HORSE

ANATOMY

John Green

Dover Publications, Inc.

Mineola, New York
 Copyright

Copyright© 2006 by Dover Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Bibliographical Note

Horse Anatomy is a new work, first published by Dover Publications, Inc., in 2006.

oovER Pi8orial cA.rchive sERIEs

This book belongs to the Dover Pictorial Archive Series. You may use the designs and
illustrations for graphics and crafts applications, free and without special permission,
provided that you include no more than four in the same publication or project. (For
permission for additional use, please write to Permissions Department, Dover
Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501.)
However, republication or reproduction of any illustration by any other graphic
service, whether it be in a book or in any other design resource, is strictly prohibited.

International Standard Book Number: 0-486-44813-4

Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501
1. The Evolution of the Horse

EOHIPPUS MESOHIPPUS MIOHIPPUS

50 million years ago 26-38 million years ago 30 million years ago

MERYCHIPPUS PLIOHIPPUS
26-27 million years ago 5.2 million years ago

The horse as we know it today is the product of a long evolutionary chain Over millions of years, the multiple toes on the horses' feet gradually
stretching back millions of years. The chain begins with eohippus, or "dawn evolved into a single toe as the size of the digits decreased until only the
horse," a small animal which flourished over fifty million years ago. Eohippus central one played any part in running. The first one-toed horses were
was equipped with four toes on its forefeet and three toes on its hind feet, grazers, like their three-toed ancestors. Over time, horses also increased in
all terminating in thick horn. Behind the toes was a pad, which persists in size, from the hare-sized eohippus, to the large animals we know today. As
the modern horse as a small, horny callosity on the point of the fetlock, horses adapted to their environment, changes in the skull and limbs also
called the "ergot." Scientists know what eohippus looked like because a took place. The first horses were domesticated around 3,000 s.c., probably
nearly complete skeleton was discovered in Wyoming in 1931. in Asiatic Russia.
 7
6 8 9
10 2. Points of the Horse
11
12

16

/ /

/
2 23. Ergot .·.··

1. Lips 24. Cheek

2. Nostril 25. Throat
3. Eye 26. Jugular groove
4. Forehead 27. Shoulder 29
5. Poll 28. Point of shoulder
6. Ear 29. Breast
7. Wing of atlas 30. Point of elbow
8. Crest 31. Forearm
9. Neck 32. Chestnut
10. Mane 33. Knee
11. Withers 34. Cannon
12. Back of scapula 35. Fetlock
13. Back 36. Pastern
14. Loins 37. Hoof
15. Sacroiliac joint 38. Girth 23

16. Dock 39. Chest

17. Buttock 40. Abdomen
18. Hip joint 41. Flank 36
19. Tail 42. Stifle
20. Thigh 43. Coronet
21. Gaskin 44. Heel
22. Point of hock 45. Flex tendons

The points of the horse are the external features that make up the horse's other associated features, for instance, it is possible to establish what the
conformation, or shape. Knowledge of the points of the horse is vital for a angle of the shoulder is and whether it is correctly conformed. No one feature
real understanding of the animal. Experts acquire this knowledge by visual should be out of proportion with the others.
examination and physical touch. By feeling the point of the shoulder and
3. The Skin
The skin is the largest organ of the horse's body. It is made up of tis­ 1. Pore
sue known as the epithelium, which consists of two distinct layers. 2. Hair
The uppermost is the epidermis, an avascular, keratin-rich layer of 3. Epidermis
protective covering, divided into two sub-layers: the outer, called the
4. Nerve ending
stratum corneum, and the inner, called the stratum germinativum. The
deeper skin layer is the dermis, or corium, the flexible, nourishing 5. Dermis
source of the epidermis. It is an intricately woven layer of collagen 6. Hypodermis
strands, elastic fibers, and fat, including hair follicles, sweat and seba­ 7. Subcutaneous fat
ceous glands, and the udder in the female. Blood and lymph vessels, 8. Apocrine sweat gland
muscles, and nerves are embedded at various levels. 9. Blood vessel
10. Hair bulb
11. Hair follicle
12. Motor nerve
13. Arrector pili muscle

13
4

12
5

Among the many functions of the skin, two are especially sebaceous glands, which produce an oily material that
important: it is a barrier to harmful microorganisms, and waterproofs the skin. Horses are quite susceptible to
it offers protection from the elements. The hair over skin problems, however, especially in unhygienic condi­
much of its surface grows in "streams" that help repel tions, and good stable and field management are
rain and sweat. In addition, the skin of the horse contains essential.
 4. The Muscles of the Horse

1. Superior labial levator muscle

2. Canine muscle
3. Nasolabial levator muscle.
4. Masseter muscle
5. Sternomandibular muscle
6. Cervical cutaneous muscle
7. Brachiocephalic muscle
8. Splenius muscle
9. Cervical ventral serrated muscle
10. Subclavian muscle
11. Deltoid muscle
12. Descending pectoral muscle
13. Brachial triceps
13
14. Carpal and digital extensor muscles
15. Ascending pectoral muscle
16. External abdominal oblique muscle
17. Digital extensor muscles
18. Femoral biceps muscles
19. Semitendinous muscle
20. Superficial gluteal muscle
21. Gluteal fascia
22. Tensor muscle
23. Thoracic ventral serrated muscle
24. Latissimus dorsi muscle
25. Thoracic trapezius muscle
26. Cervical trapezius muscle

There are approximately 700 separate muscles in a horse's body. All move­ Centuries of selective breeding have led to enhanced muscular development
ments, from a flick of the tail to the most difficult maneuver, are brought about in some breeds and types. For example, the quarter horse, bred to sprint,
by a complicated system of skeletal muscles. Motion is produced by the has highly developed, muscular forelimbs and hindquarters, while the
contraction and relaxation of alternating, opposing groups of muscles acting steeplechasing thoroughbred, bred to race over courses with hurdles and
reciprocally on skeletal layers and eventually on the hooves as fulcrums on water jumps, has a less muscular physique than the sprinting thoroughbred.
the ground.
 .

5. The Deeper Muscles of the Horse

14
1. Longest capital and atlanta! muscle 19
2. Complex muscle 18

3. Rhomboid muscle
4. Thoracic spinal muscle
5. lliocostal muscle
6. Longest dorsal muscle
7. Caudal dorsal serrated muscle
8. Omohyoid muscle
9. Cervical ventral serrated muscle 18. Transverse abdominal muscles
10. Thoracic ventral serrated muscle 19. Internal abdominal oblique muscles
11. Subclavian muscle 20. External abdominal oblique muscle
12. Supraspinate muscle 21. Iliac muscle
13. lnfraspinate muscle 22. Femoral quadriceps muscle
14. Brachial biceps muscle 23. Middle gluteal muscle
15. Long head of brachial triceps muscle 24. Semimembranous muscle
16. Lateral head of brachial triceps muscle 25. Semitendinous muscle
17. External intercostal muscles 26. Gastrocnemius muscle
6. The Horse in Motion

Left forefoot liftoff Suspension phase

The horse has four natural gaits: walk, trot, canter, and gallop. The illustra­ four legs are off the ground. For years, people weren't sure if this actually
tion shows the final and fastest gait-the gallop. The gallop consists of a happened, until a series of photographs taken in the nineteenth century by
rapid four-time step sequence, which varies according to the horse's speed. Edweard Muybridge proved conclusively that the horse was completely air­
The left and right sides move in different manners, with one side leading, and borne for an instant during its stride. The suspension phase allows the horse
the other side trailing. The four limbs move individually and in the following to recover its equilibrium and to get its hind feet under the body. During the
sequence of footfalls: non-lead hind foot, lead hind foot, non-lead forefoot, gallop there is one suspension phase per stride.
lead forefoot. One feature of the gallop is the suspension phase, when all
7. The Skeleton of the Horse
5

1. Skull
2. Orbit of eye 3
3. Mandible
4. Poll
5. Vertebral column
6. Scapula
7. Sternum
8. Humerus
9. Scapula cartilage
10. Ulna
11. Radius
12. Carpal bones (knee joint)
13. Metacarpal bone (cannon)
14. Sesamoid bone
15. Proximal phalanx (long pastern)
16. Middle phalanx (short pastern)
17. Distal sesamoid bone
18. Distal phalanx (pedal bone)
19. Ribs
20. Costal cartilages
21. Ilium (pelvis)
22. Pubis
23. Ischium
24. Femur
25. Patella
26. Fibula
27. Tibia
28. Tarsal bones (hock joint)
29. Metatarsal bone (hind cannon)
30. Os calcis (point of hock)
31. Splint bone 18

The skeleton is the framework of bones and other hard structures that twenty-one tail vertebrae. There are twenty bones in each forelimb and
support and protect the horse's soft tissues and vital organs. There are twenty in each hind limb; they form the basis for locomotion and keeping
205 bones in the normal adult horse skeleton, although some variation is them in good condition is of great importance in maintaining the health of
possible, e.g. six or seven hock bones, and anywhere from fifteen to the horse.
8. The Vertebral Column

Thoracic
vertebra

T HORACIC
LUMBAR CAUDAL

Thoracic inlet

1. Atlas Sacrum
2. Axis
3. Ribs
4. Sternum
5. Costal cartilages

The horse has fifty-four bones in the vertebral column, arranged as follows: extensions. Ten false ribs are attached by cartilage to the posterior sternum.
cervical, or neck vertebrae (7); thoracic, or chest vertebrae (18); lumbar, or Cervical stenotic myelopathy (wobbler syndrome) causes spinal cord com­
loins vertebrae (6); sacrum, or croup bone (5) vertebrae fused to form a single pression and is a common and devastating disease in horses. Most prevalent
bone); coccygeal, or tail vertebrae (18). However, the tail vertebrae can vary in thoroughbred and quarter horse males, it produces a loss of control in the
from fifteen to twenty-one. In addition, the horse has eighteen ribs on each hindquarters when the horse is walking or turning.
side. Eight ribs are attached directly to the sternum by individual cartilaginous
9. The Horse from the Front

30

1. Masseter muscle 11. Hoof 21. Cervical vertebrae

2. Rostral auricular muscles 12. Radial carpal flexor 22. Scapula
3. Nasolabial levator muscles 13. Common digital extensor muscle 23. Ribs
4. Dorsal and ventral parts of the 14. Brachial muscle 24. Humerus
lateral nasal muscle 15. Deltoid muscle 25. Sternum
5. Jugular vein 16. Cutaneous superficial pectoral 26. Radius
6. Sternothyroid muscle muscle 27. Carpal bones
7. Sternomandibular muscle 17. Brachiocephalic muscle 28. Proximal phalanx (long pastern)
8. Pectoral muscle 18. Trapezius muscle 29. Middle phalanx (short pastern)
9. Radial carpal extensor muscles 19. Skull 30. Distal phalanx (pedal bone)
10. Tendon of oblique carpal extensor 20. Nasal cartilage 31. Metacarpal bone (cannon)
10. The Horse from the Rear (Mare}

1. Tail muscles 10. Tendon of superficial digital flexor 19. Fibula

2. Superficial gluteal muscle 11. Gastrocnemius muscle 20. Tibia
3. Biceps femoris muscle 12. Superficial and deep digital flexor 21. Calcaneal tuber (point of hock)
4. Semitendinous muscle tendons 22. Os calcis
5. Soleus muscle 13. Flexor retinaculum at hock 23. Splint bones
6. Lateral digital extensor muscle 14. Wing of ilium 24. Metatarsal (hind cannon)
7. Lateral head of deep digital 15. Sacral spinous process 25. Sesamoid bones
flexor muscle 16. Ischiatic arch 26. Proximal phalanx {long pastern)
8. Tendon of gastrocnemius muscle 17. Femur 27. Middle phalanx {short pastern)
9. Superficial digital flexor muscle 18. Lateral condyle of femur 28. Pedal bone
11. The Horse from Above

18

1. Auricular cartilage 11. External intercostal muscles 22. Skull

2. Auricular muscles 12. lliocostal muscles 23. Cervical vertebrae
3. Brachiocephalic muscle 13. External abdominal oblique muscle 24. Scapula
4. Splenius muscle 14. Superficial gluteal muscle 25. Ribs
5. Cervical part of ventral 15. Biceps femoris muscle 26. Thoracic vertebrae
serrate muscle 16. Semitendinous muscle 27. Lumbar vertebrae
6. Omotransverse muscle 17. Short tail levator muscle 28. 11ium
7. Cervical trapezius muscle 18. Long tail levator muscle 29. Femur
8. Deltoid muscle 19. Thoracolumbar fascia 30. Sacrum
9. Thoracic trapezius muscle 20. Scapular spine 31. Ischium
10. Latissimus dorsi muscle 21. Nuchal ligament 32. Caudal vertebrae
 4 5
12. The Skull

23

1. Jugular process bone

2. Occipital condyle
3. Nuchal crest 30
4. Parietal bone
5. Coronoid process
6. Zygomatic arch 34
7. Orbit 18. Foramen magnum
8. Frontal bone 19. Occipital bone 29. Jugular process bone
9. Nasal bone 20. Basisphenoid bone 30. Cranial cavity
10. Nasal peak 21. Hamulus of pterygoid bone 31. Conchofrontal sinus
11. Incisive bone 22. Palatine bone 32. Nasal cavity, middle nasal meatus
12. Mental foramen 23. Incisive bone and ventral nasal meatus, ventral
13. Infraorbital foramen 24. Maxilla nasal concha, and ethmoturbinates
14. Mandible 25. Orbital fissure 33. Vomer
15. Ramus of the mandible 26. Zygomatic bone 34. Pterygoid bone
16. Supraorbital foramen 27. Caudal alar foramen 35. Sphenopalatine sinus
17. Teeth 28. Foramen lacerum 36. Occipital bone
13. The Teeth
11
1. Maxilla, upper jaw
2. Sinuses
3. Reserve crown
4. Nasal bone
5. Wolf tooth
6. Crown
7. Apical foraminae 15

8. Apex
9. Mandible, lower jaw
10. Reserve crown
11.Table
12. Infundibulum
13. Dentine
14. Pulp cavity (dental star) Incisor tooth
8
15. Peripheral Cement

3 years
10 years

5 years 15 years

7 years
20 years

An adult horse has a total of forty teeth, which have long as well as forward and backward movement of the lower
roots. The molar "sets" are very close to one another, with jaw, enabling the molars to grind food thoroughly. The
no gaps. This tight structure helps the teeth withstand the appearance of the incisor teeth, their profiles and tables
considerable forces placed upon them. As a result of con­ can be used to estimate the age of a horse. This can be
tinual friction in the upper and lower jaws during grinding done with some accuracy up to the age of seven; beyond
of food, the surface or "table," is worn down by approxi­ this only an approximate estimate is possible. Horses
mately 3mm (1/5 inch) each year. The articulation between over the age of six are often described as "aged."
the equine jaws permits considerable lateral movement,
 14. Superficial Structures of the Head

22

27

1. Caudal auricular muscles

2. Auricular (concha!) cartilage 13
3. Parotidoauricular muscle 12. Nostril
4. Scutiform cartilage 13. Oral orbicular muscle
5. Rostral auricular muscles 14. Inferior labial depressor muscle 21. External jugular vein
6. Transverse facial artery, vein and nerve 15. Buccinator muscle 22. Parotid salivary gland
7. Eyelids 16. Zygomatic muscle 23. lnterscutular muscle
8. Angular artery and vein of the eye 17. Facial cutaneous muscle 24. Levator muscle
9. Nasolabial levator muscle 18. Masseter muscle 25. Abductor muscle
10. Superior labial levator muscle 19. Facial nerve 26. Dorsal and ventral parts of lateral nasal muscle
11. Canine muscle 20. Masseteric artery and vein 27. Levator muscle of medial angle of eye.
15. The Internal Structures and Cavities of the Head
26

24 27

12 13

Tongue
30

1. Teeth
2. Hard palate
4
3. Nasal Septum
4. Nasal vestibule (nostril)
3
5. Common nasal meatus
6. Ethmoidal conchae
7. Conchofrontal sinus
8. Frontal bone
9. Cerebrum
10. Cranial cavity
11. Sphenopalatine sinus
12. Cerebellum
13. Atlas bone
14. lnfraglottic cavity
15. Guttural pouch
16. Entrance to esophagus
17. Larynx
18. Epiglottis
19. Pharynx 22 19
21 20
20. Hyoepiglottis 24. Epiglottis 28. Cavity of larynx
21. Basihyoid 25. Soft palate 29. Palatopharyngeal arch
22. Tongue 26. Wall of nasopharynx 30. Vallate papilla
23. Filiform papillae 27. Esophagus 31. Fungiform papillae
 16. The Eye

13
3

.'.··

Course of

. · ·
"

,,' .". :
.,. ..
,
,,,. ,
''
·I.
:.' '

1. Corpora nigra 10. Retina

2. Iris 11. Optic nerve
3. Pupil 12. Optic disc
4. White of eye 13. Lacrimal gland
5. Third eyelid 14. Tarsal gland
The eye should be clear, with salmon-pink mucous membranes indicating a 6. Lacrimal caruncle 15. Ciliary ring
healthy blood supply. Tears secreted by the lacrimal gland and the gland of 7. Eyelids 16. Lens
the third eyelid wash over the surface of the eye, collecting at the junction of 8. Cornea 17. Ciliary muscle
the lids. Tears then flow through the two lacrimal puncta and lacrimal canals 9. Conjunctiva 18. Posterior chamber
into the lacrimal sac and continue into the nasolacrimal duct.
17. The Foot
Proper condition of the legs and feet are crucial to the develop in these parts of the horse's anatomy. It is essen­
health and soundness of a horse, for major problems can tial to regularly check the condition of the horse's feet.

\•. '

"i

26
1. Fetlock tuft 9. lnterbulbar furrow 18. Frog
2. Peripole 10. Sesamoid bone 19. Angle of wall
3. Wall 11. Flexor tendon 20. Bulb of heels
4. Heel 12. Ligament of fetlock 21. Collateral groove
5. Toe 13. Deep flexor tendon 22. Metacarpal bone (cannon)
6. Coronet 14. Plantar cushion 23. Sesamoid bone
7. Fetlock joint 15. Lateral cartilage 24. Proximal phalanx (large pastern)
8. Site of lateral digital 16. Metacarpal bone 25. Middle phalanx (small pastern)
vein and artery 17. Sole 26. Distal phalanx (pedal bone)
 18. The Forelimb

18. Ulnar head of deep digital

10
flexor muscle
22
19. Humerus
20. Olecranon (point of elbow)
21. Radius
22. Metacarpus (cannon bone)
23. Sesamoid bone
25 24. Proximal phalanx
(long pastern)
26
26 25. Middle phalanx
(short pastern)
1. Descending pectoral muscle 7. Extensor retinaculum 13. Suspensory ligament 26. Pedal bone
2. Brachial muscle 8. Digital extensor tendon 14. Splint bone 27. Carpal bones (knee joint)
3. Radial carpal extensor muscle 9. Metacarpal bone, cannon 15. Superficial and deep digital 28. Radial carpal flexor muscle
4. Common digital extensor muscle 10. Hoof flexor tendons 29. Great subcutaneous vein
5. Lateral digital extensor muscle 11. Proximal digital annular ligament 16. Accessory carpal bone (pisiform) 30. Radial carpal flexor muscle
6. Oblique carpal extensor muscle 12. Palmar annular ligament of the fetlock 17. Lateral ulnar muscle 31. Ulnar carpal flexor muscle
------
------
------
------
------
--- ---
-------
-----
19. The Hind Limb
1�
2

15

1.
2.
Fascia lata
Patella
27 11. Suspensory ligament
12. Palmar annular ligament
3. Femoris biceps muscles 13. Extensor branch of suspensory 20. Femur
4. Long digital extensor muscle ligament 21. Tibia
5. Lateral digital extensor muscle 14. Hoof 22. Tarsal bones
6. Gastrocnemius muscle 15. Fetlock 23. Metatarsal (hind cannon)
7. Point of hock 16. Tendon of long digital extensor 24. Sesamoid bone
8. Deep digital flexor muscle 17. Annular ligaments 25. Proximal phalanx (long pastern)
9. Deep digital flexor tendon 18. Split bone 26. Middle phalanx (short pastern)
10. Superficial digital flexor tendon 19. Lateral condyle of tibia 27. Distal phalanx (pedal bone)
 20. The Internal Organs of the Horse
Most of the horse's internal organs work in the same bile duct, since the horse lacks a gall bladder for stor­
way as those of other mammals. The liver is the animal's ing bile. The stomach of the horse is very small for the
largest organ, weighing an average of 111bs. Its secre­ animal's size. The illustration shows the left side of a
tion of bile is delivered directly to the duodenum by the mare and the right side of a stallion.

1. Aorta 11. Left dorsal colon 21. Descending duodenum

2. Left lobe of the liver 12. Small intestine 22. Right kidney
3. Stomach 13. Left ventral colon 23. Azygos vein
4. Spleen 14. External anal sphincter 24. Right testicle
5. Left kidney 15. Vulva 25. Body of penis
6. Body of the uterus 16. Urinary bladder 26. Lateral caecal band
7. Esophagus 17. Right lobe of liver 27. Dorsal sac of caecum
8. Trachea 18. Right ventricle of heart 28. Right ventral colon
9. Left vagus nerve 19. Urinary bladder
10. Left ventricle of the heart 20. Rectum

------ ------
------------
------
21. The Cardiovascular System
I

5
2

1. Right auricle
2. Cranial vena cava
3. Aorta to body and head
4. Pulmonary arteries to lungs
5. Pulmonary veins from lungs
6. Left auricle
7. Left ventricle
8. Apex
9. Left coronary artery
10. Right ventricle
11. Right coronary artery
12. Left atrioventricular valve
13. Left atrium 8

14. Right atrioventricular valve

15. Right atrium
16. Cusp of aortic valve

The horse's heart consists of four chambers with four sets of valves. The healthy adult horse varies from horse to horse, and from breed to breed. On
heart pumps blood into the arteries, which extend to all parts of the body. the average, a horse's heart rate is between thirty-six and forty-two beats
The blood returns to the heart via the veins. The resting heart rate of a per minute.
22. The Cardiovascular System (continued)

3 4

11
8
10

20
The Main Circulatory System
14. Femoral artery 25 17
1. Linguofacial vein
2. Maxillary vein 15. Digital vein
3. Superficial temporal artery 16. Digital artery
4. Maxillary artery 17. Hepatic portal vein
5. Vertebral artery 18. Vena cava
6. Cranial vena cava 19. Brachial vein
7. Pulmonary artery 20. Brachial artery
8. Pulmonary vein 21. Brachiocephalic vein 15
9. Aorta 22. Jugular vein
10. Mesenteric artery 23. Carotid artery
16
11. Internal iliac vein 24. Linguofacial artery
12. Internal iliac artery 25. Heart
13. Femoral vein
23. The Nervous System 23

26

16 27

25
20. Lateral thoracic nerve
21. Spinal cord
22. Cerebellum
23. Longitudinal fissure
24. Sulci (grooves)
25. Cerebellum
10. Radial nerve 26. Gyri (convolutions)
1. Cerebrum 11. Ulnar nerve 27. Right cerebral
The Principal Nerves and the Nervous System 2. Olfactory bulb 12. Median nerve hemisphere
The nervous system is the communications network of the horse's 3. Facial nerve 13. Lateral palmar nerve 28. Corpus callosum
body. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system, made 4. Branch of trigeminal nerve 14. Medial plantar nerve 29. Olfactory bulb
up of brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, 5. Branch of trigeminal nerve 15. Lateral plantar nerve 30. Hypothalamus
consisting of nerves radiating from the spinal cord to muscles, 6. Hyperglossal nerve 16. Tibial nerve 31. Thalamus
internal organs, and skin. Sensations from outside the body, as 7. Vagus nerve 17. Sciatic nerve 32. Pineal gland
well as impulses from internal organs and other tissues, are sent 8. Brachial plexus 18. Femoral nerve 33. Pons
to the brain and interpreted. The brain then reacts appropriately. 9. Pectoral nerve 19. Lumbosacral nerve 34. Medulla oblongata
24. The Respiratory System 3

1. Lung
2. Esophagus
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Nasal cavity, open to pharynx
6. Tongue
7. Trachea
8. Tracheobronchial lymph node
9. Bronchus
10. Lung
11. Accessory lobe
12. Bronchiole

•.

The respiratory system consists of the air passages of contract, allowing the lungs to enlarge or compress.
the head, nostrils to pharynx, the pharynx, trachea or Movements of the chest alternately draw in and expel
windpipe, bronchi, and lungs. The lungs are the two air from the lungs. The normal breathing rate of a stand­
organs in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are ing horse at rest is eight to sixteen breaths a minute.
exchanged between the blood and the air. The lungs The rate may be affected by excitement, exercise, age,
are situated in the chest cavity known as the thorax, size, environmental temperature, pregnancy, and/or a
the walls (ribs and diaphragm) of which can expand or full digestive tract.
25. The Horse's Pulse, Signs of Health

/ Axillary
artery

______ Coccygeal
artery

)
j
�

Lateral
dorsal
artery

Digital
arteries

To recognize when a horse is unwell, it is important to normal breathing rate varies from about eight to sixteen
know the signs of a healthy horse, both physical and breaths a minute. The heart rate is typically 36-42
behavioral. These signs are: appearance, behavior, and beats a minute. Temperature is usually 37.8-38.3
condition. A healthy horse is bright-eyed, has a shine to degrees centigrade (100-101 degrees Fahrenheit). The
its coat, stands equally on all four feet, and is alert, with pulse may be felt through the skin over certain arteries;
ears warm to the touch at their bases. Heart rate and the pulse may be taken at these sites.
temperature should be checked regularly. A horse's
26. The Digestive System

6
2 ·3 4

12 13

11
19 12. Aorta
1. Anus 13. Caudal vena cava
2. Rectum 14. Right kidney
3. Base of caecum 15. Duodenum
4. Small intestine (20 meters long) 16. Stomach
5. Kidney 17. Pancreas
6. Buccal cavity 18. Adrenal gland
7. Esophagus 19. Left kidney
8. Liver 20. Esophagus
9. Large colon (3.4 meters long) 21. Portal vein
13 12
10. Caecum 22. Hepatic artery
11. Small colon 23. Hepatic duct

Most of the horse's internal organs work in the same way as those of other take place; (2) the stomach is very small for the animal's size; and (3) there
mammals, but the horse has three unique features in the digestive system is no gall bladder. The reason for this is because the horse needs a constant
which distinguish it from other mammals. These are (1) the greatest volume supply of bile, as it is a continuous feeder.
of the alimentary tract is at the rear, where the major digestive processes
27. The _Urinary System
2 3

11

1. Kidney
2. Caudal vena cava
3. Aorta
14
4. Renal artery
5. Renal vein
6. Renal pelvis
7. Bladder
8. Urethra
15
9. Adrenal gland
10. Cortex
11. Medulla
16
12. Arcuate vessels
13. Interlobular vessels
14. Ureter
15. Nephron
16. Tubule

The horse, like all mammals, has two kidneys, whose stallion. A horse produces up to ten liters (2� gallons) of
function is to filter the blood and form urine. The urine urine daily, the color and consistency of which vary in
passes to the bladder through the ureters and from there everyday situations. Normal equine urine is cloudy and
the urine passes to the outside through the urethra. The yellow in color. Urine samples are important laboratory
urethra has a common exit from the body with the aids to clinical diagnosis.
sexual tract, the vagina in the mare, and the penis in the
28. The Reproductive System
3

1. Vulva
2. Vagina
3. Rectum
4. Cervix
5. Ureter
6. Right kidney
7. Right ovary
8. Uterus
9. Bladder
10. Teat
11. Floor of pelvis
12. Urethra

4
3
5

1. Bulbourethral gland
2. Prostate
3. Seminal vesicle
4. Bladder
5. Kidneys
6. Ureter
7. Sperm duct
8. Urethra
9. Scrotum
10. Testes
11. Sheath
12. Penis

STALLION

10

The genital organs of the mare consist of two ovaries and connect with the urethra after traveling in the spermatic
oviducts or fallopian tubes, the uterus, cervix, vagina, cord with arteries and veins; the accessory glands com­
and vulva. The ovaries are responsible for producing the prising the prostate, seminal vesicles, bulbourethral
female sex cell, i.e. the egg, or ovum. The stallion's sex gland, and penis. The penis is housed in the prepuce or
organs consist of two testes (housed in the scrotum) in "sheath."
which spermatozoa are produced; collecting ducts which
 29. Foaling
............

Signs of Parturition

6 Placenta

7
1. Paralumbar fossa sinks 5. Allantoamnion 9. First stage of labor: foal twists so that head,
2. Softening and relaxation of muscles 6. Umbilical cord neck, and chest are in the proper position
and ligaments around tailhead 7. Cervical star 10. As the second stage of labor progresses,
3. Waxing of teats 8. Position of foal during late pregnancy forelegs and head enter the pelvic girdle,
4. Enlarged abdomen followed by the chest

The length of gestation (duration of pregnancy) in the mare is eleven the tailhead, filling of the udder with colostrum, and "waxing" of teats due
months. There are several signs of impending parturition (the process of to excessive secretion by oil glands at openings. These signs usually occur
giving birth): enlarged and dropped abdomen, sinking in at the paralumbar around forty-eight hours before parturition.
fossa, relaxation and softening of the muscles and ligaments adjacent to
30. Conformation
Symmetry
viewed from
above

Three equal proportions

I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
------- L ------- � --------

Square

Normal limb
conformation
T T
I
I
I
T
''
I'
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I :I
.I I :I
I I I
I I \I
·I I I
I ., I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I I
"t"' iY· �.\�

I · ...� ..-

A horse's conformation is its overall makeup and shape, correctly proportioned, it will be better balanced and
as determined by its skeletal outline. What constitutes more able to perform its allotted tasks than a horse
ideal conformation varies according to the work the with less harmonious proportions. A poor or average
horse is required to do. Allowing for these variations, conformation warns of the likelihood of sub-optimal
basic guidelines can be used when looking for desirable performance, risk of injury, and reduced durability.
conformation. These relate to proportion: if a horse is
 •

e u1n anatom

"f1his incredibly detailed coloring book

� · examines the external and internal
anatomy of the horse, with thirty pages
of drawinp hiabliiJhting the