STUDY GUIDE FOR GENERAL PHYSICS 2

GEOMETRIC OPTICS
SECOND SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 - 2023

When an object is dropped in still water, the circular

wave fronts that are produced move out from the
contact point over the two‐dimensional surface.

A light source emits light uniformly in all directions of

the three‐dimensional world. The wave fronts are Light undergoes either diffuse or regular reflection.
spherical, and the direction of motion of the wave is
perpendicular to the wave front. This straight line
path shown by the arrow is called a ray. Depicting light
as rays in ray diagrams provides a method to explain
the images formed by mirrors and lenses.

Far from the source, the curvature of the wave front is

small, so the wave front appears to be a plane. Then,
the light rays will be nearly parallel. Rays from the sun (a) Regular reflection. (b) Diffuse reflection
are considered to be parallel when reaching the earth.
Diffuse reflection occurs when light reflects from a
rough surface. Regular reflection is reflection from a
THE LAW OF REFLECTION smooth surface, such as a mirror. The reflected rays
Most visible objects are seen by reflected light. There are scattered in diffuse reflection. This scattering is
are few natural sources of light, such as the sun, stars, because the local direction of the normal to the surface
and a flame; other sources are man‐made, such as is different for the different rays. By contrast, in
electric lights. For an object to be visible, light from a regular reflection, the reflected light rays are orderly
source is reflected off the object into our eyes (except because each local region of the surface has a normal
in the special case of phosphors). In Figure 2, the light in the same direction.
is coming from the sun, parallel due to the distance of
the source. The light reflects off the object and travels PLANE MIRRORS
in straight lines to the viewer. Through experience, the Light rays are coming from a source and reflecting off
viewer has learned to extend the reflected rays each point of the object (AB) in all directions. For
entering the eye back to locate the object. simplicity, only a few of the rays are drawn. The rays
spread upon leaving the object, and then each ray
reflects from the mirror according to the law of
reflection. The eye extends back the diverging
reflected rays to see an image behind the mirror. An
image formed in this manner by extending back the
reflected diverging rays is called a virtual image.

Light strikes a mirror and is reflected. The original ray

is called the incident ray, and after reflection, it is
called the reflected ray. The angles of the incident and
reflected rays are always measured from the normal.
The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface at the
point where the incident ray reflects. The incident ray,
reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane
perpendicular to the reflecting surface, known as the
plane of incidence. The angle measured from the
incoming ray to the normal is termed the incident A virtual image cannot be projected on a screen. The
angle. The angle measured from the outgoing ray to light does not physically come together, but rather, the
the normal is called the reflected angle. The law of eye (or camera) interprets the diverging rays as
reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the originating from an image behind the mirror. Due to
angle of reflection. This law applies to all reflecting the law of reflection, the image formed by a plane
surfaces. mirror is the same distance behind the mirror as the
object is in front of the mirror.
Lesson 6: GEOMETRIC OPTICS Teacher Lloyd’s Notes
How tall does a mirror need to be so you can see your intersection of two reflected rays from a point on the
entire height? Assume the top of the mirror is in line object to define the corresponding point on the image.
with the top of your head. Does it matter where you A third one can be used as a check. Sometimes one or
stand? The ray diagram in Figure illustrates this another of the rays may be difficult to draw, and so
situation. From the law of reflection and basic choices can be made.
geometry, it can be proven that the marked angles are
all equal; therefore, the necessary height of the mirror
is approximately half your height. Draw a figure at a
different distance to show that the distance from the
person to the mirror does not change the result.

CONCAVE MIRRORS
A concave mirror reflects its light from the inner
curved surface. The mirror can be a portion of a
sphere, a cylinder, or shaped as a rotated parabolic
curve. The light rays intersect after reflection at a
common focus called the focal point (F). The focal
point is on the optical axis, the symmetry axis of the
mirror. The distance f from focal point to the mirror is
called the focal length. For a spherical mirror, the focal
length is one‐half the radius of the sphere that defines
the mirror. This distance c is called the radius of
curvature, and the center of the sphere is denoted as
C(c = 2 f).

CONVEX MIRRORS
For convex mirrors, the image on the opposite side of
the mirror is virtual, and the images on the same side
of the mirror are real. Figure shows a virtual, upright,
It is helpful to have a geometric system for locating an and smaller image. In comparison to the virtual image
image formed by rays reflected from a curved mirror. of the concave mirror, the virtual image of the convex
Any reflected ray follows the law of reflection; mirror is still upright, but it is diminished (smaller)
however, certain rays have easily defined paths so that instead of enlarged and on the opposite side of the
measuring angles and finding the normal are not mirror instead of the same side. Again, the virtual
necessary. Four of these rays are: image is formed by extending back the reflected
diverging rays.
1. The ray directed parallel to the optical axis will
reflect through F.
2. The ray directed through F will reflect parallel
to the optical axis.
3. The ray directed to the center of the mirror
will reflect at the same angle to the optical axis.
4. The ray directed along the radius of the sphere
will reflect back on itself.

Light rays are drawn for four different positions in

Figure 9: (a) far from F, (b) at nearly 2 F, (c) between
F and 2 F, and (d) at F. It is only necessary to find the

Lesson 6: GEOMETRIC OPTICS Teacher Lloyd’s Notes

THE HUMAN EYE rectus, inferior oblique, and superior oblique. The
basic function of these muscles is to provide different
tensions and torques that further control the
movement of the eye.

The concept here though is that as the light rays move

through the various mediums, they experience
refraction of light. Well, to put it in simple terms,
refraction is nothing but the change in direction of the
rays of light as they pass between different mediums.
The table below shows the refractive indices of the
various parts of the eye.

Sclera: It is the outer covering, a protective tough

white layer called the sclera (white part of the eye).

Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is

called the cornea. Light enters the eye through the
cornea ACTIVITY:

Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring-like structure DRAW AN

behind the cornea is known as the iris. The colour of
the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris ILLUSTRATION ON REAL
also helps regulate or adjust exposure by adjusting the
iris. AND VIRTUAL IMAGES
Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. FOR CONCAVE AND
Its size is controlled with the help of iris. It controls the
amount of light that enters the eye. CONVEX MIRROR IN A
Lens: Behind the pupil, there is a transparent LONG BOND PAPER.
structure called a lens. By the action of ciliary muscles,
it changes its shape to focus light on the retina. It
becomes thinner to focus on distant objects and
becomes thicker to focus on the nearby objects.

Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of

numerous nerve cells. It converts images formed by
the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical
impulses are then transmitted to the brain through
optic nerves

Optic nerves: Optic nerves are of two types. These

include cones and rods.
1. Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more
sensitive to bright light. They help in detailed
central and colour vision.
2. Rods: Rods are the optic nerve cells that are
more sensitive to dim lights. They help in
peripheral vision.

At the junction of the optic nerve and retina, there are

no sensory nerve cells. So no vision is possible at that
point and is known as a blind spot.

An eye also consists of six muscles. It includes the

medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior rectus, inferior

Lesson 6: GEOMETRIC OPTICS Teacher Lloyd’s Notes