proposed chair design, several aesthetics issues such
as social appeal, colour, dimension, cushion material, etc.,
were also considered into account. Various aesthetic
issues with respect to students’ needs of the proposed
chair are highlighted in Table X with brief explanation.

31
DESIGN DRAWING AND PICTURES

32
33
COMPONENTS

Syringe
Pipe
Lifting frame
Base Frame (Bed)
Supporting frame
Joints & screws

34
PARTS DESCRIPTION

We have used syringe as plunger.

Material used-
Base plate – acrylic – 150mm x 250mm, thickness – 6mm
Top plate – acrylic – 80mm x 180mm, thickness – 6mm
Screw – M6 for all the joints
Arms – MS plate 2mm thickness – 15mm x 180mm

35
Base Frame (Bed)

Base plate – acrylic – 150mm x 250mm, thickness – 6mm

The base frame is the base to fix pantograph frames. It

supports the fixed part of the frame and is mounted on
supporting insulators of pantographs. Base frames are
usually made of profile steel, plates through extrusion, or
steel tubes through splicing or castings and profile steel
through splicing.

36
Lifting Frame

Top plate – acrylic – 80mm x 180mm, thickness – 6mm

Lifting frame is used as a supporting frame that carry the
load on it which is in direct contact with load.

Syringe

Syringe is used as a device used to inject fluids into or

withdraw them from something (such as the body or its
cavities).

37
Linkage (Arms)

A mechanical linkage is an assembly of systems

connected to manage forces and movement. The
movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry so
the link is considered to be rigid. The connections
between links are modelled as providing ideal movement,
pure rotation or sliding for example, and are called joints.

38
FABRICATION PROCESS

Metal fabrication is taking a raw material, typically sheets

of metal and other flat materials, through a series of
processes to create a finished end product. Virtually every
industry relies on metal fabrication to operate efficiently,
create the tools they need, develop products, etc. As you
can see, it is a very broad industry that helps the entire
world run.
fabrication is the process of manufacturing sheet metal
and other flat materials to make them conform to specific
shapes. The process starts with sheet metal around a
quarter of an inch thick or less. At this thickness, the sheet
metal and other flat materials is pliable enough to assume
different shapes. Using this metal, fabricators alter the
sheet to create a specific shape. This takes place through
cutting, stamping, shaping, folding and welding. Another
related practice is custom fabrication, meaning the
creation of new custom parts using novel combinations of
these processes.
All this work is completed by metal fabricators — highly
skilled specialists who are trained to cut and manipulate
metal with a surgeon’s precision to the desired
shape. These fabricators often work out of large-scale
manufacturing operations or specialized fabrication shops.
The shops themselves vary widely, offering general

39
fabrication services or specialized fabrication for medical
and IT industries.
Sheet metal and other flat materials fabrication may
require additional parts to be added during the process,
including but not limited to.

40
Types of Metal Fabrications

Choosing a metal fabrication method suited to a given

project depends on part geometry, the product’s intended
purpose, and the materials used in crafting it. Common
metal fabrication processes are as follows:
 Casting
 Cutting
 Drawing
 Folding
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Machining
 Punching
 Shearing
 Stamping

 Welding

Casting
Casting is when molten metal is poured a mold or die and
allowed to cool and harden into the desired shape. The
metal fabrication process is ideal for mass-production of
parts with the reuse of the same mold to create identical
products. There are several different types of casting. Die-
casting is when liquid metal is forced into a die instead of
a mold, and there the applied pressure keeps it in place
until it hardens. This process is known for the high-speed
41
applications it supports. Permanent mold casting involves
pouring the molten metal into a mold.

There are a variety of types of casting processes. In some

cases, a vacuum is also used in this process. Permanent
mold casting can create stronger castings than die casting,
but they can be difficult to remove from the final product.
For this reason, semi-permanent mold castings are also
available. These molds have expendable cores, making
them more manageable and less costly to remove. The
final casting process is sand casting. With sand casting,
castings are made by pressing a pattern into a fine mixture
of sand. This forms a mold for the molten metal to be
poured into. This process is slow but is generally more
economical than the other forms of casting. It is also good
to use when intricate designs are needed, or for large
metal fabrication.

Cutting
This very common type of metal fabrication is the cutting
of a workpiece to split it into smaller sections. While
sawing is the oldest method of cutting, modern methods
include laser cutting, waterjet cutting, power scissors,
and plasma arc cutting. There are many different methods
of cutting, from manual and power tools to computer
numerical computer (CNC) cutters. Cutting may be the
first stage in a longer fabrication process or the only
process used.
42
Die cutting is another cutting process that uses a die to
slice metal. Rotary die cutting uses a spinning cylindrical
die to cut the material that is fed through a press. Flatbed
die cutting is used on thicker metal materials and uses a
dies on a press to cut out shapes when the die stamps
down on the metal.

Drawing
Drawing uses tensile force to pull metal into and through
a tapered die. The die stretches the metal into a thinner
shape. Usually drawing is performed at room temperature,
and is called cold drawing, but the metal workpiece can
be heated in order to reduce the required force.
This process is considered deep drawing when the end
product has a depth that is equal to or greater than its
radius. It is usually used with sheet metal fabrication to
turn sheets into hollow cylindrical or box-shaped vessels.

Folding
This metal fabrication process works by manipulating
metal to bend at an angle. The most common means is
with a brake press that creates creases in the metal by
pinching it. The workpiece is held between a punch and a
die and forced to crease with pressure from the punch.
This process is usually used to shape sheet metal. Folding
can also be done by hammering the workpiece until it
bends, or by using a folding machine, also known as a
folder. The machine has a flat surface where the flat sheet
43
metal is placed, a clamping bar that holds the workpiece
in place, and a front panel that lifts upwards and forces
the metal extended over it to bend.

Forging
Forging uses compressive force to shape metal. A
hammer or die strikes the workpiece until the desired
shape is formed. This manufacturing process can be done
with the metal at room temperature and is called cold
forging. Forging can also be performed with the metal
heated to a range of above room temperature to below the
recrystallization temperature and is then called warm
44
forging. When the metal is heated to its recrystallization
temperature, which varies by metal, the process is called
hot forging. Forging is one of the oldest types of metal
fabrication, with blacksmiths using forging centuries ago.

Extrusion
In the extrusion manufacturing process, the workpiece is
forced through or around an open or closed die. When
forced through an open or closed die, the diameter of the
workpiece is reduced to the cross-section of the die. When
pressed around a die, a cavity is formed within the
workpiece. Both of these processes generally use a metal
slug or cylinder (a billet) as the workpiece, and a ram to
45
perform the impact operation. The resulting cylindrical
item product is often wiring or piping. The die cross-
section can have different shapes to produce differently
shaped parts. Extrusion can be continuous to create very
long pieces, or semi-continuous in order to create many
shorter pieces.
Also called cold extrusion, impact extrusion is performed
at room temperature and increases the strength of the part,
making it stronger than the original material. When
enough force is applied to the appropriate metal, it starts
to flow into the available shape, much like the movement
of viscous liquid. Cold extrusion is commonly used
for steel metal fabrication.
Hot extrusion is performed at an increased temperature, to
keep the metal from hardening and to make it easier to
push through the die. It’s usually used for copper
fabrication, as well to create custom aluminum parts.

Machining
The metal fabrication method called machining refers to
the process of shaping metal by removing the unwanted
material from it. This process can be performed in a
variety of ways. There are many different machining
processes, including drilling, turning, and milling.
Drilling uses a rotary cutting tool, the drill bit, to cut a
hole in the material. The drill bit presses against the metal
while being rotated very quickly in order to create a
circular hole.
46
Turning uses a lathe to rotate the metal while a cutting
tool moves in a linear motion to remove metal along the
diameter, creating a cylindrical shape. The cutting tool
can be angled differently to create different shapes. It can
be done manually or with a CNC turning machine. CNC
machining is generally used when part measurements
must be extremely precise.
Milling uses rotating multi-point cutting tools to
progressively remove material from the workpiece until
the desired shape is achieved. The metal is slowly fed into
the rotating cutting tool, or the tool is moved across the
stationary metal, or both the workpiece and the tool are
moved in relation to each other. This process can be done
manually or with a CNC milling machine. Milling is often
a secondary or finishing process, but it can be used as the
sole method of metal fabrication from start to finish. The
different types of milling include face milling, plain
milling, angular milling, climb milling, and form milling.

47
Punching
Uniquely shaped turrets on a punch press hit the metal
through or into a die to create holes. The end product can
either be the piece of metal with holes for fastening
purposes, or it can be the now removed, and shaped metal
pieces called the blanking. Most punch presses are
mechanical but smaller and simpler punches can be hand-
powered. CNC punch presses are also now common and
are used for both heavy and light metal work in metal
fabrication.

Shearing
This type of metal fabrication is where one long, straight
cut is achieved by combining two tools, with one of the
tools above the metal and the other one located below for
applying pressure. The upper blade forces the metal down
onto the stationary lower blade and fractures it. The
48
fracture then spreads inward for complete separation. The
sheared edges are usually burred. It is ideal for cutting
smaller lengths and differently shaped materials since the
blades can be mounted at angles to reduce the required
force.

Stamping
This metal fabrication process is similar to punching,
except the press doesn’t create a hole in the metal, but an
indentation. The turret doesn’t completely force the metal
through the die, but only raises it. Stamping is used to
form shapes, letters, or images in a metal panel or sheet.
Mechanical and hydraulic are the two types of stamping
presses. Metal stamping machines cast, punch, cut and
shape metal sheets. Sheets of up to 1/4 inch thickness are
molded into specified shapes and sizes. The presses used
for metal stampings can create a wide range of products,
and they can perform a series of operations including
blanking, metal coining, and four slide forming. Coining
(as the title implies) can be used to create coins, but it has
other uses as well, such as parts for electronics. Four slide
forming incorporates a variety of stamping and forming
processes to create more complex products, and it is
particularly effective for smaller parts.

Welding
With welding, two or more pieces of metal are joined
together, through a combination of heat and pressure. This
49
is a popular process because the pieces of metal can be
any shape or size. Four of the popular types of welding
procedures are Stick or Arc Welding, MIG Welding, TIG
Welding, and Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Stick welding, also known as Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW), uses an electrode stick that produces
an electric current that forms an electric arc when in
contact with metal. The high temperature of the arc welds
the metal.
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG), or Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW), uses an externally supplied gas along
with a continuous solid wire electrode to shield the metal
from reacting to environmental factors so that welding is
faster and continuous. The shielding gas also creates less
welding fumes.
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG), also called Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding, uses a tungsten electrode rod that
creates a short arc to weld heavier metals, for heavy
fabrication. This method requires a highly skilled welder,
as the process is more difficult, but can it be used on most
metal products and for complex projects.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) has a similar process
and equipment as MIG. The wire electrode used contains
a core that produces shielding gas, so a secondary gas
source is not needed. This method is more portable than
MIG or Stick welding but can’t be used on thinner metals.

50
51
The 7 Basic Steps of Metal Fabrication

Step 1: Designing

Before anything else, the project must be designed. While

some fabricators still rely on hand-drawn diagrams, and
those can be sufficient for basic projects, modern
engineers generally use CAD (computer aided design)
software, such as AutoCAD or Solidworks. CAD allows
for increased complexity and complete accuracy as they
create and test models to exact specifications. Digital

52
CAD files are also generally needed for metal laser
cutting.
For projects with multiple, replicable parts, such as
brackets, panels, fittings, or housings, a working
prototype is usually created before the project moves onto
full production. This pro-production testing ensures the
quality of the finished product and allows the customer to
test the product in real world applications. 

Step 2: Cutting

There are many ways to cut plate and sheet metal. Laser
cutting, mechanical shearing, and water jet cutting are all
53
widely used methods to achieve precise cuts for all types
of metal. There is a very low tolerance for error in any
metalworking project, so choosing the right method for
cutting the plate and sheet metal is very important.
The type of metal must be considered as well as the
intended purpose and degree of precision required. The
thickness and hardness of the metal is also an important
factor to consider. Laser cutting is the most precise way to
cut sheet metal, especially when intricate designs or
extreme accuracy is required. Mechanical shearing and
other types of metal cutting methods are best when the
sheet metal is very thick and requires more physical force

Step 3: Forming

54
This step includes one or several of the following;
folding, bending, stamping, punching holes, machining,
and much more to achieve the right shape. Sometimes a
piece of metal that has been cut is formed, stamped, or
bent into the final shape, or molten metal is poured into a
mold to harden, which is a process called casting. If the
product requires holes, a drill or a hole punch is used. A
lathe will trim down the edges and sides of the metal until
the right size and shape is achieved.

Step 4: Assembling

55
After the metal parts are formed into the correct shape,
they must then be assembled into the proper configuration
to make the final product. The separate parts are fitted
together, and normally held in place by clamps until they
are fused together. Then, the parts are put together with
bonding, screwing, riveting, or most commonly, welding.
There are many different types of welds, but the most
commonly used method is stick welding, which uses a
welding gun that continuously feeds a rod of metal,
melting it onto the joint using an electrical current.

Step 5: Finishing

56
For the final step, protective coatings such as rust resistant
paint, colour, or glazes are applied, either through
painting or powder coating. Depending on the final
product, the parts may also be brushed, polished, and
shined. Then, finishing touches, such as decals, insulators,
and safety mechanisms are applied. Now we have our
final product that is ready for delivery to the customer, a
store warehouse, or another business such as a factory or
food service establishment!

Step 6: Installing

57
Some fabricated pieces, such as consumer products,
brackets, and small parts, don’t require professional
installation. Nevertheless, large or sensitive fabrications
often require the skill, equipment, and expertise of trained
engineers, welders, and pipefitters. Such large projects
can include everything from large structural elements to
automated food processing equipment to fixed metal
signage.
fabrication and installation teams are able to both build
the projects with the installation in mind and install with
the fabrication in mind. They’re also able to make

58
modifications as needed, in case the scope of the project
changes mid-course or there are unanticipated changes

Step 7: Maintaining

Many metal fabrication shops, including Sattler

Manufacturing, provide maintenance and repair as part of
their offered services. Nothing lasts forever, and it’s
important to keep equipment in top-shape to ensure the
stability of manufacturing and processing operations. A
good maintenance plan can include routine serving and
cleaning of equipment, as well as timely repairs. Having a

59
metal shop to call before something goes wrong or wears
out is a great idea and risk prevention strategy.

60
Fabrication Processes used

Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

Lasers are used for many purposes. One way they are
used is for cutting metal plates. On mild steel, stainless
steel, and aluminum plate, the laser cutting process is
highly accurate, yields excellent cut quality, has a very
small kerf width and small heat affect zone, and makes it
possible to cut very intricate shapes and small holes.
Most people already know that the word “LASER” is
actually an acronym for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

61
The laser beam is a column of very high intensity light, of
a single wavelength, or color. In the case of a typical CO2
laser, that wavelength is in the Infra-Red part of the light
spectrum, so it is invisible to the human eye. The beam is
only about 3/4 of an inch in diameter as it travels from the
laser resonator, which creates the beam, through the
machine’s beam path. It may be bounced in different
directions by a number of mirrors, or “beam benders”,
before it is finally focused onto the plate. The focused
laser beam goes through the bore of a nozzle right before
it hits the plate. Also flowing through that nozzle bore is a
compressed gas, such as Oxygen or Nitrogen.
Focusing the laser beam can be done by a special lens, or
by a curved mirror, and this takes place in the laser
cutting head. The beam has to be precisely focused so that
the shape of the focus spot and the density of the energy
in that spot are perfectly round and consistent, and
centered in the nozzle. By focusing the large beam down
to a single pinpoint, the heat density at that spot is
extreme. Think about using a magnifying glass to focus
the sun’s rays onto a leaf, and how that can start a fire.
Now think about focusing 6 K-Watts of energy into a
single spot, and you can imagine how hot that spot will
get.

62
The high power density results in rapid heating, melting
and partial or complete vaporizing of the material. When
cutting mild steel, the heat of the laser beam is enough to
start a typical “oxy-fuel” burning process, and the laser
cutting gas will be pure oxygen, just like an oxy-fuel
torch. When cutting stainless steel or aluminum, the laser
beam simply melts the material, and high pressure
nitrogen is used to blow the molten metal out of the kerf.
On a CNC laser cutter, the laser cutting head is moved
over the metal plate in the shape of the desired part, thus
cutting the part out of the plate. A capacitive height
control system maintains a very accurate distance
between the end of the nozzle and the plate that is being
cut. This distance is important, because it determines
where the focal point is relative to the surface of the plate.
Cut quality can be affected by raising or lowering the
focal point from just above the surface of the plate, at the
surface, or just below the surface.
There are many, many other parameters that affect cut
quality as well, but when all are controlled properly, laser
cutting is a stable, reliable, and very accurate cutting
process.

63
Advantages of LBM:
 Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.
 Very small holes with large aspect ratio can be
achieved.
 A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine
materials can be tackled.
 Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times is
economical.
 Holes can be located accurately by using an optical
laser system for alignment.
 The operating cost is low.

64
Lathe Machine Operations:

Facing
Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece
of work to produce flat surface square with the axis. The
operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the work.

Turning
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the
workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface of required
shape and size.

65
 Straight turning: The work is turned straight when
it is made to rotate about the lathe axis and the tool is
fed parallel to the lathe axis. The straight turning
produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess
metal from the workpieces.

 Step turning: Step turning is the process of turning

different surfaces having different diameters. The
work is held between centres and the tool is moved
parallel to the axis of the lathe. It is also called
shoulder turning.

66
Eccentric turning
If a cylindrical workpiece has two separate axes of
rotating, one being out of centre to the other, the
workpiece is termed as eccentric and turning of different
surfaces of the workpiece is known as eccentric turning.
The distance between the axes is known as offset.
Eccentric turning may also be done on some special
machines. If the offset distance is more, the work is held
by means of special centres. If the offset between the
centres is small, two sets of centres are marked on the
faces of the work. The work is held and rotated between
each set of centres to machine the eccentric surfaces.

67
Taper turning
Taper
A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease
in diameter of a piece of work measured along its length.

Taper turning methods

1. Form tool method
2. Compound rest method
3. Tailstock set over method
4. Taper turning attachment method
68
 5. Combined feed method

1. Form tool method

A broad nose tool is ground to the required length and
angle. It is set on the work by providing feed to the cross-
slide. When the tool is fed into the work at right angles to
the lathe axis, a tapered surface is generated.
This method is limited to turn short lengths of taper only.
The length of the taper is shorter than the length of the
cutting edge. Less feed is given as the entire cutting edge
will be in contact with the work.

2. Compound rest method

69
The compound rest of the lathe is attached to a circular
base graduated in degrees, which may be swiveled and
clamped at any desired angle. The angle of taper is
calculated using the formula
D1−D2
tan α=
2l

Where,
D 1∧D2=large∧small dia . respectively

l=length of taper
α =taper angle∨the angle about which compound rest is swiveled

The compound rest is swiveled to the angle calculated as

above and clamped. Feed is given to the compound slide
to generate the required taper.

3. Tailstock setover method

Turning taper by the setover method is done by shifting
the axis of rotation of the workpiece at an angle to the
lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.
The construction of tailstock is designed to have two parts
namely the base and the body. The base is fitted on the
bed guideways and the body having the dead centre can
be moved at cross to shift the lathe axis.
The amount of setover – S, can be calculated as follows
D 1−D2
S= L×
2l

70
The dead centre is suitably shifted from its original
position to the calculated distance. The work is held
between centres and longitudinal feed is given by the
carriage to generate the taper.
The advantage of this method is that the taper can be
turned to the entire length of the work. Taper threads can
also be cut by this method.
The amount of setover being limited, this method is
suitable for turning small tapers (approx. upto 8°).
Internal tapers cannot be done by this method.

4. Taper attachment method

The taper attachment consists of a bracket which is
attached to the rear end of the lathe bed. It supports a
guide bar pivoted at the centre. The bar having graduation

71
in degrees may be swiveled on either side of the zero
graduation and set at the desired angle to the lathe axis. A
guide block is mounted on the guide bar and slides on it.
The cross slide is made free from its screw by removing
the binder screw. The rear end of the cross slide is
tightened with the guide block by means of a bolt. When
the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the
cross slide will follow the angular path as the guide block
will slide on the guide bar set at an angle of the lathe axis.
The depth of cut is provided by the compound slide which
is set parallel to the cross-slide.
The advantage of this method is that long tapers can be
machined. As power feed can be employed, the work is
completed at a shorter time. The disadvantage of this
method is that internal tapers cannot be machined.

72
 5. Combined feed method
Feed is given to the tool by the carriage and the cross-
slide at the same time to move the tool at resultant
direction to turn tapers.

Drilling operation:
It is the process of producing cylindrical hole in the
workpiece. In this operation, Workpiece is held in a chuck
or a suitable device and the drill is held in the tailstock.
During operation, the drill is fed by rotating the
73
handwheel of the tail stock in clockwise direction. First a
shorter length is drilled by using a smaller and shorter
drill, followed by producing the required diameter with
the help of correct drill size.

Reaming Operation
It is a finishing operation because a very small amount of
material is removed during the operation. For performing
reaming a multi-teeth tool is used, which is called as
reamer. During the operation, the workpiece is held in a
chuck or face plate and the reamer shank is fitted in a
sleeve or inserted in the tapered hole of the tailstock
spindle.

74
Boring Operation:
It is an operation which is employed for machining
internal surfaces, hence also called as internal turning.
Boring is done to enlarge the already drilled hole and
bring them to the exact required size. Generally, a single
point cutting tool is used for this purpose.

75
Knurling
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped
pattern on the surface of the workpiece. The knurling tool
holder has one or two hardened steel rollers with edges of
required pattern. The tool holder is pressed against the
rotating work. The rollers emboss the required pattern.
The tool holder is fed automatically to the required length.
Knurls are available in coarse, medium and fine pitches.
The patterns may be straight, inclined or diamond shaped.

76
Thread cutting
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations
performed in a lathe. The process of thread cutting is to
produce a helical groove on a cylindrical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally.
1. The job is revolved between centres or by a
longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the
thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece.
2. The carriage should be moved longitudinally
obtaining feed through the leadscrew of the
3. A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and
rotation of the headstock spindle should be found
Suitable gears with required number of teeth should
be mounted on the spindle and the leadscrew.
4. A proper thread cutting tool is selected according to
the shape of the It is mounted on the toolpost with its
cutting edge at the lathe axis and perpendicular to the
axis of the work.
5. The position of the tumbler gears are adjusted
according to the type of the thread (right hand or left
hand).
6. Suitable spindle speed is selected and it is obtained
through back

77
7. Half nut lever is engaged at the right point as
indicated by the thread chasing
8. Depth of cut is set suitably to allow the tool to make
a light cut on the
9. When the cut is made for the required length, the half
nut lever is the carriage is brought back to its original
position and the above procedure is repeated until the
required depth of the thread is achieved.
10. After the process of thread cutting is over, the
thread is checked by suitable gauges.

78
Chamfering
Chamfering is the operation of bevelling the extreme end
of the workpiece. The form tool used for taper turning
may be used for this purpose. Chamfering is an essential
operation after thread cutting so that the nut may pass
freely on the threaded workpiece.

Grooving
Grooving is the process of cutting a narrow goove on the
cylindrical surface of the workpiece. It is often done at
end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small
margin. The groove may be square, radial or bevelled in
shape.

79
Forming
Forming is a process of turning a convex, concave or any
irregular shape. For turning a small length formed surface,
a forming tool having cutting edges conforming to the
shape required is fed straight into the work.

80
Laser Cutting

Laser cutting is mainly a thermal process in which a

focused laser beam is used to melt material in a localised
area. A co-axial gas jet is used to eject the molten material
and create a kerf. A continuous cut is produced by
moving the laser beam or workpiece under CNC control.
There are three major varieties of laser cutting: fusion
cutting, flame cutting and remote cutting.
In fusion cutting, an inert gas (typically nitrogen) is used
to expel molten material out of the kerf. Nitrogen gas
does not exothermically react with the molten material
and thus does not contribute to the energy input.
In flame cutting, oxygen is used as the assist gas. In
addition to exerting mechanical force on the molten
material, this creates an exothermic reaction which
increases the energy input to the process.
In remote cutting, the material is partially evaporated
(ablated) by a high-intensity laser beam, allowing thin
sheets to be cut with no assist gas. The laser cutting
81
process lends itself to automation with offline CAD/CAM
systems controlling either three-axis flatbed systems or
six-axis robots for three-dimensional laser cutting.
Improvements in accuracy, edge squareness and heat
input control means that the laser process is increasingly
replacing other profiling cutting techniques, such as
plasma and oxy-fuel. There are many state of the art laser
machines on the market for cutting purposes, which can
be used to cut metals, woods and engineered woods.

Cutting characteristics Benefits

 Cuts carbon manganese steels up to 20mm
 Cuts stainless steel up to 12mm
 Cuts aluminium up to 10mm
 Cuts brass and titanium
 Cuts thermoplastics, wood and many non-metals
 High quality cut – no finishing
 Ultra flexible – simple or complex parts
 Non contact – no surface blemishing
 Quick set up – small batches
 Low heat input – small HAZ, low distortionLends
itself to nearly all materials

82
Types of Laser Cutting Used for Sheet Metal-
Nowadays most of industrial sheet metal laser cutting is
carried out using two types of lasers: CO2 and fibre.
CO2 Laser
The CO2 laser (carbon dioxide laser) is generated in a gas
mixture, which mostly consists of carbon dioxide (CO2),
helium and nitrogen. Such a laser is electrically pumped
using an electric discharge.
CO2 lasers typically emit at a wavelength of 10.6μm.
Those used for material processing can generate beams of
many kilowatts in power. The wall-plug efficiency of

83
CO2 lasers is about 10%, which is higher than for most
lamp-pumped solid-state lasers (eg ND:YAG lasers), but
lower than for many diode-pumped lasers .
A CO2 laser can cut thicker materials (>5mm) faster than
a fibre laser of the same power. It also produces a
smoother surface finish when cutting thicker materials.
Laser cutting of sheet metals historically started with CO2
lasers. Most CO2 laser cutting machines are three-axis
systems (X-Y, two-dimensional positioning control with a
Z-axis height control).
There are, however, a number of ways of achieving the X-
Y movement: either moving the laser head, moving the
workpiece or a combination of both.
The most popular approach is known as a 'flying optics'
system, where the workpiece remains stationary and
mirrors are moved in both X and Y axes. The advantages
of this approach are that the motors are always moving a
known, fixed mass. This can often be much heavier than
the workpiece, but it is easier to predict and control.
As the workpiece is not moved, this also means that there
is no real limit to sheet weight. The disadvantage of flying
optics is the variation in beam size, as a laser beam is
never perfectly parallel, but actually diverges slightly as it
leaves the laser.
This means that without controlling the divergence, there
may be some variation in cutting performance between
different parts of the table, due to a change in raw beam
size. This effect can be reduced by adding a re-
84
collimating optic, or some systems even use adaptive
mirror control.
The alternative is a 'fixed optic' system where the laser
head remains stationary and the workpiece is moved in
both X and Y axes. This is the ideal situation optically,
but the worse situation mechanically, especially for
heavier sheets.
For relatively light sheet weights, a fixed optic system can
be a viable option, but as the sheet weight increases,
accurately positioning the material at high speed can be a
problem.
The third option is known as a 'hybrid' system, where the
laser head is moved in one axis and the material moved in
the other axis. This is often an improvement over fixed
optics, but still suffers from difficulties with heavier sheet
weights.

Fibre Lasers
Fibre lasers are a member of a family called ‘solid-state
lasers’. In solid-state lasers, the beam is generated by a
solid medium. Fibre lasers, disk lasers and Nd:YAG
lasers are in the same category.
A fibre laser beam is generated by a series of laser diodes.
The laser beam is then transmitted through an optical
fibre where it gets amplified (similar to a conventional
laser cavity in CO2 lasers). The amplified beam, on
exiting the optical fibre, is collimated and then focused by

85
a lens or a concave onto the material to be cut. Fibre laser
sources have the following advantages:
Unlike a conventional CO2 resonator, a fibre laser source
does not have any moving parts (eg fans for gas
circulation) or mirrors in the light-generating source. This
is a major advantage in terms of reducing maintenance
requirements and operating costs.
Fibre lasers are typically two to three times more energy-
efficient that CO2 lasers of the same power.
A fibre laser can cut thin sheets faster than a CO2 laser of
the same power. This is due to better absorption of fibre
laser wavelength at the cutting front.
Fibre lasers are capable of cutting reflective materials
without fear of back reflections damaging the machine.
This allows copper, brass, and aluminium to be cut
without problems.

Direct Diode Lasers

Direct diode laser technology is the latest progress in the
field of solid-state lasers. In this technology, several laser
beams emitted from laser-emitting diodes of different
wavelengths are superimposed using so-called beam
combining techniques. Unlike fibre lasers, direct diode
lasers do not include a brightness-enhancing stage, giving
them lower optical losses and higher wall-plug efficiency.
However, for the same reason, direct diode lasers are
currently of lower beam quality compared to fibre lasers.
Direct diode lasers at multi-kilowatt levels of power are
86
commercially available and have been successfully used
for sheet metal cutting applications.

87
WORKING

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking

mechanism which employs a brake fluid, usually ethylene
glycol (contained in the reservoir), so that the pressure is
transferred from the controlling unit (from the master
cylinder on pressing the foot pedal) to the actual brake
mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the
vehicle in order to stop or reduce the speed of a moving
body.
A hydraulic jack is a machine that uses pressurized liquid
to create force. These machines are composed of a simple
cylinder and piston mechanism. A fluid, such as oil is
displaced when either piston is pushed inward.
A hydraulic jack can be understood as any machine using
hydraulic pressure to compress. In this project we are
using syringe.
When the handle is pressed oil in hydraulic jack is
allowed to flow which helps to actuate the jack. The rod is
moved up and down for motion

88
ADVANTAGES

 Hydraulic jack generally suffers from less damage

due to hard parts rubbing together.
 They use fluid to transfer energy, resulting in 100%
efficiency as fluids used are incompressible in
nature.
 They are simple in Design.
 By applying small force, up to 4-10 Tons of load can
be lifted.
 The technological ease you get while
 The process utilizes minimal effort vitality source
 Large machines outlines are not required on the
procedure

89
RESULTS

Successfully we achieved the desired result by using

“Design and Fabrication of Mini Hydraulic Jack” that
uses hydraulic power to operate the jack in vertical
movement.

Let,

F1 = Force applied on smaller plunger

F2 = Output Force (Ram side)

A1 = Surface area of piston (Plunger side)

A2 = Surface area of piston (Ram side)

Now, since the interacting fluid is incompressible fluid, the

pressure inside the system will remain constant.

i.e. P1 = P2 =P ….(1)
Force
we know, P=
Area

From eq. (1),

F1 F 2
=
A1 A2

90
Suppose, D2 = 4D1

Then,
A2
∴ F 2=F 1
A1

2
π ( D¿¿ 2)
∴ F 2=F 1 ¿
4 π 2
(D )
4 1

16( D¿¿ 1)2

∴ F 2=F 1 2
¿
(D¿¿ 1) ¿

∴ F 2=16 F 1

i.e., Output force F2 will be 16 times input force F1.

91
CONCLUSIONS

An efficient Hydraulic Jack lifting Mechanism is

fabricated with help of Mild Steel, Acrylic material, liquid
water, screws and bolts. Fabrication processes of marking,
cutting, assembling and joining we employed.
This project work was tested and it worked appropriately.
Sizes of loads lifted were determined by the specifications
from their manufacturers.

92
FUTURE SCOPE

The arrangement of an inbuilt hydraulic jack system is

designed for heavy loaded trucks in this project work, but
this arrangement can be widely used in the future for
heavy vehicles also by making some small modifications
in the current project.
We can used ultrasonic sensor to detect the object.
Hydraulic system can be replaced by pneumatic system.

93
REFERENCES

[1] M.M. Noor, K. Kadirgama and M.M. Rahman,

Analysis Of Auto Car Jack, National Conference in
Mechanical Engineering Research and Postgraduate
Students, FKM Conference Hall, UMP, Kuantan, Pahang,
Malaysia, 26-27 May 2010, 198-203.

[2] Mohd Abuzaid, Mohd Hasnain, Shabaj Alam, Sohail

Khan and Surendra Agarwal, Inbuilt Hydraulic jack in
Automobile vehicles, International Journal of Innovations
in Engineering and Technology, 2(2),2013,76-84.

[3] Tarachand G. Lokhande, Ashwin S. Chatpalliwar and

Amar A. Bhoyar, Optimizing Efficiency of Square
Threaded Mechanical Screw Jack by Varying Helix
Angle, International Journal of Modern Engineering
Research,.2(1), 2012, 504-508.

[4] P.S. Rana, P.H. Belge, N.A. Nagrare, C.A. Padwad,

P.R. Daga, K.B. Deshbhratar and N.K. Mandavgade,
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Research, 1 (4), 2012,167-172.

[5] Prashant Kumar Srivastav, Vipin Kumar Pandey,

Shailesh Kumar Maurya, Ajit Tiwari, Jawed Rafiq and
S.K. Dwivedi, Highly Efficient Motorized Screw Jack,
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International Journal of Computational Engineering
Research, 3(5), 2013, 35-41.

[6] A. S. Akinwonmi and A. Mohammed, Modification of

the Existing Design of a Car Jack, Journal of Emerging
Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences, 3 (4), 2012,
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[7] J.J. Ferreira, M.G. Boocock and M.I. Gray, Review of

the risks associated with pushing and pulling heavy loads
(Health and Safety Laboratory Broad Lane Sheffield S3
7HQ, 2004).

95