PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING

PANELS

Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in
MECHANICAL DESIGN
by
ATHEENA TERESA PAULSON
(192MD003)

Under the guidance of

Professor
Dr.Khyati Verma

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA
SURATHKAL, MANGALORE, 575025
May, 2021
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Report of Post-Graduation project work entitled PIEZO-
ELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING PANELS, which is being submitted to National
Institute of Technology Karnataka Surathkal, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the Degree of Master of Technology in Design and Precision Engi-
neering in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, is a bonafide report of the work
carried out by me. The material contained in this Report has not been submitted at any
University or Institution for the award of any degree.

Place : NITK Surathkal Atheena Teresa Paulson

Date : 30/06/2021 192MD003
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Master’s thesis project has been carried out at the CAB Exteriors department
at Volvo Group India Pvt Ltd., Bangalore and in cooperation with the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal. This
work would not have been possible without the support of many people. I’ll start by
thanking Volvo group for giving me an opportunity to grow my technical knowledge
and industrial experience.
I am immensely indebted to my very understanding Internal Major Project Instruc-
tor, Dr. Khyati Verma, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, for her constructive criti-
cisms, guidance, and support at each stage of the project.I am greatly obliged to Dr. SM
Kulkarni, HOD, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for the encouragement and
support that he has provided.
I most sincerely thank my external guide at Volvo group, Mr. Antriksh Shinde,
Geometrical Architect, for all the support and the technical knowledge he imparted,
and Mr. Rohith MN, Group Manager - CAB Exteriors, for giving me this project and
giving guidance at the most sought out times. I also convey my obligation to Mr. D
Rajesh, Chief Engineer - CAB, Volvo group, for creating an opportunity for academic
students and approving this project as an internship work.
I would also like to express my deep sense of thanks to all the employees at the CAB
Exteriors department at Volvo Group. The support you have given me is immense and
I am forever indebted to you for it. I would especially like to thank Deepak G, Senior
Engineer – CAB Exteriors, Anumodh R, PGET - Brake systems and vehicle control, L
Nishitha - Durability Simulation Engineer, CAB Analysis, Sonu Varghese - Intern, PM
& CEE, for all the time they took to help me through the internship.
Finally and above all, I extend my highest praise to all the other interns of my batch
at Volvo, whose mutual support and kindness went a long way especially at difficult
times as these. Also on this non-exhaustive list, are all my classmates and seniors from
NITK, especially Vinay Jose (Mechanical Design ’20) for all the wisdom imparted.

ii
 Abstract

With the increase in global energy demand and energy crisis concerns, the need to
shift to alternative energy sources is desperate particularly in the automobile industry.
This is evident in the shift in focus of automobile industries to hybrid and electric ve-
hicles. But then again, the power required to charge an electric vehicle comes from
conventional power resource. Another concern that we have to address when it comes
to electric vehicles regarding the source of energy and its storage. When the storage ca-
pacity of the battery increases, mass of the vehicle also increases. Since the efficiency of
electric vehicles is much higher compared to conventional IC engine vehicles, the over-
all performance of the vehicle can solely depend on the mass of the vehicle. Both of
these issues in electric vehicles can be solved by using an on-board charging technique.
Through this project, such a technique is defined. The wind striking on the front pan-
els and wind deflectors of trucks are converted to electrical charge using piezoelectric
transducers to be stored in batteries.
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 BACKGROUND STUDY 5
2.1 Overview of Piezoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Energy harvesting from piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Life of Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Manufacturing of piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Bonding of Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Extremities in Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 LITERATURE REVIEW 17

4 MOTIVATION FOR PRESENT WORK 22

4.1 Advantages of proposed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM 24

5.1 Construction of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3 Working principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.4 Modelling the system in CATIA V5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.5 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.6 Selection of magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 37
6.1 Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

7 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 56
7.1 Theoretical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2 Mathematical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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8 CORRELATION WITH TRUCK BATTERIES 66
8.1 Charging the truck battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.2 Powering auxiliary equipment in the truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.3 Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

9 FUTURE WORK 70

10 CONCLUSIONS 72

BIBLIOGRAPHY 74

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List of Figures

1.1 Current global scenario of electric vehicle usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Volvo VNL 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Volvo FM 370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Volvo VNM 430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Volvo FH 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Longitudinal piezoelectric mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Transverse piezoelectric mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Graph showing the life of Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5.1 Schematic diagram of the proposed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5.2 Working of the proposed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3 Areas of interest of the truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Base deflector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.5 Upper deflector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.6 Assembled design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.7 Wind and vehicle travelling in opposite directions . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8 Graph showing the relation between repulsive force and the distance
between the magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.9 Visualization of magnetic field in free space for N45 grade magnet . . . 36

6.1 Energy harvester body after meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.2 Contour plot for displacement at 1st mode of vibration for condition 1 . 44
6.3 Contour plot for voltage at 1st mode of vibration for condition 1 . . . . 44
6.4 Contour plot for displacement at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 1 . 45
6.5 Contour plot for voltage at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 1 . . . . 45
6.6 Contour plot for displacement at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 1 . 46
6.7 Contour plot for voltage at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 1 . . . . 46
6.8 Contour plot for displacement at 4th mode of vibration for condition 1 . 47
6.9 Contour plot for voltage at 4th mode of vibration for condition 1 . . . . 47

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6.10 Contour plot for displacement at 1st mode of vibration for condition 2 . 49
6.11 Contour plot for voltage at 1st mode of vibration for condition 2 . . . . 49
6.12 Contour plot for displacement at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 2 . 50
6.13 Contour plot for voltage at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 2 . . . . 50
6.14 Contour plot for displacement at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 2 . 51
6.15 Contour plot for voltage at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 2 . . . . 51
6.16 Contour plot for displacement at 4th mode of vibration for condition 2 . 52
6.17 Contour plot for voltage at 4th mode of vibration for condition 2 . . . . 52
6.18 Voltage vs frequency plot for node 255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.19 Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2721 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.20 Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.21 Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

7.1 Wind and vehicle travelling in opposite directions . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

7.2 Wind and vehicle moving in the same direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3 Voltage vs Frequency graph for maximum output condition . . . . . . . 62
7.4 Voltage vs Resistance graph for maximum output condition . . . . . . . 63
7.5 Combined graph for maximum output condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.6 Voltage vs Frequency graph for minimum output condition . . . . . . . 64
7.7 Voltage vs Resistance graph for maximum output condition . . . . . . . 64
7.8 Combined graph for minimum output condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.1 Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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List of Tables

5.1 Specification of the proposed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.2 Comparison of repulsive force of different grades of magnet . . . . . . 34
5.3 Specification of the magnets used in the proposed system . . . . . . . . 35

6.1 Properties of the materials used for numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . 38

6.2 Natural frequencies obtained for first boundary condition . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Natural frequencies obtained for second boundary condition . . . . . . 48

7.1 Values of different terms used in the formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7.2 Values of different terms used in the formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

8.1 Co-relating the power output value with the auxiliary equipment in trucks 68

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List of Abbreviations

FPED Flexible Piezo Electric Device

EH Energy Harvester

PE Piezoelectric

KE Kinetic Energy

PZT Lead Zirconate Titanate

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The energy crisis implies that the world’s demands on the limited natural resources
that are used to power industrial society are decreasing with the increase in demand.
Renewable and clean energy sources have become an increased area of interest due to
the energy crisis and the environmental concerns associated with the use of fossil fuels.
These natural resources are in limited supply. Yes, these natural resources do occur nat-
urally, but the time it takes to replenish itself is very long. Governments and concerned
individuals are working together to make the use of renewable resources a priority and
to lessen the irresponsible use of natural supplies through increased conservation.

Figure 1.1: Current global scenario of electric vehicle usage

The global electricity demand is expected to increase by almost 80 percent dur-

ing 2012-2040. A clean energy revolution is required to come out of the fossil fuel
dependence. The easiest solution that we can come up with is to reduce the world’s
dependence on non-renewable resources and to implement better conservation efforts.

1
Even though most of the industrial age was created using fossil fuels, there are other
technologies that use other types of renewable energies like steam, solar, and wind.
This may not be as easy as we may think it is, because there are many industries that
use coal as their main source of power for production purposes. The main issue is not
that we will run out of gas or oil, but that the use of coal is going to continue to pollute
the atmosphere and also destruct the many natural sources of energy that exist side by
side to this.

During the last few decades, environmental impact of the petroleum-based trans-
portation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, has led to renewed interest in
an electric transportation infrastructure. Electric vehicles can be powered using a wide
range of sources like fossil fuels, nuclear power, tidal, solar, hydro, wind etc. or com-
bination of any of these. This is the major difference between electric vehicles and the
conventional IC engine vehicles. The technology used for powering the electric vehicle
affects the carbon footprint and the emissions the vehicle leaves behind. The electricity
may then be stored on board the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors.

Choosing an electric vehicle over a conventional vehicle provides us with a lot of

advantages. Apart from the lower environmental impacts, electric vehicles do not need
as much maintenance as conventional automobiles because these vehicles do not have
as much moving parts as the others do. Even though we are sure that electric vehi-
cles provide us with so many benefits, we are not yet ready to switch completely from
conventional IC engine vehicles to the electric vehicles because of the drawbacks of
electric vehicles when it comes to long haul applications.

An important problem that needs to be addressed when it comes to electric or hy-

brid vehicles is the lack of an on-board charging technique. There are several solutions
available for this issue like using solar panels fixed on the exterior parts, but they won’t
be useful during night and cloudy environments. Portable Battery Systems are being
used in some vehicles. If a battery is drained completely, it is charged at a charging
station and used again. Swappable battery solutions exist for electric vehicles. Regen-
erative Braking System is used in Hybrid Vehicles. Battery recharging is done through
overhung charging stations for some electric vehicles. But this increases the down

2
time of the vehicles. By using an on-board charging technique, we can ensure more
field/uptime.
When it involves electrification and energy conservation in vehicles, several re-
searches are happening all round the world. Several work are doled out by researchers
to harvest energy from the vibrations created by the automobiles while travelling on
the roads, but there are only a few studies when it involves wind energy harvesting in
them. Trucks are a serious means of transporting goods, which run on fossil fuels. We
are presenting an invention which can harness clean and green energy from winds to
charge batteries, as wind is present everywhere in abundance. The following images
show the target trucks in which this system can be implemented.

Figure 1.2: Volvo VNL 300

Figure 1.3: Volvo FM 370

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Figure 1.4: Volvo VNM 430

Figure 1.5: Volvo FH 16

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Chapter 2

BACKGROUND STUDY

2.1 Overview of Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity is defined as the ability of certain materials to generate electrical
charge due to mechanical deformation. The name comes from an ancient Greek word
piezein meaning to ‘squeeze’ or ‘press’. It was first discovered in 1880 by the brothers
Pierre and Jacques Curie, who demonstrated piezoelectricity in various crystals includ-
ing zincblende, tourmaline, cane sugar, topaz, and quartz Within a year, a converse
piezoelectric effect was predicted by Lippmann based on thermodynamic considera-
tions. This behavior was also confirmed by the Curies.
Piezoelectric materials have a crystalline structure that permits them to be used as
mechanisms capable of transforming mechanical energy, commonly found as ambient
vibration, into electrical energy that can be used to power devices. Portable electronics
can be developed by applying power harvesting devices that do not depend on finite en-
ergy sources, namely batteries. This yields major advances on the applications possible
with these systems. Wireless sensors can now be placed in remote or hostile locations,
such as in weight bearing members in civil infrastructure or within close proximity to
the core of a nuclear reactor respectively.
The crystalline structure of the piezoelectric material that enables it to couple the
mechanical and electrical domains has a measuring factor known as coupling coeffi-
cient. This relates the strain to the material to the electrical potential produced. As
vibrations are the source of energy, the objective is to maximize the voltage output of
the piezoelectric material. Since cantilever beams have been extensively studied and
analytical solutions have been developed, a common approach of maximizing the strain
from vibrations is with the use of a layered cantilever beam. A common design is a
bi-layer cantilever where the top layer is piezoelectric and the bottom, or substrate layer
is an elastic material such as aluminum. This design enables a tip force to be applied

5
to one end of the cantilever design. With the beam constrained at the opposite end, this
tip force creates the greatest strain in the piezoelectric layer in the region closest to the
constraint or boundary condition of the beam.
By optimizing the allocation of material to regions of greatest strain while reducing
the amount of material in regions of increased stiffness, greater voltages can be realized
for the same forces acting on the cantilever. The optimization approach utilizes the idea
of homogenization, where the material fractions of individual elements are allowed to
change which in turn varies the material properties of the elements. In the case of the
Aluminum (substrate) layer, the elastic modulus and density are directly proportional
to the material fractions. In the piezoelectric layer, in addition to the stiffness and
density varying proportionately with material fractions, the dielectric constants vary
with material fractions, however, this was in a non-linear manner.
The general theory of piezoelectricity is the coupling of mechanical and electrical
energy in special class of ceramics and crystals. When the piezoelectric materials face
a mechanical strain generated from a stress, they can convert this stress into electric
current or voltage. The basic effect is closely related to electric dipole moments in solids
where they show a local charge separation. This mechanism takes place based on the
fundamental structure of a crystal lattice where polarization is induced and an electric
field is established across the piezoelectric crystal when it is mechanically stressed.
Piezoelectric materials generally have a charge balance where negative and positive
charges are separated, but symmetrically disturbed so overall charge is electrically neu-
tral. When an external force, such as, applying physical stress is applied, this charge
balance disrupts and the internal structure gets deformed. Consequently the charges gets
separated and the neutrality gets disrupted, creating a surface charge density, which can
be collected via electrodes.

6
2.2 Piezoelectric materials
As it was mentioned before piezoelectric materials are a group of element that can
generate electricity when they are under mechanical deformation. There are over 200
piezoelectric materials made with combination of different materials. Because of their
different piezoelectric constants, they generate different voltages. Therefore, selecting
the most appropriate material for the energy harvester is important. Piezoelectric ma-
terial can be divided into three different groups: Piezoelectric ceramics, piezoelectric
polymers and piezoelectric single crystals. Generally piezoelectric single crystals and
ceramics present better piezoelectric properties, but they are also rigid and brittle to-
ward high stresses, which makes them unsuitable for some of the energy harvesting
application.
Piezoelectric ceramics are one of the most known materials in the field of the piezo-
electricity and energy harvesting. The low cost, easier incorporation and better piezo-
electric properties compared to the other piezoelectric material has made them a better
choice in the energy harvesting devices. Barium titanate (BaTiO3) was the first piezo-
electric ceramic that was discovered in laboratory; but later lead zirconate titanate,
known as PZT ceramic became the most popular and common ceramic in the appli-
cation of piezoelectric energy harvesting. Other alternatives are also receiving some
attention where efficiency and temperature performance is not the first consideration
but other factors such as flexibility, light weight and toxicity play an important and cru-
cial role. For example, sodium potassium niobate displays properties very identical to
PZT without the lead existence.
Piezoelectric polymers can be categorized into three different groups. Bulk poly-
mers, composite polymers and voided charged polymers. Bulk polymers are solid poly-
mer films and they have the piezoelectric effect due to their structural orientation. This
group of polymer can be divided into two groups, which they are the semi-crystalline
polymers and amorphous polymers. For bulk polymers there are two main obligations
that must be fulfilled for the material to be able to have the piezoelectric effect. Primar-
ily, the molecular structure of the polymer should naturally contain molecular dipoles.
Second, these dipoles can be reoriented within the bulk material and kept in their pre-

7
ferred orientation state. PVDF (polyvinylidene difluoride ) as a semi crystalline poly-
mer is one of the extreme cases of the high-energy density material among piezoelectric
polymers. It contains about 50% crystals that are embedded in an amorphous matrix.
Beside their high-energy density, they are easy to deform under the mechanical shock,
which makes them resilient and suitable for curved surfaces. In amorphous polymers
the polarization is not in a state of thermal equilibrium, but rather a quasi-stable state
due to the freezing of molecular dipoles. The result is a piezoelectric-like effect. In
amorphous material, piezoelectricity is the result of orientation polarization of molecu-
lar dipoles. Examples of such polymers include polyimide and polyvinylidene chloride
(PVDC).

Composite polymers are a group of polymer material with embedded inorganic

piezoelectric material. One of the importance of combining piezoelectric ceramics with
polymers is to achieve the advantages of both materials, which includes the higher cou-
pling factor and dielectric constant from ceramics and the mechanical flexibility from
polymers. These types of composite polymers are preferable for acoustic devices be-
cause of the polymer’s low acoustic impedance and fewer spurious modes.

The third group of piezoelectric polymers is voided charged polymers. This struc-
ture was first invented by Gerhard Sessler in the early 1960s and its sometimes called
cellular polymers. Voided charged polymers are polymer materials that contain internal
gas voids. When the surface of the polymer, surrounding the voids are charged which
can add extra voltage to the generated voltage.

Piezoelectric single crystals are counterparts of piezoelectric ceramics. Ferroelec-

tric single crystals such as lead nickel niobate [Pb(Ni1/3Nb2/3)O3 or PNN], and lead-
titanate [PbTiO3] are two most popular and widely used materials based on their per-
formance in piezoelectric energy harvesting. In these materials, the arrangement of the
positive and negative ions are highly ordered, causing an alignment of the dipoles across
the entire material which makes them having a higher piezoelectric strain constant than
ceramics. For small size devices, ferroelectric single crystals are favorable, because
they have higher Young’s moduli than the ceramics which results for the material to
have a lower resonance frequency.

8
2.3 Energy harvesting from piezoelectric materials
Energy harvesting is the capture and conversion of small amounts of readily avail-
able energy in the environment into usable electrical energy. The electrical energy is
conditioned for either direct use or accumulated and stored for later use. This pro-
vides an alternative source of power for applications in locations where there is no grid
power and it is inefficient to install wind turbines or solar panels.Energy harvesting is
beneficial because it provides a means of powering electronics where there are no con-
ventional power sources, eliminating the need for frequent battery replacements and
running wires to end applications. By this same token, it opens up new applications
in remote locations, underwater, and other difficult-to-access locations where batteries
and conventional power are not realistic. Energy harvesting is also largely maintenance
free and is environmentally friendly.
High frequency vibrations offer a plausible source of energy for conversion into
usable electrical power. Several investigations are being done on piezoelectric micro-
power generators designed to operate in a high frequency environment. A piezoelectric-
based power generation system has been chosen since it generates the highest power
output for a given size, relative to other energy converters. The goal is to design an
energy harvester capable of producing 2.5mW without exceeding various geometric
and mechanical constraints.
Generally, in piezoelectric materials, there are two primary modes: longitudinal
mode (3-3 mode) or transverse mode (3-1 mode) with a corresponding resonant fre-
quency. In the longitudinal mode, the direction of the mechanical stress, T, is parallel
to the electric or polarization direction, P, with a corresponding resonant frequency and
in the transverse mode, the direction of the mechanical stress, T, is perpendicular to the
electric or polarization direction, P, with a corresponding resonant frequency. In other
word when a voltage is applied to the piezoelectric element in transverse mode, it com-
presses in the direction of the z-axis and the voltage is positive while in the transverse
mode the stress compresses along the x-axis and the voltage is negative.
Studies of mechanical to electrical energy in piezoelectric energy harvesting has
shown that the the longitudinal mode (33) is 3-5 times show better generation of power

9
 Figure 2.1: Longitudinal piezoelectric mode

Figure 2.2: Transverse piezoelectric mode

than the transverse mode (3-1 mode). In this mode the electrical charge is also twice the
transverse mode with the same shape and size. However, the downside to the longitudi-
nal mode is the hard fabrication and also its too stiff to couple mechanical energy into
its structure. Beside the fact that the voltage coefficient of the 33 mode is larger than
31 mode, which causes higher output energy, but also the gap between the electrodes
which is large affects the output energy. In this mode however the limiting factor is the
length of the piezoelectric material. In total based on the different properties, the trans-
verse mode appears to show the best performance but the complex fabrication and high
costs makes the longitudinal mode, more favorable. There are mainly three different
mechanical structure used in piezoelectric energy harvesting that the piezoelectric ma-
terial is implemented in it to vibrate. They are cantilever beam type, Cymbal type and
circular diaphragms. The vast majority of piezoelectric energy harvesting devices use
cantilever beam with one piezoceramic layer (unimorph) or two piezoceramic layers

10
(bimorph).

A cantilever beam energy harvester has a very simple structure and can produce a
large deformation under vibration. Most of energy harvesting devices operate with can-
tilever beam structure because it can work in both d33 and d31 modes. This device is
a beam that is supported by only one end and it is laminated with a PZT layer, sand-
wiched between upper and lower electrodes, which can produce a large deformation
and is often referred to as a “fixed-free” beam. These two piezoelectric layers are called
bimorph but when only one layer is used, its called unimorph cantilever beam. When
vibrations are applied to the generator in the longitude direction, the support structure
will move up and down in sync with the external acceleration. The vibration of the
beam is induced by its own inertia; since the beam is not perfectly rigid, it tends to
deflect when the base support is moving up and down. Commonly, a proof mass is
added to tip of the beam to increase or control the amount of deflection which causes a
decrease in the resonant frequency of the beam and an increase in the deflection of the
beam as it vibrates.

In addition to cantilever beam energy harvesters, Cymbal energy harvesters have

been developed for applications with high impact forces. Typically, these types of en-
ergy harvesters consist of two electric metallic discs and a hollow metal end cap in
each side of the discs. The presence of cavities allows the metal end-caps to act as as
a mechanical transformer to transform the radial displacement of piezoelectric ceramic
into longitudinal displacement and amplifying it and thus both d33 and d31 piezoelec-
tric charge coefficients are involved to contribute to the charge generation of the energy
harvester and a much higher displacement S can be produced on the cymbal type. The
primary factor for energy harvesting transduction is governed by the effective piezoelec-
tric field constant deff and piezoelectric voltage constant geff. Therefore, to enhance the
power output the multiplication of these factors had to be increased and also the design
should be in a way that the energy harvester can bear high cyclic stresses without any
fracture.

Piezoelectric circular diaphragms are very similar to cantilever beams configura-

tion. To be able to stablish a piezoelectric circular diaphragm, a thins circular disk of

11
the piezoelectric crystal is manufactured and then its bonded to to a metal shim and
then. Piezoelectric circular diaphragms are very similar to cantilever beams configu-
ration. To be able to stablish a piezoelectric circular diaphragm, a thins circular disk
of the piezoelectric crystal is manufactured and then its bonded to to a metal shim and
then clamped to an edge so the vibration of the edge can supply the required vibration
for the piezoelectric material to get excited. Like cantilever beams a proof mass can be
attached to the center of the circular diaphragms to provide a prestress to the piezoelec-
tric material. Like piezoelectric cantilever beams, circular diaphragms also operate best
in the in the 31 mode.

2.4 Life of Piezoelectric materials

Figure 2.3: Graph showing the life of Piezoelectric materials

The lifetime of a piezo actuator is a function of the applied voltage. The aver-
age voltage should be kept as low as possible. Statistics show that failures with piezo

12
actuators often occur because mechanical installation guidelines are not observed and
mechanical stress, shear forces and torque exceed the permissible limits.
However, the operation in energy harvesting is different from typical sensors or actu-
ators. The applied stress is often at the material limit in order to generate the maximum
power output. Under these conditions, the degradation of the materials becomes an im-
portant factor for long term deployment. In a study, bimorph piezoelectric beams were
subjected to lifetime testing through electromagnetic tip actuation for a large number
of cycles. The results of two measurement series at different amplitudes are discussed.
The dominant effect observed was a shift in mechanical resonance frequencies of the
beams which could be very detrimental to resonant harvesters.
Small changes in operating conditions can have a large effect on lifetime. The
most pronounced effect was a shift in mechanical resonance frequency which could
be especially detrimental for resonant harvester designs that might lose a significant
amount of their power output even after short run times.
So we can say that for an energy harvesting piezoelectric material, it really depends
on fabrication and external conditions. The monocrystal piezos might have lifetime
from 107 up to 1010 cycles (or even 1012 ), but if you take multilayer piezo then the life-
time is strongly depended on preload force, humidity, temperature, colling, radiation,
max voltage, max. elongation, etc (and of course material used). Then you need to take
into consideration the aging of material. An origin of aging is in internal stresses such
as those built in the material during poling. These stresses may be relaxed by domain
reorientation during time. Another source of aging is point defects that exist in many
piezoelectric ceramics (vacancies of lead and of oxygen) and are mobile with time and
may build internal fields that restrict domain wall movements. Space charge in grain
boundaries may also contribute to aging.

2.5 Manufacturing of piezoelectric materials

This section presents an overview of the manufacturing process for the piezoelec-
tric PVDF. The polymer can be synthesized from gaseous vinylidene fluoride (VDF)
monomer through a free radical polymerization. It can be then formed into sheets
through melt casting, or processing from a solution (e.g. solution casting, spin coating,

13
and film casting). Depending on the processing method, various chain conformations
of PVDF films can be made.
Additional steps are necessary to obtain the piezoelectric properties within the ma-
terial. Most common manufacturing techniques start with a slow melt casting process,
resulting in an a phase material. Additional steps are then taken to achieve the desired
piezoelectric properties. The PVDF melt is first subjected to mechanical drawing. This
breaks the spherulite formations into polymer crystallites aligned in the direction of the
force. When this deformation takes place at low temperatures (below 90°C), the poly-
mer chains are not able to move freely and become distorted, achieving most extended
molecular form, which is the desired ß phase conformation. Both uniaxial and biaxial
drawing techniques may be applied with various elongation ratios (up to 700%).
At this point, the molecular dipoles are still randomly oriented, resulting in zero
net polarization. An electric field normal to the material surface is applied to align the
dipoles and create uniform material polarization. This can be accomplished through
plasma or corona poling or the use of electrodes evaporated onto the film. Poling con-
ditions such as field strength, temperature and poling time can vary, although increased
values don’t necessarily guarantee higher resulting piezoelectricity. This completes the
process and gives PVDF piezoelectric properties, making into a useful electroactive
polymer. There are a number of other polymers that can be made piezoelectric, how-
ever PVDF exhibits by far the strongest piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties. As
described earlier, the piezoelectric properties are dependent on its molecular form, level
of crystallinity and the poling process. Since the discovery of piezoelectricity in PVDF
in 1969, its piezoelectric constants have increased about six times due to process ad-
vancements. Further progress can be expected, however dramatic future improvements
are not likely.

2.6 Bonding of Piezoelectric materials

In a piezoelectric energy harvester, it is very important to look into the placement
of the piezoelectric material. In most of the cases, it can decide how much output we
get. Therefore it is crucial to study how the piezoelectric material can be attached to the
panel of the wind deflector.

14
 Between the piezo part and the metal substrate the most effective technique to create
a bond is to create a conductive bond. One electrical lead is connected to the outward
side of the piezoceramic sheet while on electrical lead is connected to the substrate
especially when the substrate is plastic or glass. At a position of the downside of the ce-
ramic a wire is needed to be soldered. During the boding of piezo sheet to the substrate,
a consistent ‘overhang’, ‘dish’, ‘cutout’ should be used to the wire may have room.
In many applications, two parts epoxies and Cyanoacrylate have shown great help.
To get better results one must explain his boding requirements to an expert or by con-
tacting the manufacturer of these materials. The operations include:

1. The metal surfaces to be joined

2. Temperature of operation

3. Any unusual shear stress requirements

In several applications, superglue can also be used to make bonding between the
piezoelectric material and the base. Cyanoacrylate can be used to create good quality
temporary bonds (e.g. “super glue”). The great thing about cyanoacrylate is its ability
to quickly achieve electrical contact. It might take from seconds to years regarding the
duration of the bond depending on the method. The performance of a short time if the
part is very close compared to that done with best bonds which makes it even better for
exploratory worktaking in account the short time performance.

2.7 Extremities in Piezoelectric materials

When piezoelectric materials are used for energy harvesting applications, it be-
comes crucial to study about the extremities in which it can work in because for energy
harvesting applications, we will be dealing with very high forces and stresses which
could even exceed the maximum material strength values for a material. These studies
make sure that we do not go beyond the material strength limits of the material and can
ultimately prevent the untimely failure of the material.

1. Maximum power

15
 At a frequency mildly below fundamental longitudinal resonance of about 15
KHz after collecting electrical energy stored which is 100% and its height twice
per each cycle. Is will also be assumed that PSI-5A (1.5 x 2.5 x .0075) sheet is
stretched quasistatically to ±500 microstrains at the frequency mentioned above.
Under these circumstances the mechanical energy input in excess would be 100
watts. Efficiency can be added by applying resonant designs. The high stain of
15 KHz excitation cannot be achieved as the mechanical apparatus for making it
happen is not available.

2. Maximum voltage

For low frequency operation (0 to 5 KHz) a conservative recommendation for

applied bi-polar voltage for a .0075 thick single sheet of PSI-5A ceramic is ±90
volts. Voltage applied in the poling direction only can be raised up to 300 volts.

3. Maximum mechanical energy

In quasi-static cycle, the work done by one standard PSI-5A sheet (1.5 x 2.5
x .0075) on outside world in theory used as an extender is 00035 joules. The
output power generated from the sheet will be 5 watts after it has been used by
its initial longitudinal resonance of 15KHz in theory. On the contrary in practice,
the work projected cannot be collected more than 10%. Efficiency can be added
by applying resonant designs.

4. Maximum distance a bimorph can be extended

The tip can be pressed about 0.055 inch the snap of the bender is heard when a
.020 thick T220-type bender is cantilevered to a distance of one inch

5. Maximum distance a sheet can stretch

In terms of regular use, stretching a sheet to exact 500 microstrain can suffice.
The next few steps must be done with caution. Although higher surface strains
can be achieved, they will be at the cost of low statistical survival

16
Chapter 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

Energy harvesting is the process by which energy is derived from external sources,
captured, and stored for small, wireless autonomous devices, like those used in wearable
electronics and wireless sensor networks. With the increasing demand for the automo-
bile industry to switch from using fossil fuels to run the engines to using alternative
sources like electricity, fuel cells, biodiesel etc. there has been extensive researches
on this area for improving their performance and efficiency. Out of these alternative
sources, electrical vehicles are gaining particular attention because of their higher ef-
ficiencies compared to other sources. In this scenario, several researches have been
carried out in the past two decades to further improve the efficiency of the engine.

Vehicles travelling on the roads unquestionably produce a lot of recyclable energy

which could be of different forms like vibration energy, wind energy, heat energy etc.
These vehicles actually contain so many low power micro electronic devices and wire-
less sensors, for which these recyclable forms of energy can be used. Out of these
forms, vibration and wind energy provides us with the highest convertibility rate for
storage and later usage. Vibration energy recovered from the suspension system has
been under the scrutiny of researchers since 2012. The conversion of wind energy to
electrical energy in automobiles is not extensively studied and reviewed.

Using piezoelectric transducers for energy harvesting has many advantages over
other methods like high power density, architectural simplicity, and scalability. In 2007,
Y.K Tan et.al [12] devised a novel piezoelectric based wind energy harvester for low
power autonomous wind speed sensor. The researchers used bimorph piezoelectric ac-
tuators for developing electrical energy from the ambient wind energy. This electrical
energy is stored and is used to power a wireless radio frequency transmitter and is also
used to detect wind speed beyond a certain threshold in an early warning of storm detec-
tion system. This energy harvester was portable and suitable for low power autonomous
wind speed sensors.

17
 Research conducted by M.R.Hajj et.al in 2011 [3] investigated the influence of struc-
tural and aerodynamic nonlinearities on the dynamic behavior of a piezo-aeroelastic
system. They also successfully characterized the effects of different parameters on the
output of the system. They also found that the effects of variations in the electrical load
resistance on the flutter speed and pitch and plunge motions are negligible. On the other
hand, these variations affect the output voltage and power.

In another study that happened in 2011, Matthew Bryant et.al [2] did the modeling
and testing of a novel piezoelectric energy harvesting technique based on flutter phe-
nomenon. They carried out a stability analysis of this model to determine the frequency
and wind speed at the onset of the flutter instability, which dictates the cut-in conditions
for energy harvesting. In order to estimate the electrical output of the energy harvester,
the amplitude and frequency of the flutter limit cycle are also investigated In 2017, Ru-
pesh Patel et.al [4] carried out experimental work to find out the optimised design for an
energy harvesting system for flow induced vibration by measuring the power output for
different cases and comparing them. In the experimental work, two types of supports
are used and also is done for two cases of with and without an initial tension in the sup-
port. From the experiment they had found that FPED without the initial tension force
should be used to obtain high electric performance at a target condition. The vibrated
frequency of FPED can be influenced to the strain rate of the piezoelectric material in-
stalled in FPED and also it can be easily controlled by the initial tension force between
support jigs.

In a study conducted by Haigang Tian et.al [10] in 2019, the aero-elastic vibration
response and energy harvesting performance of the curved panel energy harvester was
investigated. Modelling and finite element analysis of the fluid-structure-electric cou-
pling field, optimal performance analysis, determination and experimental validation
was carried out. From their study they concluded that, output power increases with
the airflow velocity. The optimal external resistance for maximum power output was
found. Strain node was also observed both in simulation and experimental validation.
In another study conducted in the same year, Xia Li et.al [7] carried out a study on the
critical wind speed of a resonant cavity piezoelectric energy harvester driven by driving

18
wind pressure. Through this study, the researchers made an improvement on traditional
resonant cavity piezoelectric energy harvester by adding a Helmholtz resonant cavity
to the end of the main cavity, and a spoiler cylinder at the entrance of the main cavity.
The researchers found out the cut in speed using energy conservation method and the
cut out speed with the help of Fluent software.

In 2017 Inki Jung et.al [11] researched about the methods that could help improve
the amount of power harvested by the piezoelectric transducers. They did the design
and demonstration of a PVDF-based, high-power piezoelectric module installed on a
local highway, for the first time. The module contains a bridge-type displacement am-
plification capability, demonstrating the 2.5mm vertical displacement converted into
13mm horizontal deformation, suitable for the uninterrupted driving experience. The
design guidelines and optimization strategies for the module, in terms of the piezoelec-
tric power output is also provided.

Another study that involves the improvement of the performance of the piezoelectric
transducer is the one conducted in 2018 by Masami Kawahara et.al [14]. In this study
the researchers developed small-scale piezo electric energy harvesting devices using
strain-tuned polycrystalline perovskite thin films on flexible substrates. They’ve used
perovskite PZT thin films coupled with flexible metal foil substrates, particularly for
controlling ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties through strain engineering. The
strain-controlled PZT film-based flexible cantilever beam was successfully developed
using a simple punching process without any complex MEMS processes.

In 2019, Sabariah Julai et.al [9] conducted a review of piezoelectric energy harvest-
ing system and application of optimization techniques to enhance the performance of
the harvesting system. The researchers found that an optimization technique can be
used to optimize the parameters of the piezo cantilever beam geometry such as length,
width, and thickness to increase the harvesting power of the structure and find the suit-
able resonance frequency. The optimization technique can gain robustness, strong con-
trol ability, stable signal, low noise, less time, simple design and high speed to rise and
settle time in PEHS converter.

Researches on using piezoelectric energy harvesting in automobiles have been go-

19
ing on since 2012. Hongseok Lee et.al [4] in 2012 carried out experimental studies to
develop a piezoelectric energy harvest system to recycle the energy which is otherwise
dissipated as heat. Before this study there were other researches where they used elec-
tromagnetic energy harvesting devices for the energy harvest but that method had a lot
of drawbacks. In the study that Lee did, the energy harvested was pretty low during the
experiment, but on the road, vehicles exhibited better results. In 2015 Syahrul Hisham
Mohamad et.al [8] conducted a research on the piezoelectric energy harvesting using
car vibrations. Through the experiments, the output comparison of Piezo electronic
cantilever with mass and piezo electronic cantilever without mass is carried out. A sec-
ond experiment is done to study the effect of based on the piezoelectric cantilever. In
order to study the most significant placement of piezoelectric output at a car, a results
was obtained from measuring the vibration at several point at the car. From the results
obtained the researchers concluded that the best location to install the system is at air-
filter or the air outflow of the car air filter because the system can generate continuous
energy.

Dauchun Li et.al [5] in 2016 carried out a detailed research on exploiting flow in-
duced vibrations for energy harvesting in aerospace vehicles. Linear or linearized mod-
elling approaches are commonly employed to support the design phase of energy har-
vesters. Coupled non-linear phenomena, is considered here as a design opportunity.
Enhancing harvested energy and performance, scaling effects on the energy harvest-
ing performance, design and power management of host systems and balance between
advantages and disadvantages of energy harvesting are discussed in detail by the re-
searchers.

A review study on vibration energy harvesting on vehicle suspension system was

done in the year 2018 by Lin Xu et.al [1] where they studied and compared various
techniques that are used for vibration energy harvesting in automobiles. From this study
the researchers concluded that regenerative energy based suspension systems can offer
potential fuel savings upto 3 percent and that they can provide an even more comfortable
ride. They have also added that hydraulic transmission based regenerative suspension
systems are promising especially for heavy trucks and off-road vehicles.

20
 Another study conducted on the piezoelectric energy harvesting by Rafael Tavares
and Michael Ruderman [13] in 2019 made use of two different kinds of external excita-
tion namely, periodic and stochastic. They extended their simulation work to investigate
the capabilities of energy harvester in suspension systems under the standardized road
conditions. The analysis of power in the electrical domain demonstrates the potential
capabilities of piezoelectric transducers to harvest sufficient energy for supplying small
electronic circuits.
The latest study on this was conducted in 2020 by Xia Li et.al [6] which was a piezo
electro-magnetic hybrid energy harvester. Coupled vibration mathematical model is es-
tablished to predict the output performance of the wind energy harvesting effect. The
researchers carried out numerical simulation to analyse and predict the output charac-
teristics. By conducting energy harvesting experiments, the correctness of the mathe-
matical model was also verified. The numerical simulation conducted proved that the
wind energy harvesting effect of the hybrid structure is better than the classic flutter
structure. Experimental results are consistent with the theoretical prediction results,
which verified the correctness of the theory.

21
Chapter 4

MOTIVATION FOR PRESENT WORK

Renewable and clean energy sources have become an increased area of interest due
to the energy crisis and the environmental concerns associated with the use of fossil
fuels. The global electricity demand is expected to increase by almost 80 percentage
during 2012-2040. The global energy crisis and pollution levels are increasing due to
the dependence on fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are expected to deplete in the coming years
and hence there is a growing need to migrate to cleaner energy sources. A clean energy
revolution is required to come out of the fossil fuel dependence.

The evolution of electric vehicles are presenting itself to be a boon for these crises
but an issue that is associated with electric vehicles is the energy storage. As the en-
ergy storing capacity of an electric vehicle increases, its weight increases. Since the
efficiency of electric vehicles is much higher compared to the conventional IC engine
vehicles, this is an issue that could affect the overall performance of the vehicle and
is therefore a major issue that must be focused on. The energy in electric vehicles is
being used continuously and there is a need for an on-board charging method for energy
replenishment.

There are several existing solutions for this predicament and these involve the fol-
lowing techniques. Solar panels are fixed on the exterior parts, but they are not useful
during night and cloudy environments. Portable Battery Systems are being used. If a
battery is drained completely, it is charged at a charging station and used again. Swap-
pable battery solutions exist for electric vehicles. Regenerative Braking System is used
in Hybrid Vehicles. Battery recharging is done through overhung charging stations for
some electric vehicles. Trucks are a major means of transporting goods, which run on
fossil fuels. We are presenting an invention which can harness clean and green energy
from winds to charge batteries, as wind is present everywhere in abundance.

22
4.1 Advantages of proposed system
The presented work offers the following advantages over the already existing solu-
tions.

1. Provides for generation of electricity from wind impacting on the vehicle using
piezoelectric elements.

2. Acts as an auxiliary power replenishment unit for the batteries in hybrid and elec-
tric trucks.

3. Provides increased range in case of hybrid and electric vehicles.

4. Electricity generation capability even while the vehicle is stationary.

5. System can be included in any external panel of the vehicle as per requirement
and design.

4.2 Objectives
The following list directs us to the objectives of the project that are planning to be
achieved by the end of this project.

1. To design a system which can act as an energy harvesting system for the wind
energy acting on the wind deflectors and panels of the trucks.

2. To define the components required to develop the energy harvesting system.

3. To make a simulation of the system and find out the power response of the system.

4. To make a CAD model of the energy harvesting system.

5. To make a mathematical model of the system and compare the agreement of the
results obtained from the numerical and experimental part of the project.

6. To apply other techniques to improve the power response of the energy harvesting
system.

23
Chapter 5

DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM

The project is related to harvesting energy from the wind and using it to charge
the Batteries used in EV and Hybrid Trucks. Renewable and clean energy sources
have become an increased area of interest due to the energy crisis and the environmen-
tal concerns associated with the use of fossil fuels. The global electricity demand is
expected to increase by almost 80 percentage during 2012-2040. A clean energy revo-
lution is required to come out of the fossil fuel dependence. Trucks are a major means
of transporting goods, which run on fossil fuels. Through this project I am presenting
an invention which can harness clean and green energy from winds to charge batteries,
as wind is present everywhere in abundance.

The target of the project can be defined as follows. There is a global energy crisis
and pollution levels are increasing due to the dependence on fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are
expected to deplete in the coming years and hence there is a growing need to migrate
to cleaner energy sources. The energy in electric vehicles is being used continuously
and there is a need for an on-board charging method for energy replenishment. There
are a few solutions that exist to the problem defined. Those are as follows. Solar panels
are fixed on the exterior parts, but are not useful during night and cloudy environments.
Portable Battery Systems are being used. If a battery is drained completely, it is charged
at a charging station and used again. Swappable battery solutions exist for electric
vehicles. Regenerative Braking System is used in Hybrid Vehicles. Battery recharging
is done through overhung charging stations for some electric vehicles.

Volvo Group uses fixed body panels and wind deflectors in their range of trucks.
These panels vary in the materials used and dimensions but are devoid of any en-
ergy harvesting abilities. They are used for aerodynamic and aesthetic purposes only.
Through this project we aim to improve on the following areas. Provides for generation
of electricity from wind impacting on the vehicle using piezoelectric elements. Acts
as an auxiliary power replenishment unit for the batteries in hybrid and electric trucks.

24
 Figure 5.1: Schematic diagram of the proposed system

Provides increased range in case of hybrid and electric vehicles. Electricity generation
capability even while the vehicle is stationary. System can be included in any external
panel of the vehicle as per requirement and design.

5.1 Construction of the system

Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge

in response to applied mechanical stress and vice versa. This effect is exhibited by
piezoelectric crystals. The piezoelectric effect results from the linear electromechanical
interaction between the mechanical and electrical states in crystalline materials with no
inversion symmetry.

Also in order to not have the reverse piezoelectric effect, that is when electrical
energy is applied to PZT materials, the PZT material deforms, we will provide a one
way circuit using diodes or any other means that only allow electricity to be captured in
the battery and doesn’t allow the charge to flow the other way around.

25
5.2 Components
The proposal considers the system on a wind deflector. The system consists of

1. An outer movable panel and a stationary inner panel.

2. Piezoelectric crystal array that are arranged in series or parallel depending on the
current and voltage requirement and connected to a storage device

3. Magnetic Repulsion devices

4. Waterproof seal at the ends.

The following figures show different types of models which can serve the purposes
defined above.
The system consists of an array of cylinders with piezoelectric material connected
in parallel. So that failure of one piezoelectric element does not affect the flow through
other elements. The cylinder array connected to an energy storage device through a one
way electrical circuit. These cylinders consist of a piezoelectric material and an impact
element placed coaxially and separated by a distance L. Magnetic repulsion devices
consisting of two similar pole (North-north / south-south) magnets placed coaxially.
One end of the magnetic repulsion device and piezoelectric cylinders connected to the
rear surface of panel 1 and the other end attached to the front surface of panel 2 as
shown in figure 5. A waterproof seal between the panels.

5.3 Working principle

1. Piezoelectric materials are capable of generating electrical charge upon applica-
tion of mechanical force.

2. The system is mounted on the wind deflector or any other exterior panel of the
vehicle. When the vehicle is in motion a large amount of wind is impacting the
panel. If the vehicle is moving with a velocity x km/h and the wind velocity is y
km/h. Then, the relative velocity is (x+y) km/hr. and this would be the velocity
of the wind impacting on the panel leading to exertion of a pressure.

26
 3. The cylinders containing the piezoelectric materials and the magnetic repulsion
devices are placed in line on the same surface.

4. The piezoelectric material is normally perpendicular to the direction of the force.

5. Due to the pressure applied by the wind the panel starts to move inward causing
the impacting element to impact on the piezoelectric material.

Figure 5.2: Working of the proposed system

6. The piezoelectric material generates an electric charge due to the piezoelectric

effect.

7. Multiple such cylinders connected in parallel supply the generated electric charge
to the battery or any other storage device.

8. As the distance between the magnets in the magnetic repulsion device reduces
and the repulsive effect of the magnets separates the panel apart.

9. As one end of the magnets is connected to the panel, the panel is pushed away
towards its original position.

10. This action brings back the piezoelectric material and the impacting element to
their original position.

11. And the cycle continues again, and the system keeps on generating energy con-
tinuously.

27
 The system is capable of generating electricity even when the vehicle is stationary
in certain condition when wind speeds are sufficient to push the panel beyond its normal
position thus providing a unique energy replenishment method.
The system aims at harvesting energy from the wind impacting the exterior panels.
The panels equipped with this system shall have mounting features with piezoelectric
material and an impacting element attached to different panel sides. The wind impact-
ing the panel will push the outer panel against the stationary inner panel, resulting in
the impact element impacting the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical
charge.
The BMS manages the charge flow such that all the cells of the battery are equally
charged.This charge is sent to an energy storage device. The Magnetic repulsion devices
act to bring back the panels to their original position by magnetic repulsion between
similar faced magnets in them. A waterproof seal is provided at both ends on the panel
to protect the system from any weather related damages.
Some of the areas in which this system can be utilized are shown below

Figure 5.3: Areas of interest of the truck

There are several alternatives to the components mentioned above. Charge gen-
eration can be achieved using either the piezoelectric strips or piezoelectric crystals.

28
Piezoelectric paints are also relevant in use these days and that can also be used accord-
ing to power requirements as it is less efficient than the remaining types of techniques.
The retraction of the system can be achieved by using the following alternatives in
addition to magnetic retraction mechanism.

1. Springs

2. Rubber material that has good contraction capabilities

3. Gas springs

4. Electromechanical actuators Hydraulic actuators

5. Pneumatic actuators

6. Spring loaded slider mechanism

7. Self-adjusting hydraulic means

A heating coil can be provided for use in extreme cold conditions. This is to avoid
any adverse effects caused due to ice build-up on the panels and the system.
The sealing can be provided through industrial sealants and/or rubber material.
The impacting element and piezoelectric material can be directly attached to the
panels with low clearances if required, thus eliminating the cylinder requirement.

5.4 Modelling the system in CATIA V5

The design of the system was carried out in CATIA V5. The system was designed
on a standard wind deflector of one of the target trucks of the company.The deflector of
the target truck was extracted first to make the outer movable panel. Then the harvesting
system was designed in between the two parts. From the figures 5.4 to 5.6 we can see
the different components of the system which make up the energy harvesting system.
Each of these parts were designed in surface modelling workbench of CATIA.
The lower base shows the piezoelectric layer attached to it. The impacting elements
are fixed on the outer movable panel. In each cycle, the wind striking on the outer panel
causes the impacting elements to come in contact with the piezoelectric layers attached
to the inner layer and this generates electricity.

29
 The motion between the two panels is enabled by a pair of cylindrical joint. A sys-
tem of magnets is also designed between the two panels so that the outer movable panel
can move back to its original position to continue the cycle of generating electricity.
Kinematics of the system was also developed to create a visualization of the process
involved.

Figure 5.4: Base deflector

Figure 5.5: Upper deflector

30
 Figure 5.6: Assembled design

5.5 Specifications

Once the design of the system was completed in CATIA V5, finding out the speci-
fications of each of the components would be the next step. First step in this is to find
out the specifications of the most important part of the system which is the piezoelec-
tric material. Going through the supplier website, we will understand that the type of
piezoelectric material that is very commonly used for energy harvesting applications
is PZT. There are three of its variations that are available in market which are PZT-
5A/5H/5J. The thickness of the piezomaterial that is available in the supplier market
(https://piezo.com/) ranges from 0.4-1.32 mm. The density of this material is
around 7800 kg/m3 .

The most commonly available piezoelectric strip has dimensions of 2.18 x 0.92
inches. From the CATIA design, we have found out the total area of the piezoelectric
material to be 0.778m2 . Therefore if we divide the total area of the piezoelectric mate-
rial with the area of one strip, we will get the total number of strips required which is
602. The next important component in the system is the magnets. To select the grade
of the magnet first we have to find the amount of force that these magnets should be
repelling. Depending on this force value with the dimensional constraints in the design,
we can design the grade of the magnet. The calculations for these are given in detail in
the next section.

31
 Now coming to the discussion of the specification of the system as a whole, we
have to decide the thickness of the lower base panel and the outer movable panel. In
a normal wind deflectors such as that is used in VNL and VML trucks, the average
thickness comes to be around 4-5mm. So here we have split this thickness into 1.5mm
for the lower movable panel and around 3.5mm for the outer movable panel. The motion
between the two panels can be made possible by sliding motion between two co-axial
cylinders. We can also use a compliant mechanism instead of this. This can reduce the
friction and also is comparably lighter in weight. To store the power produced we use,
the 24V, 50 Ah battery that is normally used in trucks. Also to get the maximum output,
we connect the piezoelectric cells in parallel. The specifications can be summarised as
in the table given below.

Parameters Specifications
Piezoelectric material PZT- 5A/5H/5J
Thickness of the piezoelectric material 0.4 - 1.32 mm
Density of piezoelectric material 7800 kg/m3
Thickness of the movable panel 1.5 mm
Thickness of the fixed panel 3.5 mm
Motion between the panels Sliding motion/ compliant mechanism
Connection of the cells 2, 14V, 170 Ah batteries connected in series
Connection of the piezoelectric material Parallel connection
Table 5.1: Specification of the proposed system

5.6 Selection of magnets

For the selection of the magnets there are two important criteria. One is the force
that is acting on the wind deflector and the other the dimensional constraints. So first
we have to calculate the force that is acting on the deflector.
As design engineers, whenever we design something, we do it for the worst case
scenario. So we design the magnets for the maximum force that acts on the wind de-
flector. This happens when the wind and the vehicle is moving in opposite directions.

1
KE = mv2
2
Where m is the mass flow rate of the air striking the front area of the truck and v is

32
 Figure 5.7: Wind and vehicle travelling in opposite directions

the velocity with which it strikes. The volume flow rate of the air striking the frontal
truck area can be found using the following formula.
Volume flow rate = velocity × area normal to the wind flow or the projected area
The average ambient wind speed in the United States is 15 km/hr, and the average
truck speed is 95 km/hr. So the total relative velocity with which the wind strikes the
truck panel can be considered as 110 km/hr. Converting this into m/s, we get around 30
m/s.
Assuming the area normal to the wind flow = 1 m2 ,
Volume flow rate = 30 × 1 = 30 m3 /s
From this we can find out the mass flow rate of the air.
Mass flow rate of air = volume flow rate of air × density
Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3
Therefore, mass flow rate= 30 × 1.225 = 36.75 kg/s
Substituting these values in the equation for kinetic energy,
KE of the wind per second = 1/2 × 36.75 × 302 = 16.537kJ
Dynamic pressure of the wind striking the truck = KE/ volume = 551.25 Pa
Force = pressure × area of the deflector
Total area of the wind deflector = 1.202 m2
Force = 826.875 N

33
 This force acts uniformly on the wind deflector. Now as the second criteria we
consider the dimensional constraints in the design. From the CATIA design, the dimen-
sions of the magnets were confirmed as 60 mm diameter and 5 mm thickness. Keeping
these factors in mind, we have to choose the grade of the magnet in such a way that a
repulsion of 826.875 N has to be generated by maintaining a dimension of 60x5 mm.
The grades of NdFeB available for purchase = N35, N38, N40, N42, N45, N48,
N50, N52. We can round off the maximum force value from 826.875N to 1000N as a
factor of safety. Maximum repellent force developed by the magnets for each grade can
be found and the number of magnets required for repelling a total force of 1000N can
be easily found. The following table summarizes the value of the maximum repellent
force generated by each grade of the magnet for the given dimensions.

Grade of Maximum Maximum No. of magnets

magnet repellent force repellent force required
(in lbs) (in N)
N35 32.48 144.48 7
N38 35.26 156.84 7
N40 37.11 165.03 7
N42 38.97 173.35 6
N45 41.75 185.713 6
N48 44.54 198.123 6
N50 46.39 206.35 5
N52 48.25 214.63 5

Table 5.2: Comparison of repulsive force of different grades of magnet

To maintain the symmetry in the wind deflector design, we can choose any of the
magnets which can be used as a pair. So from the table, we can see that we can use
any of the three grades of magnets of which 6 are required to maintain the maximum
value of the repellent force. Any among the N42, N45, or N48 can be used for the
system since, all these grades can produce a repellent force around 1000N when all the
6 magnets are considered together.
The specifications of the magnets that can be used for the system were finalised as
shown in the table shown below.

34
 Parameters Specifications
Magnet NdFeB- N42 / N45 / N48 / N50
Dimensions of magnet 5 60 x 5 mm
Density of magnet 5 7400-7500 kg/m3
Magnetic flux density 7600 gauss

Table 5.3: Specification of the magnets used in the proposed system

The following figure shows the relation between the repellent force and the distance
between the magnets for a N45 magnet. In the next figure we can see the magnetic field
distribution of the N45 grade magnet.

Figure 5.8: Graph showing the relation between repulsive force and the distance be-
tween the magnets

35
Figure 5.9: Visualization of magnetic field in free space for N45 grade magnet

36
Chapter 6

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

The piezoelectric energy harvester used for harvesting wind can undergo some very
serious and complex vibrations. Hence it is very important to do the modal analysis
study for the structures.Modal analysis is the study of the dynamic properties of systems
in the frequency domain. It helps to determine the vibration characteristics (natural
frequencies and mode shapes) of a mechanical structure or component, showing the
movement of different parts of the structure under dynamic loading conditions, such
as those due to the lateral force generated by the electrostatic actuators. The natural
frequencies and mode shapes are important parameters in the design of a structure for
dynamic loading conditions.

To explain it simply, modal analysis is a simple way to calculate the natural frequen-
cies of your system so you know which frequencies can be destructive and dangerous
for it. Modal is the simplest analysis and the only thing it does is telling you what are
the “resonance frequencies” of your geometry.Efficiency and power density of a piezo-
electric vibrational energy harvesting device are strongly frequency dependent because
the piezoelectric generates maximum power at its resonance frequency. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency of the host determines the size of the piezoelectric element of a
piezoelectric energy harvesting unit.

Harmonic Response Analysis is a linear dynamic analysis used to determine the

response of a system to excitation at specific frequencies. It is also referred to as Fre-
quency Response Analysis. The prerequisite for a Harmonic Response Analysis is a
Modal Analysis, as the input frequencies needed for a Harmonic Response Analysis are
the results of a Modal Analysis. Due to the analysis using results already calculated,
Harmonic Response Analysis is a type of restart analysis which uses modal superposi-
tion to calculate its results. In a Harmonic Response Analysis, the load applied to the
linear model is a steady state sinusoidal load at a given frequency. Loads may be out of
phase with one another, but the excitation is at a known frequency.

37
 The harmonic response solver is based on a mode superposition technique and per-
forms the following steps.It calculates and assembles the element mass matrix if base
excitation loading is applied, otherwise calculates and assembles the element load and
nodal load vectors. The type of mass matrix used depends on the type used in the natu-
ral frequency analysis. Modal loads and associated phase angles are found out. Modal
element stresses and strains along with the nodal reactions are evaluated using the vibra-
tion mode vectors. After this step, the modal displacement amplitudes and phase angles
are also found out. As the final step the harmonic analysis calculates the structure’s re-
sponses such as nodal displacements, reactions and element stresses by combining the
modal results. Both response magnitudes and phase angles are determined.
The design parameters and materials used in this paper for finite element analysis
are given in the table given below.

Piezoelectric Material PZT-5A

Stainless steel Shim Material
Density of the piezoelectric material 7700 kg/m3
Density of the shim material 7750 kg/m3
Young’s Modulus of shim material 200e9
Poisson’s ratio of shim material 0.3
Frequency range 0-1000 Hz
Table 6.1: Properties of the materials used for numerical analysis

The simulation started with a thorough background reading on piezoelectric mate-

rials. From that study, the data regarding the piezoelectric material like its anisotropic
elastic modulus, density, orthotropic permittivity and its piezoelectric constant values
were obtained. PZT-5A is the material chosen for piezoelectric transducer. This mate-
rial is widely chosen for energy harvesting applications owing to its high resistivity at
increased temperatures, high stability and high time stability. With high piezoelectric
constants, this material can also generate high voltages. Another property of PZT-5A
that stands out when compared to other piezoelectric materials is its high dielectric
constant. This property enables it to produce more electrical energy for the same me-
chanical impact input compared to another material with lower dielectric material. In
this ANSYS simulation, first we carried out modal analysis, harmonic analysis and
structural analysis of the beam together with the piezoelectric patch. Before carrying

38
out all these steps, we do the first few steps of analysis which are common for modal,
harmonic and structural analyses. These include the following steps.

1. Preferences

In this step, we select structural and electric because our analysis includes both.

2. Pre processor

In pre-processor, we select the elements for each of the body that we are work-
ing on. For the piezoelectric material we can make use of any of the following
elements.

PLANE13, KEYOPT(1) = 7 coupled-field quadrilateral solid

SOLID5, KEYOPT(1) = 0 or 3 coupled-field brick

SOLID98, KEYOPT(1) = 0 or 3 coupled-field tetrahedron

PLANE223, KEYOPT(1) = 1001, coupled-field 8-node quadrilateral

SOLID226, KEYOPT(1) = 1001, coupled-field 20-node brick

SOLID227, KEYOPT(1) = 1001, coupled-field 10-node tetrahedron

For this project, we are going with the SOLID226 element for the piezoelectric
material. For the base material we chose SOLID186 20 node brick element. For
the piezoelectric circuit analysis, the CIRCU94 element was used. This element
is used to define the resistive load for piezo element voltage output.

3. Real constants

In real constants option, we can add the constant values pertaining to the material.
Here we have added the real constant value for the CIRCU94 element for resistive
load as 100kΩ.

4. Material properties

In the material properties option, we add all the required properties for the piezo-
electric material and the sub-structure material. For piezoelectric material, we

39
 add the properties like density, anisotropic elasticity, permittivity and the dielec-
tric constants. We use the orthotropic option in relative permittivity for inputting
the diagonal values of the permittivity matrix.

The piezoelectric matrix can be inputted in [e] form (piezoelectric stress matrix)
or in [d] form (piezoelectric strain matrix). ANSYS converts a piezoelectric strain
matrix to a piezoelectric stress matrix using the elastic matrix at the first defined
temperature.

We also have to define an elastic coefficient matrix which is a 6x6 symmetric

matrix which specifies the stiffness matrix [c] or the compliance matrix [s].

5. Modelling

For modelling, we made the basic structure and the piezoelectric material sepa-
rately using dimensions and then glue them together using the Boolean function.

6. Meshing

Before we go into the actual meshing, we assign the material properties to the dif-
ferent blocks of the base material and the piezoelectric material using the material
model number that we had assigned to them. Now if we click pick all the vol-
umes in the mesh option, we will see that the body of the geometry is completely
meshed.

These are the steps that are common for all the analyses that we will be doing for
this project and the remaining steps that need to be carried out for the further analyses
are as follows.

1. Modal analysis

i. Boundary condition

After completing the meshing of the energy harvester, we can start applying the
boundary conditions. For this, we can go to loads in pre-processor and make
sure the analysis type is static. Now click define the loads and constrain all the
degrees of freedom in the area that is fixed in the case of cantilever beam that

40
 Figure 6.1: Energy harvester body after meshing

is under consideration here. These are the boundary conditions that need to be
applied in the case of modal analysis of a cantilever beam.

ii. Solution

When we go for the solution, first click on the new analysis and opt for modal
to conduct the modal analysis. Now click on analysis option to input how many
modes we are looking to extract. After this we can directly click solve button and
then on current LS after which we will get the solution done message.

iii. Post processing

After completing the solution, we can read the results under the general post
processing button. We can see the natural frequencies of the structure that we
have designed. Now we can click on one of them for which we want to see the
mode shape and then click on plot results and then deformed shape. Now we can
see all the deformed mode shapes of the structure.

2. Harmonic analysis

41
In harmonic analysis we try to find out the voltage response of the harvester to
a sinusoidal force applied to it. Whenever a harmonic force act on a structure,
beam undergoes vibration and develops strain in the piezoelectric panel leading
to voltage generation.

i. Boundary condition

First we need to couple the nodes on the upper and bottom surfaces of the PZT
material. When we couple the node surfaces, they will act as a single node. The
voltage will be the same on all nodes of the surface. For the ground surface we
apply 0 voltage.

For the structural boundary conditions, we use a cantilever conditions, where one
end is fixed and the other end is free. We also give base excitation from one end.

ii. Solution

Before we go for the solution of the problem, we have to make sure that the
analysis type is harmonic. In the load step options we have to add the stepped
frequency range from 0 to 1000 Hz with the step 100. Then go for solution.

iii. Post processing

We can get the output at desired nodes using the time history post processing.
There we can add the nodal solution for electric potential and then choose the
node. Now we can plot the graph to see the voltage response with varying fre-
quency. We can also see the power output directly from by inputting the relation
between power and voltage in the calculator input space.

By following these methods we can do both modal and harmonic analysis for the
energy harvesting system.

42
6.1 Results and discussions
The vibrations undergone by the wind energy harvesters are complex. Hence it is
very important that we study the natural frequencies and the modes of vibration cor-
responding to these frequencies. This was the first step of the analysis that we did.
Following table shows the first four natural frequencies of vibration that the designed
geometry undergoes.

Set no. Freq(Hz)

1. 51.219
2. 321.63
3. 485.46
4. 907.88
Table 6.2: Natural frequencies obtained for first boundary condition

The following images show the first four modal shapes of the harvester.
The fourth modal shape is bending deformation and the natural frequency obtained
is 51.219 Hz. The complex vibration response of the harvester, including bending and
torsion modal, takes place simultaneously at the second and third orders. Thus, the vi-
bration response of the harvester occurs at the first order modal as far as possible, but
avoids at the second order modal for preventing the occurrence of the torsion deforma-
tion.
We can also see the voltage distribution for each of the vibration modes that is
discussed above.

43
Figure 6.2: Contour plot for displacement at 1st mode of vibration for condition 1

Figure 6.3: Contour plot for voltage at 1st mode of vibration for condition 1

44
Figure 6.4: Contour plot for displacement at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 1

Figure 6.5: Contour plot for voltage at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 1

45
Figure 6.6: Contour plot for displacement at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 1

Figure 6.7: Contour plot for voltage at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 1

46
Figure 6.8: Contour plot for displacement at 4th mode of vibration for condition 1

Figure 6.9: Contour plot for voltage at 4th mode of vibration for condition 1

47
 This modal analysis was done for a cantilever beam. Now the cantilever beam is
given a base excitation.
The following table shows the first four natural frequencies that were obtained for
the modal analysis.

Set no. Freq(Hz)

1. 55.508
2. 349.31
3. 524.84
4. 982.72
Table 6.3: Natural frequencies obtained for second boundary condition

The following images show the first four modal shapes of the cantilever harvester
with base excitation.
The first four modal shape is bending deformation and the natural frequency ob-
tained is 55.508 Hz. The complex vibration response of the harvester, including bend-
ing and torsion modal, takes place simultaneously at the second and third orders. Thus,
the vibration response of the harvester occurs at the first order modal as far as possi-
ble, but avoids at the second order modal for preventing the occurrence of the torsion
deformation just as is done for the first case.
Along with the contour plots for the displacement sum vector the voltage distri-
bution for each of the modes of vibration is also added. In this analysis of voltage
generation, we have added each of the surface as a single node. That is why in the fig-
ure, we can see that the one whole surface has a single colour for the voltage generation
contour plot.

48
Figure 6.10: Contour plot for displacement at 1st mode of vibration for condition 2

Figure 6.11: Contour plot for voltage at 1st mode of vibration for condition 2

49
Figure 6.12: Contour plot for displacement at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 2

Figure 6.13: Contour plot for voltage at 2nd mode of vibration for condition 2

50
Figure 6.14: Contour plot for displacement at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 2

Figure 6.15: Contour plot for voltage at 3rd mode of vibration for condition 2

51
Figure 6.16: Contour plot for displacement at 4th mode of vibration for condition 2

Figure 6.17: Contour plot for voltage at 4th mode of vibration for condition 2

52
 After completing the modal analysis we can move on to harmonic analysis. In
harmonic analysis we found out how the voltage and power harvested by the energy
harvesting device changes with the frequency of the harvester. Here if we take a close
look at the graphs, we can see that there are two peaks in the voltage and power response
graphs. These indicate the natural frequencies that come in between the two frequency
limits. Also the figure shown below (Figure 6.18) has zero voltage for all values of
frequencies. This is because this graph (Figure 6.18) denotes the power response of a
node from the base material and not from the piezoelectric material.

Figure 6.18: Voltage vs frequency plot for node 255

53
Figure 6.19: Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2721

Figure 6.20: Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2943

54
Figure 6.21: Voltage vs frequency plot for node 2989

55
Chapter 7

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

7.1 Theoretical approach

Predicting the current flow caused by the electrical loading of the PZT surfaces
during a mechanical impact is not easy and is very complex. But it is only reasonable
of us to define the behaviour of the dipole moment inside the ferroelectric ceramic and
the output voltage and compare these values with the analytical results. The applied
force can be calculated by finding out the kinetic energy of the wind striking the panel
of the truck.
Case-1
Wind and vehicle are in opposite directions

Figure 7.1: Wind and vehicle travelling in opposite directions

1
KE = mv2
2
Where m is the mass flow rate of the air striking the front area of the truck and v is
the velocity with which it strikes. The volume flow rate of the air striking the frontal
truck area can be found using the following formula.

56
 Volume flow rate = velocity × area normal to the wind flow or the projected area
The average ambient wind speed in the United States is 15 km/hr, and the average
truck speed is 95 km/hr. So the total relative velocity with which the wind strikes the
truck panel can be considered as 110 km/hr. Converting this into m/s, we get around 30
m/s.
Assuming the area normal to the wind flow = 1 m2 ,
Volume flow rate = 30 × 1 = 30 m3 /s
From this we can find out the mass flow rate of the air.
Mass flow rate of air = volume flow rate of air × density
Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3
Therefore, mass flow rate= 30 × 1.225 = 36.75 kg/s
Substituting these values in the equation for kinetic energy,
KE of the wind per second = 1/2 × 36.75 × 302 = 16.537kJ
Dynamic pressure of the wind striking the truck = KE/ volume = 551.25 Pa
Force = pressure × area of the deflector
Total area of the wind deflector = 1.202 m2
Force = 826.875 N
This is the force acting per unit area of the deflector. We can use the value obtained
as dynamic pressure in the formula below to find the voltage output.
V = P. d33 . t. kt /(ε.ε0 )

Symbol Term Value

V Voltage output To be calculated
P 30 Pressure applied 3.3074 x 106 Pa
d33 Piezoelectric strain coefficient 390 x 10-12 C
t Thickness of the piezo film 0.4572 mm
εo Permittivity in vacuum 8.85 x 10-12 F
ε Relative dielectric permittivity 1800
kt Mechanical coupling factor 0.72

Table 7.1: Values of different terms used in the formula

Substituting all these values in the equation, we get,

3.3074e6390e − 12110e − 60.72

V= = 4.442mV
18008.85e − 12

57
 This is the voltage output that we will be getting per unit of the piezoelectric mate-
rial. Now to find out the total output that we will be getting, we first need to find out the
total number of units that we would need for the system.

Dimensions of the unit = 2.18 x 0.92 x 0.018 in. ( 1 strip Available in market )

Area of the unit = 2.0056 sq.in. = 1293.93 mm2

Total area of piezoelectric material required on the deflector ( From Catia) = 0.778m2

Number of units required = 602 ( 0.778 m2 /1293.93mm2 )

[Total area on Panel / Strip available in market]

For parallel connection, total output = 2,674.38 mV = 2.674 V per sec per m2

For series connection , total voltage output = 7.39 mV per sec per m2

Therefore, we can say that for the maximum force condition (when the wind flow
and the vehicle motion are in the same direction) the voltage output that we will be
getting from the whole system is around 2.072 V.

Case-2

Wind and vehicle are in the same direction

Figure 7.2: Wind and vehicle moving in the same direction

58
 1
KE = mv2
2
Where m is the mass flow rate of the air striking the front area of the truck and v is
the velocity with which it strikes. The volume flow rate of the air striking the frontal
truck area can be found using the following formula.
Volume flow rate = velocity × area normal to the wind flow or the projected area
The average ambient wind speed in the United States is 15 km/hr, and the average
truck speed is 95 km/hr. So the total relative velocity with which the wind strikes the
truck panel can be considered as 80 km/hr. Converting this into m/s, we get around
22.22 m/s.
Assuming the area normal to the wind flow = 1 m2 ,
Volume flow rate = 22.22 × 1 = 22.22 m3 /s
From this we can find out the mass flow rate of the air.
Mass flow rate of air = volume flow rate of air × density
Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3
Therefore, mass flow rate= 22.22 × 1.225 = 27.22 kg/s
Substituting these values in the equation for kinetic energy,
KE of the wind per second = 1/2 × 27.22 × 22.222 = 6.719kJ
Dynamic pressure of the wind striking the truck = KE/ volume = 302.414 Pa
Force = pressure × area of the deflector
Total area of the wind deflector = 1.202 m2
Force = 363.501 N
This is the force acting per unit area of the deflector. We can use the value obtained
as dynamic pressure in the formula below to find the voltage output.
V = P. d33 . t. kt /(ε.ε0 )
Substituting all these values in the equation, we get,

1.344e6390e − 12110e − 60.72

V= = 2.437mV
18008.85e − 12
This is the voltage output that we will be getting per unit of the piezoelectric mate-
rial. Now to find out the total output that we will be getting, we first need to find out the

59
 Symbol Term Value
V Voltage output To be calculated
P 30 Pressure applied 1.344 x 106 Pa
d33 Piezoelectric strain coefficient 390 x 10-12 C
t Thickness of the piezo film 0.4572 mm
εo Permittivity in vacuum 8.85 x 10-12 F
ε Relative dielectric permittivity 1800
kt Mechanical coupling factor 0.72

Table 7.2: Values of different terms used in the formula

total number of units that we would need for the system.

Dimensions of the unit = 2.18 x 0.92 x 0.018 in. ( 1 strip Available in market )
Area of the unit = 2.0056 sq.in. = 1293.93 mm2
Total area of piezoelectric material required on the deflector ( From Catia) = 0.778
m2
Number of units required= 602 ( 0.778 m2 /1293.93mm2 )[TotalareaonPanel/Stripavailableinmarket]
For parallel connection, total voltage output = 1467.18 mV = 1.467V per sec
For series connection , total voltage output = 7.39 mV per sec
Therefore, we can say that for the minimum force condition (when the wind flow
and the vehicle motion are in the same direction) the voltage output that we will be
getting from the whole system is around 1.467 V.
Case-3
Cross-flow of wind
In the case of cross flow of wind, the voltage generated by the harvester can be
anywhere between the two extreme conditions of wind velocity. That is, the output can
be anywhere between 2.072 V and 1.467 V.

60
7.2 Mathematical approach
Mathematical approach was done to find out the variation of voltage output with the
resistance of the circuit and the frequency of the external vibration. We can also verify
the results that we have been obtained with the theoretical approach. The formula given
below shows the resonance frequency of the piezoelectric energy harvesting system.
This mathematical modelling can also help in deciding the design parameters in the
following way. In the graphs which show the relationship between the voltage output
and the frequency we can find out the maximum value of voltage output by finding
out the natural frequency of vibration of the harvesting system. We can also confirm
this value by checking it with the next graph which shows the relationship between
the voltage output and the resistance. This graph shows an obvious maximum value
for the voltage output and this maximum value will be the same as the voltage output
that we obtained from the previous graph at natural frequency of the energy harvesting
system. From this graph we can find out the value of the resistance for which the
voltage output is maximum and then design the electrical circuit in such a way that the
resistance exhibited by this circuit is closer to the value of resistance that we obtained
at the maximum output voltage value of the previous graph.

This formula shows the relation between the resistance and the frequency of the
external vibration.

t
R=
bLε33 ω

Where, R denotes resistance of the circuit, b the breadth of the piezoelectric strip,
L the length of the strip ε33 the piezoelectric constant and ω the natural frequency of
vibration of the piezoelectric material.

When the external vibration value becomes the same as the natural frequency of
the piezoelectric energy harvesting system, we will get the value of the resistance for
which the power output will be maximum.We can see from the graph that the voltage
output shows a maximum value at this resistance. If we cross check this value with the
maximum voltage output value we got from the hand calculation, we can see that they

61
are very close numerically.
In the next graph, we can see how the voltage output varies with the frequencies of
the external vibration.

Figure 7.3: Voltage vs Frequency graph for maximum output condition

62
Figure 7.4: Voltage vs Resistance graph for maximum output condition

Figure 7.5: Combined graph for maximum output condition

63
Figure 7.6: Voltage vs Frequency graph for minimum output condition

Figure 7.7: Voltage vs Resistance graph for maximum output condition

64
Figure 7.8: Combined graph for minimum output condition

65
Chapter 8

CORRELATION WITH TRUCK BATTERIES

8.1 Charging the truck battery

We have already calculated the voltage output that we will be getting from the pre-
vious chapter. To correlate this value with the actual truck battery, first we have to
calculate the amount of power output we will be able to harvest from this voltage out-
put. For this, we have used the following formula.

P = 2π f cV 2

Where,
f = natural frequency of vibration of the piezoelectric material = 51.219 Hz (from
the modal analysis)
c = capacitance of the material = 1 mF
V = voltage output we will be getting from the process = 2.072 V
By substituting these values in the above formula, we will get the value of power as,

P = 1.382W

Now for correlating this value with the truck battery, we first find out the specifica-
tions of the truck battery. Most electric truck batteries are rated 24V, 50Ah.
Number of watt hours required by the battery for it to be completely charged =
24×50 = 1200W h
Power harvested by the energy harvester = 1.382 W (For an area of 0.778 m2 )
For 1 m2 ,
Power generation = 1.7763 W
For 5 m2 ,
Total power generation = 8.882 W

66
 No. of watt hours generated in a day = 8.882×24 = 213.162W h
Comparing this value with the total charging capacity of the truck battery, we can
say that if the harvester runs for 1 day, the power generated by it can charge 17.76% of
the battery.
We can also choose another angle to correlate these values with the actual truck
battery. We already calculated the watt hours generated by the energy harvester in
a day, which is 213.162 Wh. Therefore, we can assume the power generated by the
energy harvester in a year by multiplying this value with 365.

Watt hours generated by the energy harvester in a year = 213.162×365 = 77804.13W h

We have already calculated the total watt hours required to completely charge a
truck battery rated 24V, 50 Ah which is 1200 Wh. If we divide the total watt hours
generated by the energy harvester by the watt hours required by the battery for one
complete charging of the battery, we will get the number of times the battery can be
charged completely using the energy harvested from the proposed system.
Total number of times the battery can be recharged completely = 77804.13÷1200 =
64.836
For a truck with a 300km range, total distance that is added to its range in a year =
300×64.836 = 19, 451.0325kms.
That is, if the energy harvester runs for one year, the power generated by it can be
used for an extra 19,451.0325 kms.

8.2 Powering auxiliary equipment in the truck

In addition to using the power generated by the energy harvesting system to charge
the truck battery of the electric trucks, we can also use it to power various auxiliary
equipment used in the trucks directly.These auxiliary equipment include electronic
components used inside trucks like fridge, coolers, heaters, lighting and other enter-
tainment systems like the sound systems and television.

67
 These components are rated in ampere hours per hour denoting the number of am-
pere hours that they use in an hour. From these ratings, we can find out for how many
hours we can run the equipment using the power generated by the system. For example,
we can consider a fridge used in a truck which is rated 3 Ah per hour.
The current generated by the energy harvester in a day,

I = P/V = 8.885 ÷ 2.072 = 4.29 A

Number of ampere hours that can be generated in a day = 4.29×24 = 102.88Ah

If we divide the total ampere hours generated by the energy harvester with the rating
of the electronic component, we will get the number of hours for which we will be able
to run the equipment. Therefore, considering the fridge, the duration for which it can
work with the power generated by the harvester in a day can be found out by,

Duration o f working = 102.88 ÷ 3 = 34.29 hours

Similarly, we can find the duration for which each electronic component works, by
using its rating. All the results obtained for different such electronic components used
in the truck is summarised in the table given below.

Electrical component Rating No. of hours it can be run

Fridge 3 Ah per hour 34.29
Parking cooler 30 Ah per hour 3.429
Parking heater 10 Ah per hour 10.28
Lighting 5 Ah per hour 20.567
Entertainment 5 Ah per hour 20.567

Table 8.1: Co-relating the power output value with the auxiliary equipment in trucks

68
8.3 Packaging

Figure 8.1: Packaging

Packaging is the configuration of materials that interconnects electronic signals

from one area to another.The proposed system has no considerable effects on the pack-
aging of the system because it just involves connecting the wires from the energy har-
vesting system to the battery of the vehicle.

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Chapter 9

FUTURE WORK

In the current context, the major challenge that this project faces is the higher in-
vestment in order to achieve the expected efficiency. As with any new technology in its
initial phase, with better research we will be able to bring down the initial investment
for the project to a smaller value. In the current scenario, a major portion of the initial
investment depends on the base material. This in turn can depend on a numerous factors
like the composition of the material, its properties like its piezoelectric charge constants,
which determine the efficiency of the power conversion along with its mechanical prop-
erties like the Young’s modulus, since the life of the energy harvester solely depends
on the material strength, and also on density, because it is important that the energy
harvesting system has weighs the least possible.

Another direction which we can consider when discussing about the future work of
this project is increasing the power output. This can also improve with further research
on piezoelectric materials since the properties of the piezoelectric material can affect
the efficiency of the energy harvester to a great deal. We can also work on improving
the design of the harvesting system. This can be done in two ways. We can either
change the design by integrating a mechanism which can amplify the forces acting on
the piezoelectric material. We can also use a compliant mechanism for this purpose,
because of its various advantages over the other common mechanisms. It eliminates the
requirement of various joints because of its flexibility and is lighter in weight due to
the material used for making compliant mechanisms. Another angle we can look at to
improve the power output is to change the design of the impacting panel in such a way
that it can create an impact on the piezoelectric panel more than once in a single cycle.
This can significantly increase the power output of the system. We can use springs to
attach the impacting element to the outer panel so that it can impact the piezo panel
more than once or we can also use telescopic impacting elements which can provide the
same effect.

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 We can also change the orientation and attachment of the piezoelectric material in
such a way that the output produced is maximum.There are several researches happen-
ing with this objective as well. As of now the orientation which can give the maximum
value of power output is bimorph cantilever attachment. But this orientation comes with
its own disadvantages. We are yet to know if this orientation can cause any unwanted
vibrations in the truck which can severely affect its performance. There are also several
other techniques which can improve the properties of the piezoelectric material, like
thermal straining of the material. Another method which can improve the power output
is by bringing down the resonance frequency of the energy harvesting system, closer to
the external frequency. This can be done by adding a proof mass at the free end of the
piezoelectric strip in a cantilever orientation. This is also something we can look into
as a future prospect of this project.
As we have discussed before, the main aim of this project is to build a system that
helps in the auto regeneration of charge in the truck battery. This can not only help in
charging the batteries in a cost efficient way but also increase the uptime of the truck,
because for charging the battery in a charging station, we will lose the uptime of the
truck. This can improve the working hours of the truck which can be very crucial due
to the increasing competition in every fields. Since this method shows promise for the
future, further studies can improve any flaws this system has, and can reach industrial
feasibility.

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Chapter 10

CONCLUSIONS

Auto regeneration of charge in electric trucks is very helpful in decreasing the down-
time of the trucks. Especially in today’s competitive market scenario, we should take
advantage of every edge we get over other companies. Here, through this project, we
put forward such a strategy, which can reduce the downtime of the truck, which is lost
in charging of its battery. We suggest an energy harvesting system which can replenish
the charge in the truck battery while the truck is on the run.
In this project, we created a design for the piezoelectric energy harvester in CATIA
V5, and also did the kinematics. After completing the first draft of the design, we were
able to find out the constraints in the design and made several other modifications in
the further design steps. Finally the actual design was made with the right dimensions,
following every constraints. After the design was completed, several analyses were
done to get an idea about the power output scenario. The conclusions we derived from
these are discussed below.
The first analysis was carried out in Ansys for carrying out the modal and harmonic
analysis. From modal analysis, we were able to find out the various natural frequencies
of vibration of the system. The lowest value we got as the natural frequency is 51.219
Hz which have been used in further calculations of power. From the harmonic analysis,
we were able to get the relationship between the voltage output and the frequency. From
the results obtained, it is clear that at resonance frequency, the power output will be very
high. Even though we won’t be able to reach the exact resonance frequency practically,
the closer it is, the higher the output value of power will be.
From the mathematical analysis, we were able to find out the values of the voltage
output and power output we will be getting. After finding this out, we were able to di-
rectly apply these values to the specifications the truck battery and that of the electrical
appliances used in trucks to find out the feasibility of the project. From all these works
that have been carried out in relation to the project, we have concluded that the proposed

72
system gave results as expected. Eventhough the power output values are small in num-
ber, the system shows huge potential in the future. Further research in the piezoelectric
field and investigation regarding the system can bring about drastic improvement in the
output results.

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